Definitions

Math 295
Chris Talbot
Fall 2020

Set: A set is a collection of objects called elements. It is unordered and does not include
repetition.

Empty set: The set with no elements is called the empty set, notated ∅. Note that ∅ is
a subset of every set.

Power set: Let X be a set. P(X) is the power set of X; that is, it is the set of all
subsets of X.
P(X) := {A|A ⊆ X}

Binary operation: Let S be a set. A binary operation on S is a function

?:S×S →S

For s1 , s2 ∈ S, we write s1 ? s2 or ?(s1 , s2 ) to denote a binary operation.

Intersection: Intersection is a binary operation on sets; that is,

∩ : P(x) × P(x) → P(x)

(A, B) 7→ A ∩ B
Where A, B ∈ P(x). It is the set of elements in both A and B.

A ∩ B := {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Union: Union is a binary operation on sets; that is,

∪ : P(x) × P(x) → P(x)

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 (A, B) 7→ A ∪ B
Where A, B ∈ P(x). It is the set of all elements from A and B.

A ∪ B := {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Fun(X): The set of all functions from X onto itself; that is, Fun(X) := {f : X → X}.

Function Composition: Function composition is a binary operation on Fun(X). That

is,
◦ : Fun(X) × Fun(X) → Fun(X)
(f, g) 7→ f ◦ g
(f ◦ g) : X 7→ X
x 7→ f (g(x))

Commutative: A binary operation ? on a set S is commutative provided that ∀a, b ∈ S

a ? b = b ? a.

Associative: A binary operation ? on a set S is associative provided that ∀a, b, c ∈ S

(a ? b) ? c = a ? (b ? c).

Identity element: Let ? be a binary operation on a set S. The element e ∈ S is called

the ?-identity, or identity element, provided that ∀s ∈ S, e ? s = s ? e = s. Note that, if the
identity element exists, it is unique.

Inverse element: Let ? be a binary operation on a set S. Assume the ?-identity element
exists, and call it e ∈ S. Given s ∈ S, the element s0 ∈ S is called a ?-inverse, or inverse
element, for the element s provided that s0 ? s = s ? s0 = e. Note that the inverse can only
exist if the identity element exists.

Field: A set F with commutative and associative binary operations denoted + and · is
called a field provided that:

1. Additive identity: ∃ + -identity, denoted 0F

2. Multiplicative identity: ∃ · -identity, denoted 1F

3. Additive inverse: ∀f ∈ F , ∃ a +-inverse denoted −f

4. Multiplicative inverse: ∀f ∈ F \ {0F }, ∃ ·-inverse denoted f −1

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 5. Distribution: ∀a, b, c ∈ F we have a · (b + c) + a · b + a · c

6. 0F 6= 1F

Ordered field: A field F is said to have order structure provided that ∃P ⊆ F such
that:

1. P is closed with respect to + and ·; that is, ∀a, b ∈ P , a + b ∈ P and a · b ∈ P

2. Trichotomy holds for F ; that is, ∀a ∈ F , exactly one of the following is true:

(a) a ∈ P
(b) a = 0
(c) −a ∈ P

Note that 0 ∈
/ P.

Inequalities: We can define inequalities in terms of P :

a) a > b ⇔ a − b ∈ P

b) a < b ⇔ b > a

c) a ≥ b ⇔ a − b ∈ P ∪ {0}

d) a ≤ b ⇔ b ≥ a

Absolute value: We define absolute value as a function from F to P ∪ {0}:


a
 if a > 0
|a| := 0 if a = 0

−a if a < 0


Upper bound: Let (F, P ) be an ordered field. Let A ⊆ F . Let u ∈ F . If u ≥ a ∀a ∈ A,

u is an upper bound for the set A.

Lower bound: Let (F, P ) be an ordered field. Let A ⊆ F . Let u ∈ F . If u ≤ a ∀a ∈ A,

u is a lower bound for the set A.

Bounded: A set is called bounded above if it has an upper bound, bounded below if it
has a lower bound, and bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below.

Least upper bound (Supremum): Let A ⊆ F . Assume A is bounded above. The

element α ∈ F is called the least upper bound or supremum for A provided that α is an

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upper bound for A, and α ≤ u ∀u ∈ F where u is an upper bound for A.

Greatest lower bound (Infimum): Let A ⊆ F . Assume A is bounded below. The

element β ∈ F is called the greatest lower bound or infimum for A provided that β is a lower
bound for A, and β ≥ u ∀u ∈ F where u is a lower bound for A.

Least upper bound property: Suppose (F, P ) is an ordered field. If every nonempty
set A ⊆ F that is bounded above has a least upper bound, then (F, P ) is said to have the
least upper bound property.

Complete ordered field: An ordered field is said to be complete provided that it has
the least upper bound property. There is a unique complete ordered field, which we call R.

Inductive: A subset X ⊆ F is called inductive provided that 1 ∈ X and x ∈ X →

x + 1 ∈ X.

Maximum element: Assume F is an ordered field. Take a subset A ⊆ F . We call

m ∈ F the maximal element for A provided that m is an upper bound for A and m ∈ A. If
the maximal element exists, it is unique.

Minimal element: Assume F is an ordered field. Take a subset A ⊆ F . We call m ∈ F

the minimal element for A provided that m is a lower bound for A and m ∈ A. If the
minimal element exists, it is unique.

-A: Let A ⊆ R. Then we define −A := {−x|x ∈ A}.

b + A: Let A ⊆ R and b ∈ R. Then we define b + A := {x + b|x ∈ A}.

Weakly inductive: The subset S ⊆ N is called weakly inductive provided that:

1. 1 ∈ S

2. If k ∈ S, then k + 1 ∈ S

Note that if S ⊆ N is weakly inductive, then S = N.

Well-ordered: Let (F, P ) be an ordered field. The subset U ⊆ F is called well-ordered

provided that ∀V ⊆ U with V 6= ∅, V has a minimal element. We know N is well-ordered.

Strongly inductive: The subset S ⊆ N is called strongly inductive provided that

∀n ∈ N, if {k ∈ N|k < n} ⊆ S, then n ∈ S.

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 Divisor: Let d, b ∈ N. The element d is called a divisor of b provided that ∃m ∈ N such
that b = d · m. We write d|b.

Greatest common divisor: Let a, b ∈ N. The greatest common divisor of a and b is

just that; the greatest element n ∈ N such that n|a, n|b, and ∀m ∈ N where m is a divisor
of a and b, n > m.

Function: A function f : A → B is a subset of A × B such that ∀a ∈ A ∃!b ∈ B such

that (a, b) ∈ f . We write b = f (a).

Inverse of a function: Suppose f : A → B is a function. Then we define f −1 ⊆ B × A

by f −1 := {(b, a) ∈ B × A|(a, b) ∈ f }. Note that f −1 is not always a function. We know f −1
is a function when ∀b ∈ B ∃!a ∈ A such that (b, a) ∈ f −1 .

Surjective (onto), def 1: A function f : A → B is called surjective provided that

∀b ∈ B ∃a ∈ A such that f (a) = b.

Injective (one-to-one): A function f : A → B is called injective provided that

f (a) = f (a0 ) ⇒ a = a0 .

Bijective: A function f : A → B is called bijective provided that it is both surjective

and injective.

Invertible: A function f : A → B is called invertible provided that f −1 is a function.

Specifically, a function f is invertible if ∀b ∈ B ∃!a ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ f .

Involution: A function f : A → A is called an involution provided that its inverse is a

function, and it is its own inverse; that is, f = f −1 .

Image, def 1: Let f : A → B be a function. The image of f is a subset of the codomain,

that is, f (A) ⊆ B, where f (A) := {f (a) ∈ B|a ∈ A}.

Identity function: The identity function is one that maps every element in the domain
to itself. That is, f : A → B such that f (a) = a. Note that the composition of a function
and its inverse gives the identity function for the domain of the initial function; that is,
f −1 ◦ f : A → A is the identity function on A, and f ◦ f −1 : B → B is the identity function
on B.

Finite set: A set A is said to be finite provided that it is empty, or there is an n ∈ N

and a bijective function f : Nn → A.

Interval: A subset A ⊆ R is called an interval provided that ∀x, y ∈ A, if z ∈ R and

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x < z < y, then z ∈ A. There are ten types of intervals (nine nonempty). Note that elements
marked with a * are the five open intervals (to be better defined later).

1. ∅*

2. (a, b) := {x ∈ R|a < x < b}*

3. (a, b] := {x ∈ R|a < x ≤ b}

4. [a, b) := {x ∈ R|a ≤ x < b}

5. [a, b] := {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b}

6. [a, ∞) := {x ∈ R|x ≥ a}

7. (a, ∞) := {x ∈ R|x > a}*

8. (−∞, b) := {x ∈ R|x < b}*

9. (−∞, b] := {x ∈ R|x ≤ b}

10. (−∞, ∞) := R*

Neighborhood: A neighborhood of a point p ∈ R is an open interval that contains p.

Open ball: Take a ∈ R and r > 0. The set Br (a) := {x ∈ R|a − r < x < a + r} is called
the open ball centered at a with radius r. Another way to think of this subset is as the open
interval (a − r, a + r).

Open subset, def 1: Let U ⊆ R. The subset U is called open provided that ∀u ∈ U ,
∃r > 0 such that Br (u) ⊆ U .

Closed subset: Let C ⊆ R. Then C is closed provided that R \ C is open.

Euclidean topology: The collection of all open sets of R, T := {U ⊆ R | is an open subset of R}

is called a topology on R. This particular one is the Euclidean topology. It has the following
properties, as shown above:

1. R, ∅ ∈ T

2. T is ”closed” with respect to taking arbitrary unions of its elements

3. T is ”closed” with respect to taking finitely many intersections of its elements

Limits: Let f : R → R, and let a, l ∈ R. We say that ”f approaches l as x approaches

a” provided that one of the following holds:

1. ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that if x ∈ Bδ (x) \ {a}, then f (x) ∈ Bε (l).

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 2. ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R with 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have |f (x) − l| < ε.

3. ∀ open subsets V ⊆ R that contain l, ∃ an open subset U ⊆ R containing a such that

∀x ∈ U \ {a}, we have f (x) ∈ V .

In all cases, we write limx→a f (x) = l.

Continuity at a point, def 1: Let f : R → R be a function with a ∈ R. We say f

is continuous at a point a provided that ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ Bδ (a), we have
f (x) ∈ Bε (f (a)).

Continuity at a point, def 2: Suppose f : R → R is a function. Let a ∈ R. We say

f is continuous at a point a provided that limx→a f (x) exists and is equal to f (a). That
is, f is continuous at a provided that ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that ∀x satisfying |x − a| < δ,
|f (x) − f (a) < ε.

Continuous, def 1: A function f is continuous provided that ∀a ∈ R, f is continuous

at a.

Image, def 2: Let A, B be sets. Let g : A → B be a function. For S ⊆ A, we define

g(S) (or g([S])) := {b ∈ B | ∃s ∈ S such that g(s) = b} to be the image of S under g. The
image of g is defined to be g(A).

Surjective, def 2: A function g : A → B is surjective if and only if g(A) = B.

Inverse image: Let A, B be sets. Let g : A → B be a function. For T ⊆ B, we define

g −1 (T ) (or g −1 ([T ])) := {a ∈ A | g(a) ∈ T } to be the inverse image of T under g. The
inverse image of g is defined to be g −1 (B).

Continuous, def 2: A function f : R → R is continuous provided that ∀U ⊆ R where

U is open, f −1 (U ) ⊆ R is open.

Topology: Let X be a set. A topology on X, denoted TX , is a subset of P(X) satisfying

the following:

1. X, ∅ ∈ TX

2. TX is closed with respect to arbitrary unions

3. TX is closed with respect to finite intersections

Topological space: The pair of a set and its topology (X, T ) is called a topological
space.

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 Open subset, def 2: Let (X, T ) be a topological space. Then elements of TX are open
subsets of X.

Continuous, def 3: Let (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) be topological spaces. The function f :
X → Y is continuous provided that ∀U ∈ TY , f −1 (U ) ∈ TX .