DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

STEEL DESIGN
Part 1: BRIDGE STRUCTURES
 Introduction

Definition
A structure that allows people or vehicles to cross an obstacle such as a
river, canal or railway, etc. is called a BRIDGE.

Function of a Bridge
A bridge has to carry a service (which may be highway or railway traffic, a
footpath, public utilities, etc.) over an obstacle (which may be another road
or railway, a river, a valley, etc.) and to transfer the loads from the service to
the foundations at ground level.

A bridge is a key element in a transportation system for three reasons:

¾It likely controls the capacity of the system.
¾It is the highest cost per Kilometer of the system.
¾If the bridge fails, the system fails.
 Structural Differences between a Building and a Bridge

1. Bridges are designed for heavy and concentrated moving loads whereas
buildings are usually designed for static distributed loads.

2. The impact of moving loads is quite considerable as compared with

residential and official buildings.

3. Fatigue may become a problem and hence may reduce the strength due to
large number of loading cycles.

4. Greater part of the structure is exposed to atmosphere.

5. The controlling design specifications for bridges are provided by

organizations different from those dealing with the building design. For
example, AASHTO Specification may be employed for bridges in place of
AISC Specification for steel buildings.
 Classification of Bridges

¾ According to materials of construction : reinforced concrete, prestressed

concrete, steel, composite, timber etc.

¾ According to form of superstructure : slab, beam, truss, arch, suspension,

cable-stayed etc.

¾ According to inter-span relation : simple, continuous, cantilever.

¾ According to the position of the bridge floor relative to the superstructure :

deck, through, half-through etc.

¾ According to span : short, medium, long, right, skew, curved.

¾ According to degree of redundancy : determinate, indeterminate

¾ According to type of service and duration of use : permanent, temporary

bridge, military
Classification of Bridges
(According to span)
 Classification of Bridges
(According to materials of construction )

Slab on Prestressed Concrete

Girder Bridge

Slab on Steel Girder Bridge

 Classification of Bridges
(According to form of superstructure)
Slab on Steel Girder Bridge

¾Steel sections may be hot-rolled shapes (for short-span bridge), Box section
(medium span), or Plate Girder (medium span).
¾Box Girder Bridge is used for curved and longer span bridges. These bridges
decrease the total depth requirement and can resist torsion to a large extent.
 Classification of Bridges
(According to form of superstructure)

Truss Bridge
 Classification of Bridges
(According to form of superstructure)

Cable Stayed Bridge

A typical cable stayed bridge is a continuous girder with one or more towers
erected above piers in the middle of the span. From these towers, cables
stretch down diagonally (usually to both sides) and support the girder.
 Classification of Bridges
(According to form of superstructure)

Suspension Bridge
¾A typical suspension bridge is a continuous
deck with one or more towers erected above
piers in the middle of span. The deck maybe of
truss or box girder.
¾Cables pass over the saddle which allows free
sliding.
¾At both ends large anchors are placed to hold
the ends of the cables.
¾Suspension bridge needs to have very strong
main cable
¾Cables are anchored at the abutment so
abutment has to be massive
 Classification of Bridges
(According to form of superstructure)

Arch Bridge

¾Arches use a curved structure which

provides a high resistance to bending
forces

¾Arches are good choices for crossing

valleys and rivers since the arch doesn't
require piers in the center. Arches can be
one of the most beautiful bridge types
 Classification of Bridges
(According to inter-span relation )
Classification of Bridges (According to the position of the bridge floor
relative to the superstructure )

Arch Type Deck Bridge. A Deck Bridge is a bridge built at or near

the top level of the main supporting
members of the superstructure, which hang
below the deck and are not visible from
the bridge.

A Typical Plate Girder Deck Bridge.

Classification of Bridges (According to the position of the bridge floor
relative to the superstructure )

In case of Through Bridge, the carriageway is

supported at the bottom of the main supporting
Steel Truss Through Bridge members that are visible while traveling on the
bridge.

A Typical Plate Through Bridge.

Classification of Bridges (According to the position of the bridge floor
relative to the superstructure )

If the roadway lies between the top and bottom

chords, the bridge is said to be a half-through
or pony bridge.

Deck + Through Type

Components of Slab on Girder Bridge

A Typical Slab on Girder Bridge

Components of Composite Box girder Bridge

A Typical Box Girder Bridge

 Components of Orthotropic Deck Bridge

In case of Orthotropic Deck Bridges, an orthotropic deck consisting

of longitudinal folded steel plate resting on cross girders, provided
at a spacing of 3 to 5 m.

The cavities of the plate are filled with tar and gravel and topped by
wearing surface.
Components of Truss Through Bridge

A Typical Truss Through Bridge

 Components of Truss Through Bridge

Stringers: These are longitudinal bridge deck beams spanning between the
transverse floor beams and placed parallel to the roadway

Floor Beams: Floor beams are the main girders of the bridge deck spanning
between trusses or plate girders and running perpendicular to the roadway.
 Objectives of Bridge Design
Bridge design is comprised of Safety, Serviceability, Economy (Total life
cycle cost), and Aesthetics.

To achieve the design goal the design process consists of collecting the data,
creating a new form (Conceptual Design Stage), and finalizing the design for
realization (Modeling, Dimensioning and Detailing Stage).

The minimum requirements of safety and serviceability are well provided by

design specifications, which reflect the current state of bridge design
technology. While Economy and Aesthetics are not specified in design code
or standards.

Because the civil and structural engineer has also a cultural and social
responsibility for bridge structures, it is absolutely necessary to create a
beautiful structure.

There is an indissoluble connection between Aesthetics and Economy. So

that, an optimal balance between these two objectives may require a design
effort that is the true art of the engineer
 Selection of type of bridge

Selection of type of bridge mainly depends on:

¾Span length
¾Bridge length
¾Beam spacing
¾Material available
¾Site conditions (foundations, height, space constraints)
¾Speed of construction
¾Constructability
¾Technology/ Equipment available
¾Aesthetics
¾Cost
¾Access for maintenance
¾The required clearances
¾Erection possibilities
¾Foundation choices
¾Hydraulic characteristics of the stream, if one is involved.
Type of Superstructure Vs Span Lengths
 Advantages of Steel Beam Bridges

1. Steel is a high quality, homogeneous and isotropic material that is

perfectly elastic up to its yield point.
2. It has equal and high strengths in tension and compression.
3. The material remains uncracked and exhibits appreciable ductility.
4. Lesser construction time, compared with reinforced and prestressed
concrete bridges, reduces the overall cost.
5. The basic skeleton of steel bridges may very easily be erected over various
gaps in natural surface.
6. The design, erection and fabrication procedures for steel bridges are very
well established.
7. Due to lesser self-weight of these bridges, the foundation cost is also
reduced.
8. For their lesser depths, the steel bridges are preferred where underneath
clearance is important.
9. Repair, rehabilitation and up gradation of steel bridges are usually easier
than concrete bridges.
 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Historical Development

¾The first US standard for bridges were published in 1931 (AASHO), the 17th
edition of AASHTO Specifications in 2002

¾Working stress design (WSD), based on allowable stresses

¾In 1975-79 work on the new code, Ontario Ministry of Transportation, the 1st
edition of the OHBDC in 1979

¾In 1986-87 feasibility study initiated by a group of bridge engineers

¾Work on the new code 1988-93

¾1st edition of AASHTO LRFD Code in 1994, the 2nd in 1998, 3rd in 2004– as an
alternative document

¾By 2007, only AASHTO LRFD in the USA

 Changes of LRFD from Standard Specifications

　
¾ Introduction of a new philosophy of safety

¾　 Identification of four limit states (strength, service, fatigue, extreme event)

¾　 Development of new load models (including new live load)

¾　 Development of new load and resistance factors

¾　 Revised techniques for the analysis and load distribution

¾　 Introduction of limit state-based provisions for foundation design

¾　 Introduction of isotropic deck design process

¾　 Commentary are now side-by-side with the standard

General design criteria in AASHTO LRFD Code
 Probabilistic Design Philosophy

Probability and reliability based

design.
Takes into account the statistical mean
resistance and statistical mean load and
dispersion of load and resistance
measured by standard deviation.

The way to control the probability of failure to be within a reasonable limit

is through the “Reliability Index (β)”
　 This is better than the Factor of Safety
More β More Factor of safety
 Resistance Factor

Resistance Factor
　 Takes care of uncertainties in the resistance
　 3 Main sources of uncertainties
Material Property – uncertainty in the strength, chemical composition, defects.
Fabrication – uncertainty in the dimensions and construction qualities.
Analysis – many methods are approximate so there are a lot of uncertainties in
predicting the resistance.
 Load Multiplier

ηI =Importance factor
The owner may declare a bridge or any structural component and connection to be of operational
importance.
For strength and extreme event limit states
1.05 for bridge considered of operational importance e.g. the only bridge crossing the river
1.00 for typical bridges
0.95 for bridge considered non-important　
For all other limit states
　 1.00 for all bridges

η D = Ductility factor (Brittle v.s. Ductile failure)

The structural system shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the development of significant
and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event limit states before failure.
For strength limit states
　 1.05 for non-ductile components & connection which may fail in a brittle manner
　 1.00 for conventional designs
　 0.95 for components with enhanced ductility e.g. has additional stirrups for shear
reinforcements
For all other limit states
　 1.00
 Load Multiplier

η　R = Redundant factor

Multiple load path and continuous structures should be used. Main elements whose failure is
expected to cause the collapse of the bridge shall be designated as failure-critical (non-redundant)
　
For strength limit states
　 1.05 for non-redundant members e.g. a simple span bridges
　 1.00 for conventional level of redundancy
　 0.95 for exceptional level of redundancy e.g. multi-girder continuous beam bridge
　
For all other limit states
　 1.00
 Types of Loads

Permanent Loads
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
DW = dead load of wearing surface and utilities
EL = accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the construction process
DD = downdrag
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
Transient Loads
LL = vehicular live load 　 CR = creep
　 IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance FR = friction
　 PL = pedestrian live load SH = shrinkage 　
LS = live load surcharge BR = vehicular braking force
　 TG = temperature gradient TU = uniform temperature
　 WA = water load and stream pressure CE = vehicular centrifugal force
　 CT = vehicular collision force IC = ice load
　 CV = vessel collision force EQ = earthquake　
WS = wind load on structure SE = settlement
　 WL = wind on live load
 Limit States

There are four types of “limit states”

¾ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES –involving the strength and stability of the structure,
both local and global
Strength I, II, III, IV

¾EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES - relates to the structural survival of a bridge

during a major earthquake, flood, or collision
Extreme Event I, II

¾SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES – involving the usability of the structure

including stress, deformation, and crack widths
Service I, II, III

¾FATIGUE LIMIT STATE - relates to restrictions on stress range to prevent crack

growth as a result of repetitive loads during the design life of the bridge

　 All limit states are equally important (AASHTO LRFD 1.3.2.1)

 Limit States

STRENGTH I: Basic load combination relating to the normal use of bridge.

STRENGTH II: load combination for special vehicles specified by owner
STRENGTH III: load combination where the bridge is subjected to high wind (> 90
km/h) and traffic is prevented
STRENGTH IV: load combination for long span bridges (>67 m span) which has large
ratio of DC to LL
STRENGTH V: load combination where bridge and traffic on the bridge is subjected to
wind velocity of 90 km/h

EXTREME EVENT I: load combination for structural survival under major earthquake
EXTREME EVENT II: load combination for structural survival under combination of
events such as flood and vessel collision

SERVICE I: load combination for normal operation of the bridge and for checking
compression in prestressed concrete
SERVICE II: load combination for steel bridges to control yielding
SERVICE III: load combination relating to tension in prestressed concrete\ during
service

FATIGUE: load combination for fatigue and fracture due to repetitive LL and IM
Load Combinations and Load factors
Load Combinations and Load factors
 Examples of Load Combinations

1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM) (Strength I)

　 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.4WS (Strength III)
　 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 1.4WS (Strength III)
　 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV)
　 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.35(LL+IM) + 0.4(WS+WL) (Strength V)
　 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0EQ (Extreme I)
　 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0EQ (Extreme I)
　 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0 (CT or CV) (Extreme I)
　 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0 (CT or CV) (Extreme I)

For slabs and girders designs, we normally have only DC, DW and (LL+IM)

　 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM) (Strength I)

　 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV)
　 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.00(LL+IM) (Service I)
　 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.30(LL+IM) (Service II, Steel)
　 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 0.80(LL+IM) (Service III, Prestressed)
 Notes on Load Combinations

¾Note that the sections for maximum moment of dead load and live load are not
the same!!!
Dead Load Moment : midspan
Live Load Moment : some small distance away from midspan
If we add them together, we are conservative!

¾Critical moment for shear is d away from the support. We can calculate shear at
this location for both dead load and live load If we know the height of the section.

We estimate the height from past experiences of similar projects.

If we don’t know, we calculate the shear at the support. This is conservative

but may not be economical.
 Typical Loads
Typical Loads on the bridge are:
Dead Loads: DC/DW
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
Pedestrian Load: PL
Dynamic (Impact) Loads: IM

Dead Loads DC:

¾Dead load includes the self weight of:

structural components such as girder, slabs, cross beams, etc…
nonstructural components such as medians, railings, signs, etc…
¾But does not include the weight of wearing surface (asphalt)
¾We can estimate dead load from its density

Dead Load of Wearing Surface: DW

¾It is the weight of the wearing surface (usually asphalt) and utilities (pipes, lighting, etc…)
¾Different category is needed due to large variability of the weight compared with those of
structural components (DC).
¾Asphalt surface may be thicker than designed and may get laid on top of old layer over and over.
¾Density of asphalt paving material= 2250 kg/m3
¾Average Thickness of asphalt on bridge= 9 cm
Densities of Materials for Calculation of Loads
 Design Lane

¾The design lane has a width equal to the lesser of 3600 mm or width of the traffic
lane.

¾Roadway widths from 6000 to 7200 mm shall have two design lanes, each equal to
one-half the roadway width.

¾The number of design lanes is taken as the integer part of the result when the clear
roadway width in mm between curbs is divided by 3600.
 Multiple Presence Factor

¾We have considered the effect of load placement in ONE lane

¾But bridges has more than one lane

¾It’s almost impossible to have maximum load effect on ALL lanes at the same
time

¾The more lanes you have, the lesser chance that all will be loaded to maximum at
the same time

¾If the design lanes are more than one,

reduction factor is applied on the live
load force effect called Multiple
Presence Factor denoted by m.
 Design Vehicular Live Load

AASHTO has 3 basic types of LL called the HL-93 loading (stands for Highway
Loading, year 1993)
1. Design truck
2. Design tandem
3. Uniform loads

(1) Design truck

The design truck is called HS-20 (stands for Highway
Semi-Trailer with 20-kips weight on first two axles)
¾ Weight shown are for each one axle = 2 wheels
¾ Total Wt = 325 kN
¾ Distance between second and third axles may be
varied to produce maximum effect.
¾ The design truck or tandem shall be placed
transversely at 0.3m from the face of curb or railing
for the design of bridge overhang and 0.6 m from
edge of the design lane for the design of all other
components.
 Design Vehicular Live Load

(2) Design Tandem

¾The design tandem shall consist of a pair of 110

kN axles at a longitudinal spacing of 1.2m with the
transverse center-to-center spacing of the wheels
being 1.8 mm.

¾Lead to larger moment than the HS20 truck for

simple-support spans less than about 13.4 m
(3) Uniform Lane Loading
¾Uniform load of 9.3 kN/m acting
over a tributary width of 3 m. (i.e. the
load is 3.1 kN/m2)

¾May be apply continuously or

discontinuously over the length of the
bridge to produce maximum effect
 Design Vehicular Live Load

3 ways to add the design truck, design tandem, and uniform load together

1. Combination 1: one HS20 truck on top of a uniform lane load per design lane
2. Combination 2: one Design Tandem on top of a uniform lane load per design
Lane
3. Combination 3: (for negative moments at interior supports of continuous beams)
place two HS20 design truck, one on each adjacent span but not less than 15 m
apart (measure from front axle of one truck to the rear axle of another truck), with
uniform lane load. Use 90% of their effects as the design moment/ shear.

¾ The loads in each case must be positioned such that they produce maximum
effects (max M or max V)

¾ The maximum effect of these 3 cases is used for the design

‰A pedestrian load of 3600 N/m2 is used on all sidewalks simultaneously with the
vehicular design live load.

‰Separate bridges for pedestrian and bicycle traffic should be designed for a live load
of 4100 N/m2.
 Dynamic Load Allowance: IM

Sources of Dynamic Effects

¾Hammering effect when wheels hit the discontinuities on the road surface such as
joints, cracks, and potholes.
¾Dynamic response of the bridge due to vibrations induced by traffic

Actual calculation of dynamic effects is very difficult and involves a lot of unknowns.

To make life simpler, we account for the dynamic effect of moving vehicles by
multiplying the static effect with a factor.

Add dynamic effect to the following loads:

¾Design Truck
¾Design Tandem
But NOT to these loads:
¾Pedestrian Load
¾Design Lane Load