- a cell or organism maintains this state of internal constancy 

bio:​ lt #1 ; 1st sem  - all populations in savanna    or equilibrium  

 
- ability to sense and react - vital part of homeostasis 
1.1 what is life?  ecosystem  - living and non living components of an  ** shiver- go outside on a cold day  
> ​cell ​- basic unit of life  area - the savanna  ** lips & fingertips turns blue- circulatory system sends blood 
-> every ​organism ​consists of one or more cells   away from your body’s surface  
-> has an outer membrane that separates it from its  biosphere  - global ecosystem- parts of the planet and  ** sweat- hot day; helps cool your body  
surroundings   its atmosphere where life is possible    
-> ​encloses the water and other chemicals    
-> cells use genetic instructions to ​produce proteins​- carry   
> ​emergent properties  d. life reproduce, grows & develops   
out their functions   -> reproduction ​transmits ​DNA from generation to generation  
  ​- new functions that arise from interactions among a system’s 
>> defines the inherited characteristics of the offspring  
components 
a. life is organized   
- explain why structural organization is closely tied to function  
levels of biological organization:  ** when a function is interrupted, the corresponding structure  two basic ways of reproduction: 
-> apparent in all life   1. ​asexual reproduction  
eventually breaks down 
> single-celled bacteria - contain DNA, proteins, & other  -> genetic info from 1 parent  
** biological function & form are interdependent  
molecules that interact in highly organized ways   -> all offspring are virtually identical  
  ** multicellular organisms 
atom  - smallest chemical unit of a type of pure  b. life requires energy   ** strawberry plants - “runners” sprout leaves and roots  
substance   > ​metabolism  
 
- ex. Carbon atom   - chemical reactions that sustain life  
2. ​sexual reproduction 
- allows organisms to acquire and use energy and nutrients to 
-> genetic material from 2 parent individuals unites to form an 
molecule  - group of joined atoms   build new structures, repair old ones, and reproduce  
offspring  
- ex. dna    
-> new combination of inherited traits  
LIFE IS CONNECTED  
-> produces tremendous diversity in populations  
organelle   - a membrane-bound structure that has a  -> all organisms extract energy and nutrients from the 
** genetic diversity -enhances the chance that some indiv will 
specific function within the cell   non-living organisms 
survive even of conditions change  
- ex. chloroplast  -> decomposers recycle nutrients back to the non-living 
** very successful strategy  
environment 
 
cell  - fundamental unit of life   
​e. life evolves  
- multicellular organisms consist of many  producers  - ​autotrophs   > ​adaptation  
cells   - make their own food by extracting  - inherited characteristics or behavior that enables an 
- unicellular organisms consist of one cell  energy & nutrients from non-living  organism to survive and reproduce successfully in the 
- ex. leaf cell  sources   environment  
** plants - capture light energy from the  >> ​natural selection  
tissue  - collection of specialized cells that function  sun   - populations produce many offspring that will survive 
in a coordinated fashion   ** some bacteria - chemical energy from  to reproduce  
- multicellular life only   the rocks   ** must compete for limited resources (food & 
- ex. epidermis of a leaf  habitat) 
consumers  - ​heterotrophs   - No organisms are exactly the same  
organ  - consist of tissues organized to interact and  - obtain energy and nutrients by eating  ** ​genetic mutations ​- changes in an organism’s 
carry out specific functions   other organisms, living or dead  DNA sequence  
- multicellular life only   ** humans   ** generate variability in all organisms, even in 
- ex. Leaf.   asexual repro  
decomposers  - ​heterotrophs   - ​survive long enough to reproduce? ​best adaptations to the 
organ  - connected physically or chemically that  - absorb energy and nutrients from  current environment ; best traits in the new environment  
system  function together    wastes of dead organisms   - enhanced reproductive success of certain indiv from a 
- ex. aboveground part of a plant   ** fungi & bacteria   population based on inherited characteristics  
 
  >> if antibiotics are present- drug kills most of the unmutated 
organism  - single living individual - ex. one acacia 
-> energy transfers are ​not 100% efficient   cells  
tree 
** energy is always lost in the form of heat   -> mutated cells is unaffected and can reproduce  
** heat represents a permanent loss from the cycle of life   -> after many generations of exposure to the drug, 
population   - group of same species of organisms living  -> all ecosystem depend on ​a continuous stream of energy  antibiotic-resistant cells ​ are common  
in the same place and time    from the ​sun    
- multiple acasia trees     > ​evolution  
c. life maintains internal constancy  - change in the genetic makeup of a population over multiple 
communit - all populations that occupy the same  > ​homeostasis   generations  
y  region    - single most powerful idea in biology  
** all species have evolved from a common ancestor    
** molded the life that has populated the planet since the first  robert hooke  - cork (oak tree) 
- “cells” - looked like cubicles   3.2 diff cell types characterized life’s 3 
cells have formed  
> ​CHARLES DARWIN- ​theory of evolution by natural selection  - new field of science: biology  domain 
  > ​prokaryotes  
mathias j, schleiden  - used diff observations in plant &  - simplest and most ancient forms of life  
1.2 tree of life - 3 main branches  theo- containsdor  animal cells to formulate the cell  - lack a nucleus  
> ​taxonomy   schwann   theory   ** pro - before ; karyon - kernel  
- science of naming and classifying organisms   >> all organisms are made of one  >> referring to the nucleus  
** scientific names help taxonomists and other biologists  or more cells   
communicate with each other   >> cell is the fundamental unit of  > ​eukaryotes  
> ​species   all life   - contain a nucleus  
- designates a distinctive “type” of organism   - other membranous organelles  
> ​genus    
rudolf virchow  - all cells come from preexisting 
- closely related species are grouped  > ​charles woese  
cells  
  - key molecules in many cell types  
3 DOMAINS  >> the cell theory is ​potentially falsifiable ​yet many lines of  - prokaryotes actually include 2 forms of life that are distantly 
PROKARYOTES   evidence support each of its components   related to each other  
>> DNA is free in the cell and not confined to an organelle  >> one of the most powerful ideas in biology   >> 3 domains: bacteria, archaea, eukarya  
called a ​nucleus      
> ​domain bacteria   b. microscopes magnify cell structures 
- Cells lack nuclei (prokaryotic) 
a. bacteria & archaea contain prokaryotic organism  
- cells are typically smaller than this lower limit of human   
- Most are unicellular   vision  
> ​domain archaea  >> require that cells be killed   BACTERIA  most abundant and diverse organisms  
- Cells lack nuclei (prokaryotic)  >> they produce only black-and-white images   ** bacteria living in your skin and inside your 
- Most are unicellular     intestinal tract are essential for good health  
  c. all cells have features in common  
DOMAIN EUKARYA   NUCLEOID  - area where the cell’s circular DNA 
 
-> cells contain nuclei (eukaryotic)  molecule congregates  
-> unicellular or multicellular   DNA   cell’s genetic information  ** bacterial nucleoid is not bounded by a 
-> cells contains nucleus   membrane  
  RNA   participates in the production of proteins  
> ​protista (multiple kingdoms)  CELL  - surrounds the cell membrane  
- unicellular or multicellular   PROTEINS  essential to life because they carry out all  WALL  - protects the cell ; gives shape 
- autotrophs or heterotrophs   of the cell’s work; processing energy,  - prevents it from bursting if it absorbs too 
>> huge collection of unrelated species   regulating what enters & leaves the cell  much water  
>> a convenient but artificial “none of the above:”   
 
FLAGELLA   - tail-like appendages that enable these 
> ​kingdom animalia  
RIBOSOMES  structures that manufacture proteins   cells to move  
- multicellular  
- bacterial flagella rotate like a propeller, 
- heterotrophs (by ingestion) 
CELL  - plasma membrane; lipid-rich   moving the cell forward or backward  
 
MEMBRANE   - forms a boundary between the cell and  >> archaean cells- resemble bacterial cells 
> ​kingdom fungi  
its environment   in some ways  
- most are multicellular  
- Smaller than most eukaryotic cells 
- heterotrophs (by external digestion) 
CYTOPLASM   - includes all cell contents   - Lack a nucleus and other 
 
>> except the nucleus, in cells that have  organelles  
> ​kingdom plantae  
one   - one - celled organism  
- multicellular  
** archaeas have their own domain, build 
- autotrophs  
CYTOPLASM   - fluid portion of the cytoplasm   their cells out of biochemicals 
 
** ribosomes- share similarities with those of 
3.1 cells are the units of life    bacteria & eukaryotes  
> ​cells   > ​why cells are tiny?  ** archaea are ​closest relatives ​of 
- all organisms consist of one or more microscopic structures   - nutrients, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and waste products  eukaryotes  
- highly coordinated biochemical activities carry out the basic  enter or leave through its surface  
functions of life   - each cell must have abundant surface area to   
  accommodate these changes   b. domain eukarya contains org with complex cells  
a. single lenses revealed the first glimpses of cells   >> ​small size maximizes the ratio of surface area to volume   > eukaryotic cells - large size  
  >> low surface area minimize the exchange of materials or  > cytoplasm - divided into organelles (carry out specialized 
heat with the environment   functions) 
> organelles 
- keep related biochemicals close enough to make them 
function properly   adhesion proteins   - enable the cells to stick  >> endoplasmic = “within the cytoplasm” 
  together   >> reticulum = network  
COMPARTMENTALIZATION  
- cell maintains high concentrations of each biochemicals   receptor proteins   - bind to molecules outside  ROUGH ER  - ribosomes give these membranes a 
- without alerting or harming other cellular contents   the cell and trigger a  rougher appearance  
  response inside the cell  
  SMOOTH ER  - synthesizes lipids 
 
3.3 membrane separates each cell from  - houses enzymes that detoxify drugs 
3.4 eukaryotic organelles divide labor  and poisons  
surroundings   > ​endomembrane system  
> ​cell membrane   - consists of interacting organelles   GOLGI  - stack of flat membrane-enclosed sacs 
- separates the cytoplasm from the cell’s surroundings     APPARATUS  that functions as a processing center  
- transport substances in and out the cell   > ​vesicles   >> proteins from ER passes through 
- receives and responds to external stimuli   - small membranous spheres that transport materials inside  GOLGI => complete their intricate folding 
- ​“fluid mosaic”​ - many molecules draft laterally within the  the cell   & be functional  
bilayer   - “bubbles” - pinch off from the organelle   - ​sorts & packages ​materials into 
    vesicles, ​move ​towards the membrane  
> ​phospholipids   a. nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi- secrete 
- organic molecules that resemble triglycerides     
>> triglyceride- 3 fatty acids attach to 3 carbon glycerol  b. lysosomes, vacuoles, peroxisomes- digestion 
molecule   NUCLEUS   - contains DNA in eukaryotic cells  
 
- ​glycerol bonds to only 2 fatty acids ; third carbon binds to a  >> ​DNA: ​informational molecule that 
phosphate group attached to only 2 fatty acids  specifies the “recipe” for every protein of  LYSOSOMES  - containing enzymes that dismantle and 
  the cell can make   recycle food particles, captured 
>> ​mRNA: ​messenger ; copied code is  bacteria, worn-out organelles, debris 
“head”  “tails”  encoded here   >> ​lyse = ​cut apart  
-> exit through the nuclear pores   - ​originated ​from rough ER  
- attracted to water   - two fatty acids   - detects it by the ​sugar attached  
- HYDROPHILIC   - HYDROPHOBIC   NUCLEAR  -> holes in the double-membrane  - vesicles -> lysosomes 
-> ​selective permeability   PORES  nuclear envelope   - lysosome’s enzymes 
-> some but not all substances can    -> highly specialized channel that  > break down the large organic 
pass through   consists of dozen of proteins   molecules into smaller subunits by 
** lipids & small, nonpolar molecules,  hydrolysis = ​cytosol for the cell to use  
O2 & CO2 pass freely   NUCLEAR  -> separates the nucleus from the   
** blocks ions & polar molecules  ENVELOPE  cytoplasm   * lysosome’s membrane maintains the 
from passing through    pH of the organelle’s interior at about 4.8 
much more acidic  
  ** a cell injured by extreme cold, heat or 
-> PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER: a double layer of phospholipids   NUCLEOLUS  - dense spot that assembles the 
physical stress may initiate its own death 
-> ​steroid molecules ​- membrane’s fluidity as the    components of ribosomes 
by bursting all of its lysosomes at once  
temperature fluctuates   >> ​white blood cells ​- many lysosomes; 
-> ​proteins   CYTOPLASM  - remainder of the cell   engulf and dispose of debris and 
- especially important to its function   - between the nucleus, and the cell  bacteria  
  membrane   ** liver cells = lysosomes -> burn 
  ** ​CYTOSOL​ - watery mixture of ions,  cholesterol  
enzymes, RNA and dissolved 
transport proteins   - create passageways  substances  
through which ions,  VACUOLES   -> plant cells - ​central vacuole = ​watery 
** ​CYTOSKLETON ​- organelles and 
glucose, & other polar  solution of enzymes that degrade and 
arrays of protein rods and tubules  
substances pass in and out  recycle molecules and organelles  
 
> as the vacuole acquires water, it exerts 
>> ribosomes that produce proteins for 
enzymes  - facilitate chemical  pressure (turgor pressure) 
use inside the cell are free floating in the 
reactions   ** ​TURGOR PRESSURE​- helps plants stay 
cytoplasm  
rigid and upright  
-> vacuole’s solution is ​somewhat acidic  
recognition proteins  - carbohydrates attached to  ENDOPLASMIC  - network of sacs and tubules 
cell surface   RETICULUM  composed of membranes  
- “name tags”- help immune  PEROXISOMES   - contain several types of enzymes that 
- originates at the nuclear envelope and 
system recognize its own  dispose of toxic substances  
winds throughout the cell  
cells   - originated from ER  
 - concentration is high that the proteins  MICROFILAMENTS  - thinnest component   JUNCTION   - extracellular matrix  
condense into easily recognized crystals   - part of nearly all  - hold skin cells in place  
** in liver & kidney- help dismantle toxins  eukaryotic cells  
from the blood   - strength for the cells to  GAP  - links the cytoplasm  
** break down fatty acids and produce  survive stretching &  JUNCTION   - analogous to plasmodesmata in plants  
cholesterol and some other lipids   compression   ** link heart muscle cells to one another, 
- help anchor to one  allowing groups of cells to contract 
  another   together 
 
c. mitochondria extract energy from nutrients   ​INTERMEDIATE   - made up of variety of   
> ​MITOCHONDRIA   FILAMENTS   proteins  
- use a process called cellular respiration to extract  - maintain a cell’s shape by 
this needed energy from food   forming an internal scaffold 
- all ​eukaryotic cells ​ have mitochondria   in the cytosol and resisting 
2 membrane layers:   mechanical stress 
- outer membrane   - bind some cells together 
- intricately folded inner membrane that encloses the 
mitochondrial matrix  
MICROTUBULE   - protein = tubulin  
>> within the matrix is DNA- encodes proteins 
- “trackway” - which 
essential for mitochondrial function; ribosome 
substances move within the 
> ​CRISTAE 
cell 
- Folds of the inner membrane  
- split a cell’s duplicated 
- Add tremendous surface area to the inner 
chromosomes apart during 
membrane - houses enzymes that catalyze the 
cell division  
reactions of cellular respiration  
   
d. photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast   > ​CENTROSOMES  
> ​CHLOROPLAST   - Organize the microtubules  
- site of photosynthesis in eukaryotes   - Contains 2 centrioles  
  >> produce the extensions that enable some cells to 
-> ​stroma​ - two outer membrane layers enclose an  move: CILIA & FLAGELLA  
enzyme-rich fluid   ** cilia - short, enable cells to swim  
->​ thylakoids​ - third membrane system folded into flattened  ** flagellum - longer than cilia, tails, whiplike 
sacs   movement propel cells  
-> ​grana​ - stacked like pancakes to form structures    
-> ​chlorophyll​ - embedded in the thylakoid membranes   3.6 cell sticks together & communicate w/ 
 
> ​plastids ​- 1 representative of a larger category of plant  one another 
organelles   > ​CELL WALL  
- contains DNA and ribosomes   - Impart shape, regulate cell volume, and prevent 
  bursting when a cell takes too much water  
ENDOSYMBIOSIS THEORY  ** cellulose- fibers = great strength  
-> mitochondria & chloroplasts- ​own DNA and ribosomes    
>> both surrounded by double membrane   > ​PLASMODESMATA  
  - Communicate with neighbors  
   - Tunnels in the cell wall  
 
3.5 cytoskleton supports eukaryotic cells   >> animal cells have no cell walls  
> ​CYTOSKELETON  
** complex extracellular matrix that holds them together and 
- an intricate network of protein “tracks” and tubules  
coordinates many aspects of cellular life  
- structural framework with many functions  
 
-> ​transportation system  
TYPES OF JUNCTIONS  
- provides physical support necessary to maintain the cell’s 
characteristic 3D shape   TIGHT  - fuses animal cell together 
-> ​aids in cell division   JUNCTION  - impermeable barrier between them  
- helps connect cells with one another   - allow the body to control where 
  biochemicals move  
> ​3 MAJOR COMPONENTS  
  ANCHORING  - connects animal cells to its neighbors