colloids

and interfaces

Article
Influence of Biodestructors on the Wear Resistance of
Polyester Geotextile Materials
Lesya V. Pelyk 1 , Volodymyr O. Vasylechko 1,2, * and Olena V. Kyrychenko 3
1 Lviv University of Trade and Economics, 10, Tuhan-Baranovskyi Str., 79008 Lviv, Ukraine; lpelyk@gmail.com
2 Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, 6, Kyryla & Mefodya St.,
79005 Lviv, Ukraine
3 Poltava University of Economics and Trade, Poltava 36014, Ukraine; elenkak@ukr.net
* Correspondence: vasylechko@ukr.net




Received: 28 December 2018; Accepted: 29 January 2019; Published: 31 January 2019


Abstract: Changes in the structure and properties of geotextile nonwoven materials after microbiological
load under natural conditions have been studied. Microbiological research of samples was conducted
after testing for 12 and 24 months. The results of the research of physical and mechanical materials
properties prove their sufficient resistance to the influence of biodestructors.

Keywords: biodestructor; wear resistance; polyester; geotextile material

1. Introduction
Geotextile materials are mostly used in road construction, though they are also often applied in
landscape architecture design. Geotextiles are used inside various earthwork structures (terraces),
slopes, declivities, rockeries, alpine slides, ornamental water reservoirs, drainage systems, etc.
These materials prevent the mixing of different material layers, strengthen loose ground, protect
hydraulic systems from physical and mechanical destructions, and restrain the growth of plants roots
and weed germination. Inside the soil, geotextiles are affected by dampness, temperature changes,
soil pH, and the vital activities of microorganisms and animals, and they resist the pressure of layers
with different fraction sizes.
Use of polyester fibers allows for geotextile materials with certain wear resistance properties.
Fibers are specified by the enhanced mechanical properties, though they can be sensitive to hydrolysis.
Therefore, fibers like these are necessary to determine the soil pH. Taking into account that soil is
a salutary medium for microorganisms growth and their vital activities, it is reasonable to study
geotextile resistance to biodestructor activity.
Polypropylene fibers are also used to produce geotextile nonwoven materials. The materials
made of polypropylene fibers are strong, lightweight, and resistant to chemical reagent influence and
microorganisms and to high and low temperatures (freeze-proof), with a high coefficient of friction,
little tendency to peeling, low thermal conductivity, and an ability to drain moisture quickly.
Being in soil, the properties of geotextile nonwoven materials mostly change as a result of the
action of the following factors: pH, the grain-size composition of the soil, temperature, moisture
content, and the presence of oxygen and microorganisms [1–6]. Chemical destruction (disruption
of polymers chains, sewing together, swelling or dissolution, a loss of ingredients of polymeric
connection, an increase in the degree of crystallinity) depends on the type of polymer and the soil
acidity or alkalinity. The alkaline hydrolysis of polyester fibers occurs if the value of pH exceeds
10, so the period of material exploitation made of this raw material should be limited. The internal
hydrolysis under normal conditions occurs at all pH values based on the cross-sectional view of fibers.

Colloids Interfaces 2019, 3, 21; doi:10.3390/colloids3010021 www.mdpi.com/journal/colloids

Colloids Interfaces 2019, 3, 21 2 of 7

The process can be slowed down during the use of polyester fibers with high molecular mass, a limited
branching of chains, and an absence of acids in the soil.
The aim of the article is to conduct testing of geotextile nonwoven materials in the natural
environment to define the influence of biodestructors on their wearability.

2. Materials and Methods

Conducting testing under natural conditions, linens of the geotextile nonwoven materials were
dug in active soil for 12 and 24 months. During the period of the tests, under natural conditions,
the geotextile nonwoven materials performed functions of division, filtration, and drainage and yielded
to the influence of pressure, temperature, moisture, soil, etc., so a worsening of indicator values was
observed. The soil used for the study was bleached with black soil, and the content of humus was up to
1.6–4.0% [7]. Humus, as a component of the soil, was found to be the most favorable environment for
vital functions of various types of microorganisms. The microflora of the soil consists of numerous types
of bacteria: putrid, nitrifying, nitrogen-fixing that decompose fibers, sulfur bacteria, etc. There can
be aerobes and anaerobes among them, sporogenous and non-sporogenous. There are various fungi
and algae. The simplest viruses are in the soil. There is a huge amount of microorganisms in soil:
from hundreds of millions to milliards per gram of soil. The composition and amount of microflora
of the soil depend on its humidity, temperature, acidity, composition, and the amount of nutritious
substances in it.
After the expiration of these periods of being loaded, the samples under study were analyzed
visually (both before and after cleaning). Visible changes in the structure of these fabrics were found.
Signs of damage and separate fibers were recorded during microscopic investigation. Microbiological
research was carried out too.
Testing of geotextile nonwoven materials was conducted in laboratory conditions using
standard (State Standards of Ukraine 8607:2015 “Road Construction Geosynthetic Materials. Methods
of Testing”) and adapted methods. During microbiological examination of a dense nourishing
medium (meat infusion agar and wort agar), wipe sampling was made by the superficial method,
and microorganisms were grown in a thermostat for 48 h (36 ± 1 ◦ C). Bacteria, fungi, and yeasts
were counted.
The results of the research were compared to the properties of the samples that did not yield to
microbiological loading. Main specifications of the samples before the natural environment testing are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Value of geotextile nonwoven materials indicators.

Sample Fiber Type, Raw Material Method of Production Surface Density, Thickness,
Number Components and Processing g m−2 mm
needled, thermoset,
1 100% polyester fibers 125.0 0.78
calendered
needled, thermoset,
2 100% polyester fibers 200.0 1.06
calendered
needled, thermoset,
3 100% polyester fibers 194.0 1.14
calendered, soaked

The examined nonwoven geotextile materials were made of polyester fibers—a product of
terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol polycondensation. Monomeric link can be shown with the
formula
Colloids Interfaces 2019, 3, 21 3 of 7
Colloids
ColloidsInterfaces
Interfaces2019,
2019,3,3,xxFOR
FOR PEER REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 3 of 73 of 7
Colloids Interfaces 2019, 3, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 7

OO
O
CH22 O
CH22 O
CH CC CC O O
CH2 CH2 O C C O
OO
O n n
n . .
.
Layingof
Laying ofof
thethe
the examined
examined
examined fabrics
fabrics waswas
fabrics formed
formed
was on
oncombing
on combing
formed machines.
machines.
combing Mechanical
Mechanical
machines. connection
connection
Mechanical between
connection
Laying
between of was
fibers the examined
created by fabrics
way of was formed
needling fromonpulling
combing machines.
fibers by the Mechanical
barbed needles connection
through
fibers was
between created
fibers wasby way ofby
created needling
way of from pulling
needling from fibers by the
pulling barbed
fibers by theneedles
barbed through
needlesthe entire
through
between
entirefibers
theentire was created
thickness of the by waywith
the fabric
fabric of needling
different from pulling ofoffibers by the 2barbed 2needles through
thickness
the of the fabric
thickness of with different differentdensities
withdensities of punctures
densities punctures
per 1 cm
punctures per . To
per 1 cm . To
1provide
cm provide
2. Toan an an
adhesion
provide
the entireconnection
adhesion thickness of of the fabric
fibers, the with different
fabric was densities
processed on of punctures
calender per 1with
machines cm2a. temperature
To provide ◦an of
connection
adhesion of fibers,
connection the
of fabric was processed on calender machines with a temperature of 220 C for
adhesion
220 °C for connection
12–16 s. of fibers,
Thermofixation
the fabric
fibers, the fabricwas
of
wasprocessed
fabrics
processedononcalender
implies treatment
calender
with
machines
machines
hot
◦ air (230
with
with
°C)afor a temperature
temperature
16–18 s. of of
The
12–16
220 °C s.for
Thermofixation of fabrics implies treatment with hot air (230 C) for 16–18 s. The third sample
220
third for12–16
°Csample 12–16 s.s. Thermofixation
Thermofixation
wasstyrene-co-acrylonitrile
soaked
of fabrics
of fabrics implies
implies
with styrene-co-acrylonitrile
treatment
treatment
latex.
with
with hot
hot airair
(230 (230
°C)°C)
forfor 16–18
16–18 s. The
s. The
was
third soaked
sample with
was soaked with latex.
styrene-co-acrylonitrile
third sample was soaked with styrene-co-acrylonitrile latex. latex.

3.3.Results
3.
Resultsand
Results andDiscussion
Discussion
3. Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
Damageof
Damage offabric
fabric integrity
integrity by plants
by plants roots
plantsroots was
rootswas observed
wasobserved
observedafter 1212
after and 24 24
and months of load
months on the
of load
load on the
the
Damage
Damage of
offabric
fabric integrity
integrity by
by plants roots was observed after
after 1212 and
and 24 24 months
months of
of load on
on the
materials.
materials. (Figures
(Figures 11 and
and 2).
2).
materials.
materials.(Figures
(Figures11 and
and 2).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure1.1.Geotextile
Figure Geotextile materials
materials after
after 12
12months
monthsofoftesting
testingunder
undernatural
naturalconditions: (a) (a)
conditions: colmatage afterafter
colmatage
Figure
testing; 1.(b)
Geotextile materials
penetration of after
plant 12after
roots months of testing under natural conditions: (a) colmatage after
testing.
testing;
Figure (b)
testing;1.(b)
penetration
Geotextile of plant roots
materials
penetration
roots
of plantafter
after
12after
monthstesting.
of testing under natural conditions: (a) colmatage after
testing.
testing; (b) penetration of plant roots after testing.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Geotextile materials after 24 months of testing under natural conditions: (a) colmatage after
Figure 2. Geotextile materials after 24 months of testing under natural conditions: (a) colmatage after
testing;
Figure (b)Geotextile (a)
penetration of plant roots after testing. (b)(a) colmatage after
testing;2.(b) materials
penetration after
of plant 24after
roots months of testing under natural conditions:
testing.
testing; (b) penetration of plant roots after testing.
Figure 2. Geotextile materials after 24 months of testing under natural conditions: (a) colmatage after
testing; (b) penetration of plant roots after testing.
Colloids Interfaces 2019, 3, 21 4 of 7

After
Colloids 12 months,
Interfaces 2019, 3, xcolmatage was observed, but its place was local, mostly on the surface. Due
FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 7 to
the fixed structure of the unsaturated geotextile thermoset nonwoven materials, the particles of the
soil movedAfterdeeper
12 months,
into colmatage
the layer ofwastheobserved,
fabric. but its place was local, mostly on the surface. Due to
theColmatation
fixed structure of the unsaturated geotextile
after 24 months of testing was considerablethermoset nonwoven materials,
with thorough the particles
penetration for all of the
samples
soil moved deeper into the layer of the fabric.
under research. For unsaturated geotextile nonwoven materials, the filling of pores by soil particles
Colmatation after 24 months of testing was considerable with thorough penetration for all
was characteristic, unlike for the geotextile nonwoven materials that were treated the same way (unless
samples under research. For unsaturated geotextile nonwoven materials, the filling of pores by soil
they were saturated).
particles was characteristic, unlike for the geotextile nonwoven materials that were treated the same
Damage due to the germination of plants roots was observed both underneath and on the surface.
way (unless they were saturated).
Germination with a formation of the cross hole was recorded after both periods of testing. The size
Damage due to the germination of plants roots was observed both underneath and on the
of surface.
the damage dependswith
Germination on the diameter of
a formation of the
the cross
roots,hole
andwasthe types of plants.
recorded Though
after both theofgrowing
periods testing. of
roots
Theinsize
theoflayer
the of the geotextile
damage dependsnonwoven fabricsofinfluences
on the diameter the roots,the
andphysical
the typesandofmechanical properties
plants. Though the
of growing
geotextiles, it can also be considered a factor that additionally makes the structure
of roots in the layer of the geotextile nonwoven fabrics influences the physical and of the fabric more
compact, forming a framework.
mechanical properties of geotextiles, it can also be considered a factor that additionally makes the
Microscopic
structure investigation
of the fabric of the forming
more compact, samplesaunder testing was conducted after visual inspection.
framework.
DuringMicroscopic
this investigation, the traces
investigation of samples
of the destruction underwere found
testing after
was diggingafter
conducted into visual
the polyester fibers:
inspection.
a thickening
During thisofinvestigation,
the separate the areas of the
traces fibers, a cracking
of destruction in theafter
were found mostdigging
swelledinto
areas,
the and an occurrence
polyester fibers:
of alongitudinal
thickening cracksof the of separate areas
different of the
lengths fibers,3).a cracking in the most swelled areas, and an
(Figure
occurrence of longitudinal cracks of different lengths (Figure 3).

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Image of the polyester fibers damages after digging (increase 200×): (a) local thickening with
Figure 3. Image of the polyester fibers damages after digging (increase 200×): (a) local thickening
cavities; (b) swelling.
with cavities; (b) swelling.

Damage found in the polyester fibers was characterized by a thickening of the separate areas,
Damage found in the polyester fibers was characterized by a thickening of the separate areas,
related to the
related to the local
localfixing
fixingofofmicroorganisms
microorganisms due due to adhesionand
to adhesion andthethefollowing
followingadsorption
adsorptionbyby
thethe
nourishing
nourishing environment
environment of the
of fiber. Cavities
the fiber. were visible
Cavities in the places
were visible in theofplaces
thickening. Some thickenings,
of thickening. Some
as thickenings,
a result of swelling,
as a result of swelling, look like the inflated areas (swelling). The most change
look like the inflated areas (swelling). The most widespread in the
widespread
macrostructure
change in theof the polyester fibers
macrostructure of the was observed
polyester fibersas was
a local bulge as
observed asaaresult
local of swelling.
bulge as a result of
These changes in the polyester fiber macrostructure can be the result of microorganism generation
swelling.
in certain areas.
These Nutritious
changes media
in the for the fiber
polyester activemacrostructure
spread of microdestructors
can be the include
result ofdyes and saturating
microorganism
composites,
generationwhich cause
in certain surface
areas. damage
Nutritious that is
media forpartly loosened
the active spread byofmicroorganisms.
microdestructors include dyes
andInsaturating
unsaturatedcomposites,
geotextile which cause surface
nonwoven fabricsdamage
that had that is partly
been in soilloosened by microorganisms.
for 12 months, the number of
In unsaturated
mesophilic aerobic andgeotextile
optionally nonwoven
anaerobicfabrics that had been
microorganisms in soil for
increased to 1.2 106 colony
12 ·months, theforming
number units
of
mesophilic aerobic and optionally anaerobic 6
microorganisms increased8
per 1 g. Over 24 months, they increased to 7.8 × 10 and to 7.9 × 10 colony forming units per 1 g to 1.2·10 6 colony forming

forunits per 1 g.
materials Over 24 months,
saturated by acrylic they increased
polymer to 7.8 ×In10total,
binders. 6 and to 7.9 × 108 colony forming units per 1 g
after testing in the natural environment,
the share of microbiological destruction by bacteria was 99.9%,testing
for materials saturated by acrylic polymer binders. In total, after and thatin the
bynatural environment,
fungi and yeasts was
only 0.1% (Table 2). To minimize the microbiological destruction of geotextile materials,yeasts
the share of microbiological destruction by bacteria was 99.9%, and that by fungi and was be
they can
combined with a thin layer based on zeolite composites. It is known that zeolite composites be
only 0.1% (Table 2). To minimize the microbiological destruction of geotextile materials, they can with
combined with a thin layer based on zeolite composites. It is known that zeolite composites with
silver are efficient antimicrobial agents [8–10]. Natural zeolites, being aluminosilicates, are compatible
silver are efficient antimicrobial agents [8–10]. Natural zeolites, being aluminosilicates, are
compatible with soils of various types. The application of Ag +-zeolite samples prevents leakage of
Colloids Interfaces 2019, 3, 21 5 of 7

with soils of various types. The application of Ag+ -zeolite samples prevents leakage of Ag+ toxic ions
into soils or waters of soils, because the desorption of silver in such conditions does not take place in
practice [8]. Ukraine has great deposits of natural clinoptilolite. In particular, the clinoptilolite deposit
in Sokyrnytsia of Ukrainian Transcarpathia accounts for over 900 million tons.

Table 2. Degree of microbiological contamination of the geotextile nonwoven materials.

Bacteria, Fungi, Yeasts,

Type of the Sample Colony Forming Units per 1 g Colony Forming Units per 1 g Colony Forming Units per 1 g
Control After Digging Control After Digging Control After Digging
after 12 months in the soil
1 3.8 × 103 1.2 × 106 1.1 × 102 3.4 × 103 1.3 × 102 2.9 × 102
after 24 months in the soil
2 5.3 × 103 7.8 × 106 1.4 × 102 5.9 × 103 1.2 × 102 3.3 × 103
3 6.4 × 103 7.9 × 108 1.8 × 102 7.1 × 103 1.5 × 102 7.6 × 103

As a result of the tests under natural conditions, physical and mechanical indicators of
the geotextile nonwoven materials undergo changes. This research allows for an estimation of
operating properties in the objects of landscape building and forecast life duration. Detected tracks
of microbiological destruction do not considerably influence the value of physical and mechanical
properties of the materials. Research on structural indicators, such as surface density, thickness,
spatial density, and porosity preceded the determination of resistance and air permeability values
(Table 3).

Table 3. Value of geotextile nonwoven materials indicators after digging.

Type of the Surface Density, Thickness, Spatial Density, Porosity, Air Permeability,
Sample g m−2 mm g m−3 % dm3 (m2 s)−1
after 12 months in the soil
1 138.8 0.88 0.16 88.57 835
after 24 months in the soil
2 277.8 1.34 0.21 84.98 346
3 373.1 1.38 0.27 80.41 117

Surface density increases due to the accumulation of soil particles in the fabric pores. The thickness
of unsaturated geotextile nonwoven materials increased, which is explained by holes being filled up
due to colmatation with the fixing of the fiber position of the fabric during processing. After 24 months
of testing in the natural environment, there is also an increase in surface density and thickness due to
considerable colmatation. The air permeability during both periods continues to go down, but the
geotextile nonwoven fabrics do not lose permeability. Taking into account the changes in values after
tests, it is possible to conclude that thermoset, calendered samples remain the most stable due to their
structural characteristics, though reduction of air permeability is observed.
The process of colmatation of the geotextile nonwoven materials also influences their porosity,
which, in turn, depends on the nature, the way of location, the fixing of fibers, the thickness, the surface
density, and the fabric processing. Therefore, the porosity of the geotextile nonwoven materials without
processing is characterized by the highest value of 93.6%; for the thermoset, calendered ones, it is
86.9% on average.
One more indicator that characterizes microbiological permanence and wear resistance is the loss
of durability for a certain period of microbiological loading (Table 4).
Colloids Interfaces 2019, 3, 21 6 of 7

Table 4. A change of durability values of geotextile nonwoven materials.

Before Digging After Digging

Relative Elongation at Relative Elongation at
Type of the Maximum Durability, Maximum Durability,
the Moment of the Moment of
Sample kN m−1 kN m−1
Disruption, % Disruption, %
By Length By Width By Length By Width By Length By Width By Length By Width
after 12 months in the soil
1 6.12 4.66 49 88 6.30 5.60 45 71
after 24 months in the soil
2 7.87 8.16 54 80 7.17 9.87 45 65
3 11.40 8.95 42 68 10.60 7.31 39 44

The increase in the boundary value of durability by 3% by length and by 20% by width was
observed after 12 months. After 24 months, the boundary value of durability of the geotextile
nonwoven materials was reduced by 8% by length, but there was a growth in the value by width
due to the increase in the surface density and thickness as a result of considerable colmatation with
soil particles. Saturated geotextile nonwoven materials are characterized by the reduction in the
boundary durability by 18% by width. The value of relative elongation at the moment of disruption
also decreased after 12 and 24 months of testing in the natural environment.

4. Conclusions
As a result of microbiological researches, it was found that, after digging the samples under
study in the soil, bacteria prevailed in washings up to 99.9% and that the amount of colonies of fungi
and yeasts was just 0.1%. The growth of microbiological contamination was observed on all types
of samples notwithstanding the raw material composition. The fibers of polyester had characteristic
biodamages (local thickening and swelling as a result of swelling, cavities, and cracks of different
sizes). A complete destruction of fibers was not detected.
After tests in the natural environment, the samples under study were characterized by an
increase in surface density and thickness and a reduction in porosity and air permeability because of
colmatation. The changes in these values depend on the initial structure of the geotextile nonwoven
fabrics, the processing and properties of the soil, and the construction of building objects.
It was found that most changes in the samples under study occurred during the first year of
application, after which there was a gradual decline in maximum durability and relative elongation at
the moment of disruption that specified the availability of destructive processes.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization—O.V.K.; investigation, writing original draft—L.V.P.; data curation,

writing, review & editing—V.O.V.
Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial,
or not-for-profit sectors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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