Term 4 Science Notes

Scientific Skills 
 
Variables 
● Independent: The changed variable 
- Goes in left column (tables) or x-axis (graphs) 
● Dependent: the observed result 
- Goes in the top row (tables) or y-axis (graphs) 
 
Independent Variable Vs Dependent Variable 
Independent  Dependant Variable (Units) 
Variable (Units) 
Trial 1  Trial 2  Trial 3  Average 

         
 
Chemical Reactions 
 
Endothermic And Exothermic Reactions 
● An exothermic reaction is one that produces heat and/or light. Eg Fireworks, 
combustion. 
● An endothermic reaction is one that absorbs heat energy. Eg Melting ice cubes, boiling 
an egg. 
 
Chemical Equations 
● In a chemical equation, the reactants are changed to form the product. 
● g=gas, l=liquid, s=solid and aq=aqueous solution 
● Coefficients are used to balance equations, as the law of conservation of mass ensures 
that the number of reactant molecules is the same as the number of product molecules. 
 
Element  Reactant  Product 

H  2  2 

O  2  1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Common Compounds 
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Compound  Chemical Formula 

Water  H​2​O 

Sulfuric Acid  H​2​SO​4 

Hydrochloric Acid  HCl 

Sodium Chloride  NaCl 

Magnesium Oxide  MgO 

 
Law Of Conservation Of Mass 
● Matter cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred and transformed. 
 
Types Of Reactions 
● Combustion is an exothermic reaction that refers to any reaction that burns oxygen to 
produce heat and light. It is fast. 
- Rocket fuel is an example of combustion and the formula is: 2​H2​​ +O​2​→ 2​H2​​ O 
- Fuel + Oxygen ⇀ Water + Carbon Dioxide (Heat and Light)  
● Respiration is a chemical reaction that occurs within all living things involving glucose 
and oxygen reacting to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. 
- The formula for respiration is C​6​H​12​O​6​+6O​2​→ 6CO​2​+6H​2​O 
● Corrosion involves metals combining with oxygen in the air to form metal oxides, such 
as rust. 
- The equation is: metal+oxygen→ metal oxide 
- E.g. Fe + O → FeO 
● Decomposition involves a single reactant breaking apart to form several products. 
- An example equation is: xy→ x+y 
- 2H​g​O → 2H​g​ + O​2  
● Precipitation reaction refers to the formation of an insoluble salt when two solutions 
containing soluble salts are combined. The insoluble salt is known as the precipitate. 
- Soluble(aq) + insoluble (s) → insoluble solid 
● Neutralisation reactions stop the effect of a reaction (acids/bases countering each 
other). 
- An example word equation is: Acid+Base→ Salt + Water 
 
Rates Of Reaction 
● Rate of reaction refers to the speed at which a reaction occurs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Factors Affecting The Rates Of Reaction 
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● Temperature can increase or decrease the rate of reaction. Increasing temperature 
increases the speeds of particles in liquids and gases and gives the particles more 
energy. 
● Increasing concentration of a reaction increases the rate of the reaction because the 
particles are more likely to collide and react when more of them are there. 
● Stirring is known scientifically as Agitation. Agitation increases rates of reactions by 
removing the build up of products around the reactant. 
● Increasing the surface area increases the rate of reaction as their are more particles 
reacting at the same time. 
● Catalysts are chemicals that speed up chemical reaction but are not consumed during 
the reaction. They reduce the amount of energy needed for a reaction as well as making 
it easier for the molecules to collide. 
● Enzymes and heat and movement that creates friction are examples of catalysts. 
 
Cellular Respiration 
● Glucose+oxygen→ carbon dioxide+water+ATP (energy) 
● C​6​H​12​O​6​+6O​2​→ 6CO​2​+6H​2​O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Term 4 Science Notes
Evolution 
 
The Theory Of Evolution 
● Evolution is a change in inheritable traits in a population over time. 
● Microevolution refers to evolution as a change in the genes of a population. 
● Macroevolution refers to the appearance of new species over time. 
 
Homologous vs Analogous Structures 
● Homologous structures are structures that are similar that have similar features due to 
ancestry but perform different functions. 
- For example, pentadactyl limbs, arm bones. 
● Analogous structures are structures that have superficial resemblance due to 
convergent evolution such as a bird and batwing. 
 
Comparative Structures (Comparative Anatomy) 
● Modern and extinct organisms have similarities in structure and function. 
● Many organisms have vestigial structures (structures that are no longer useful to an 
organism but passed on from ancestral organisms). 
- For example, whale flippers have finger bones and humans have tail bones from 
chimps, orangutans, and gorillas. 
 
Embryonic Development 
● Organisms that are closely related may also have physical similarities before they are 
even born. 
● They provide evidence for natural selection because ​the similarities in structure among 
distantly related species are analogous if they evolved independently in similar 
environments. This means that when faced with similar stimulus, species adapt to 
overcome the adversity by only keeping useful traits. 

 
 
 
 Term 4 Science Notes
Fossil Evidence 
● Ancient fossils are similar to modern animals but have differences that are a direct 
result of natural selection. 
● There must be multiple fossils to prove evolution because a single fossil may be subject 
to mutation. 
● Is evidence that there is a constant change over time within species. 
 
DNA Evidence 
● The genetic code (ATCG) is universal and organisms share huge amounts of DNA. 
● DNA and proteins have been used to determine evolutionary relationships. 
● Humans and chimpanzees share over 96% of their DNA. 
 
The Theory Of Natural Selection 
● Charles Darwin was the first to propose the theory of Natural Selection as a 
mechanism for evolution. 
● He concluded that species evolve for specific purposes, with species that are better 
adapted to live in an environment thriving and unsuited species dying out or 
overcoming adversity through adaptations. 
● Essentially, if a principle by which each slight variation [of a trait], if useful, it is 
preserved. 
 
Selective Agents Of Natural Selection 
● Geographical isolation 
● Natural disasters 
● Competition 
● Reproduction rates 
● Predation (Largest Factor) 
● Climate change 
● Disease 
 
Species And Variation 
● A species is classified by their ability to produce fertile offspring. 
● Speciation refers to the formation of new and distinct species in the course of 
evolution. 
● Variation refers to any change in a species caused by genetics or environmental factors. 
- For example, selective breeding favours attractive or fit mating partners, 
therefore causing variation. 
 
Antibiotic Resistance 
● Superbugs that are immune to antibiotics. 
● Pathogens that become resistant to antibiotics are able to reproduce a new generation 
of resistant pathogens. 
● The antibiotic action is an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a 
mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce 
 
 Term 4 Science Notes
 
 
The Peppered Moth 
● The peppered moths were initially white, however, trees became darker during the 
industrial revolution as a result of increased amounts of smoke. 
● White moths became less camouflaged and were more susceptible to predation. 
● The darker moth’s then survived and replaced the white moth population as they were 
less susceptible to predation. 
 
Steps In Speciation 
● Variation: Genetic variation amongst a population. 
● Isolation: A selective pressure is introduced to the population. The most fit to survive 
as a result of genetic variation is able to survive and reproduce, passing on the 
necessary traits for survival. 
● Selection:  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Term 4 Science Notes
Global Systems 
 
The Four Spheres 
● Lithosphere - Land 
● Hydrosphere - Water 
● Atmosphere - Air 
● Biosphere - Life 
 
Effects Of Natural Changes On The Four Spheres 
● Earthquakes 
- Impacts the lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. 
- Depending on the severity, earthquakes can have a massive impact on the 
lithosphere. It may cause parts of the ground to move apart, together, rise or 
subside. 
● Volcanic eruptions 
- Impacts the atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere. 
- The large ash clouds in the short term can produce very heavy rain and 
lightning. In the longer term clouds of ash in the atmosphere reduce the amount 
of sunlight reaching the surface of the earth creating a cooling effect for 
subsequent. 
● Tropical cyclones 
- Impacts the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. 
- The torrential rain and floods can cause erosion of the land and waterways. 
Sediments carried into rivers can also the river mouth. Cyclones also uproot 
trees, ruining habitats and washing the animals and plants unit flooded rivers. 
 
Nitrogen Cycle 
● Air is 78% nitrogen. 
● Ammonia and nitrates in the soil undergo nitrogen fixation 
● Nitrates oxide comes from the factories 
● Nitrogen goes back into the ground through decomposition 
● Ammonia is put back into the ground through animal waste 
 
Carbon Cycle 
● Carbon is released into the atmosphere through combustion of fossil fuels in factories. 
● Carbon is then absorbed by plants through photosynthesis 
● Plants and animals undergo cellular respiration and release CO2 back into the 
atmosphere. 
● Some carbon is stored in plants and then travels through food webs until the animals 
die and decompose. 
● After decomposition the carbon is fossilised after millions of years. 
 Term 4 Science Notes

 
 
Water Cycle 
● Water is one of the most precious resources on Earth and is essential to all living things. 
● Water on Earth is continuously recycled through the water cycle. 

 
 
 
Weather And Climate 
● Weather describes the state of the atmosphere in terms of temperature, wind, cloud 
cover and precipitation. 
● Weather is created through interactions with the hydro, litho and atmosphere. 
● Weather changes from day to day and sometimes there are extreme events. 
● Climate is the long term average of weather conditions. It is described by data that uses 
averages calculated from 30 years of weather records. The data includes extreme 
weather events. 
 Term 4 Science Notes
 
Evidence Of Climate Change 
● Ice ages: 
- An ice age is a period of colder global temperatures and recurring glacial 
expansion capable of lasting hundreds of millions of years. 
- Are evidence that the Earth’s climate is cyclical and goes through glacial 
periods. 
● Seasons: 
- Summer, autumn, spring and winter are proof that the Earth’s climate is cyclical. 
● Glaciers: 
- They advance when the climate cools and retreat when it warms. 
- Glacial positions are constantly changing. 
● Global Warming: 
- Interglacials are periods of global warming and during interglacials, ice caps 
melt causing the sea level to rise and coastal lands to flood. 
- The scale of human impact is relatively unknown due to the limited amount of 
data regarding temperature over time. 
● Ice cores: 
- On some glaciers and ice sheets, snowfall creates recognisable annual layers. 
- Scientists analyse these ice cores to find data about temperature and the 
composition of the earth from hundreds of thousands of years ago. 
- It reveals information about temperature, sea levels and carbon dioxide levels 
in the air. 
● Sea levels: 
- The distribution of sedimentary rocks and the types of fossils found in them are 
indicators of changes in sea level. 
 
Reasons For Climate Change 
● Increased amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: 
- The enhanced greenhouse effect is caused by human activities such as the 
burning of fossil fuels for energy, large scale cattle farming and the clearing of 
bushland. 
- Fossil fuels are carbon reservoirs, meaning that when burnt, the energy is 
extracted from the material and the carbon is emitted into the atmosphere. 
- Cattle farming accounts for 10% of all methane emissions on Earth as the cows 
fart a lot. 
 
● CFCs 
- Chlorofluorocarbons are very stable compounds until they are exposed to high 
UV radiation, such as those found high in the atmosphere. 
- CFCs then break down releasing chlorine, the most effective destructor of 
ozone. 
 
 
 
 Term 4 Science Notes
Greenhouse Effect 
● The most common greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, 
nitrous oxide. 
● The greenhouse effect refers to gases in the Earth’s atmosphere trapping heat, which 
raises the temperature as less heat is lost in space. 
● The greenhouse effect makes the Earth 33° warmer, which allows life to exist. 
● The enhanced greenhouse effect refers to human activities increasing the quantity of 
greenhouse gases in the air, which in turn traps more heat in the atmosphere and raises 
temperatures further. 
● As the climate warms melting ice caps would release greater amounts of carbon into 
the hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere, further enhancing the greenhouse 
effect. 
 

 
Impacts Of The Sun And Vegetation On Climate Change 
● Vegetation cools the climate due to vapour released into the atmosphere during 
photosynthesis. The transpired water then causes rain. 
● Vegetation also provides shade and shields the environment from wind. 
● The sun is the primary source of energy in the Earth’s climate, however, it has played 
little role in climate change. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Term 4 Science Notes

Moving Through The Universe 

 
Cosmology 
● Cosmology is the science of the origin and development of the universe. 
● The most widely accepted theory in modern cosmology is the big bang theory. 
● In the early 16th century, Copernicus published his work that placed the sun at the 
centre of a heliocentric model. The time for each planet to orbit the sun matched their 
established position in the solar system. 
 
Christian Creation Story 
● Similarities to the Big Bang Theory: 
- The genesis creation story states that in the beginning there was darkness and 
then there was light.  
● Differences to the Big Bang Theory: 
- The genesis creation story states that the Earth before all others, whereas 
everything was created almost instantly. 
 
Steady-State Theory 
● It was a cosmology theory first put forward in 1948 by Fred Hoyle. 
● An Infinite universe with no beginning and no end to the universe. 
● States that matter continues to be produced, which is why the universe expands. 
● It refers to the view that the universe is always expanding. 
 
Comparison Of Theories 

Steady-State Theory  Similarities  Big Bang Theory 

● Universe has always  ● Universe is  ● Universe began 

existed.  expanding.  about 13.5 billion 
● Universe is  years ago in a big 
expanding.  bang. 
● Matter is continually  ● All the matter was 
created.  created in a big bang. 
 
 
Einstein’s Static Universe Theory 
● Einstein didn’t agree with the idea that the universe has a beginning and an end, instead 
opting towards the theory that the universe was infinite and eternal. 
● Einstein's cosmological constant was a force that opposes gravity. Einstein believed 
that gravity would have collapsed the universe upon itself if it weren’t for the 
expanding cosmological constant that opposed this force. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Term 4 Science Notes
Big Bang Theory 
● Lamaitre was a pioneer of the early Big Bang Theory. 
● The universe will either: 
- Keep expanding forever. 
- It will stop expanding and start contracting, contracting upon itself. 
- It will reach an equilibrium position and stop. 
1. Started with a super atom containing all energy and matter in the universe. 
2. There was a huge explosion and the universe inflated into existence. 
3. The galaxies are still moving away from us, the more distant the galaxy, the faster it is 
going. 
4. The universe is still expanding. 
 
Evidence For The Big Bang Theory 
● Redshift proves that stars are moving away from the Earth. 
● The Big Bang theory explains the abundance of hydrogen and helium and the lower 
amounts of other elements. 
● Afterglow is the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR). It is remnant heat 
of the initial explosion that tells us how old the universe is. It is the energy from the Big 
Bang and fills the universe. 
 
Doppler Effect 
● When an object emitting waves moves towards an observer, the frequency of the wave 
is perceived higher to the observer as the crest of each pulse moves closer together, 
creating a high-frequency wave. 
● The effect is important in astronomy as when observing light sources such as stars, the 
light is emitted in electromagnetic waves, meaning that the same Doppler effect 
applies. When a star moves towards an observer, the wave lengths are compressed, 
which alters the colour seen in an effect known as blueshift. 
● The doppler effect has been used to prove that the universe is still expanding, as more 
objects are detected moving away from Earth. 

 
 
 
 
 
 Term 4 Science Notes
 
Major Features Of The Universe 
● Milky may is our galaxy. 
● A nebula is a gas cloud. 
● A black hole is the end of the life cycle of a star, is infinitely dense and has enormous 
gravity. 
● A planet is a thicccc celestial object which orbits a star. 
● For an average star to turn into a red giant, it must have run out of hydrogen fuel. 
● A supernova is a large explosion. 
 
Stars 
● Stars have life cycles and appear differently at each stage. 
● All-Star life cycles start with a Nebula, which is a huge cloud of matter that is used to 
burn for billions of years. 
● The two types of stars are sun size and massive size. 
● As the star uses up its6 materials to fuse, it expands to huge sizes. 
● Sun size: 
- The outer shell drifts off into space. 
- Leftover core is a white dwarf. 
- Over millions of years, it cools into a black dwarf. 
● Massive star: 
- Supernova explosion. 
- It can form a black hole or a neutron star.