Statistics is a form of mathematical analysis that uses quantified models, representations and synopses

for a given set of experimental data or real-life studies. Statistics studies methodologies to gather,
review, analyze and draw conclusions from data. 

The two main branches of statistics are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Both of these are
employed in scientific analysis of data and both are equally important for the student of statistics.

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics deals with the presentation and collection of data. This is usually the first part of a
statistical analysis. It is usually not as simple as it sounds, and the statistician needs to be aware of
designing experiments, choosing the right focus group and avoid biases that are so easy to creep into
the experiment.

Different areas of study require different kinds of analysis using descriptive statistics. For example, a
physicist studying turbulence in the laboratory needs the average quantities that vary over small
intervals of time. The nature of this problem requires that physical quantities be averaged from a host of
data collected through the experiment.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics, as the name suggests, involves drawing the right conclusions from the statistical
analysis that has been performed using descriptive statistics. In the end, it is the inferences that make
studies important and this aspect is dealt with in inferential statistics.

Most predictions of the future and generalizations about a population by studying a smaller sample

come under the purview of inferential statistics. Most social sciences experiments deal with studying a
small sample population that helps determine how the population in general behaves. By designing the
right experiment, the researcher is able to draw conclusions relevant to his study.

While drawing conclusions, one needs to be very careful so as not to draw

the wrong or biased conclusions. Even though this appears like a science, there are ways in which one
can manipulate studies and results through various means. For example, data dredging is increasingly
becoming a problem as computers hold loads of information and it is easy, either intentionally or
unintentionally, to use the wrong inferential methods.

Both descriptive and inferential statistics go hand in hand and one cannot exist without the other.
Good scientific methodology needs to be followed in both these steps of statistical analysis and both
these branches of statistics are equally important for a researcher.

What is Descriptive Statistics?

Descriptive statistics are brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set, which can be
either a representation of the entire or a sample of a population. Descriptive statistics are broken down
into measures of central tendency and measures of variability (spread). Measures of central tendency
include the mean, median and mode, while measures of variability include standard deviation, variance,
minimum and maximum variables, and kurtosis and skewn

Understanding Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics, in short, help describe and understand the features of a specific data set by giving
short summaries about the sample and measures of the data. The most recognized types of descriptive
statistics are measures of center: the mean, median and mode, which are used at almost all levels of
math and statistics. The mean, or the average, is calculated by adding all the figures within the data set
and then dividing by the number of figures within the set. For example, the sum of the following data
set is 20: (2, 3, 4, 5, 6). The mean is 4 (20/5). The mode of a data set is the value appearing most often,
and the median is the figure situated in the middle of the data set. It is the figure separating the higher
figures from the lower figures within a data set. However, there are less common types of descriptive
statistics that are still very important.

People use descriptive statistics to repurpose hard-to-understand quantitative insights across a large
data set into bite-sized descriptions. A student's grade point average (GPA), for example, provides a
good understanding of descriptive statistics. The idea of a GPA is that it takes data points from a wide
range of exams, classes and grades, and averages them together to provide a general understanding of a
student's overall academic performance. A student's personal GPA reflects their mean academic
performance.

A measure of central tendency is a summary statistic that represents the center point or typical value of
a dataset. These measures indicate where most values in a distribution fall and are also referred to as
the central location of a distribution. You can think of it as the tendency of data to cluster around a
middle value. In statistics, the three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, median,
and mode. Each of these measures calculates the location of the central point using a different method.

Measures of Central Tendency

Introduction

A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying the
central position within that set of data. As such, measures of central tendency are sometimes called
measures of central location. They are also classed as summary statistics. The mean (often called the
average) is most likely the measure of central tendency that you are most familiar with, but there are
others, such as the median and the mode.

The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under different conditions,
some measures of central tendency become more appropriate to use than others. In the following
sections, we will look at the mean, mode and median, and learn how to calculate them and under what
conditions they are most appropriate to be used.

Mean (Arithmetic)

The mean (or average) is the most popular and well known measure of central tendency. It can be used
with both discrete and continuous data, although its use is most often with continuous data (see
our Types of Variable guide for data types). The mean is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set
divided by the number of values in the data set. So, if we have n values in a data set and they have
values x1,x2, …,xn, the sample mean, usually denoted by x¯ (pronounced "x bar"), is:

This formula is usually written in a slightly different manner using the Greek capitol letter, ∑,
pronounced "sigma", which means "sum of...":

x¯=∑xn

You may have noticed that the above formula refers to the sample mean. So, why have we called it a
sample mean? This is because, in statistics, samples and populations have very different meanings and
these differences are very important, even if, in the case of the mean, they are calculated in the same
way. To acknowledge that we are calculating the population mean and not the sample mean, we use the
Greek lower case letter "mu", denoted as μ:

μ=∑xn

The mean is essentially a model of your data set. It is the value that is most common. You will notice,
however, that the mean is not often one of the actual values that you have observed in your data set.
However, one of its important properties is that it minimises error in the prediction of any one value in
your data set. That is, it is the value that produces the lowest amount of error from all other values in
the data set.

An important property of the mean is that it includes every value in your data set as part of the
calculation. In addition, the mean is the only measure of central tendency where the sum of the
deviations of each value from the mean is always zero.

When not to use the mean

The mean has one main disadvantage: it is particularly susceptible to the influence of outliers. These are
values that are unusual compared to the rest of the data set by being especially small or large in
numerical value. For example, consider the wages of staff at a factory below:

Staff 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Salary 15k 18k 16k 14k 15k 15k 12k 17k 90k 95k

The mean salary for these ten staff is $30.7k. However, inspecting the raw data suggests that this mean
value might not be the best way to accurately reflect the typical salary of a worker, as most workers
have salaries in the $12k to 18k range. The mean is being skewed by the two large salaries. Therefore, in
this situation, we would like to have a better measure of central tendency. As we will find out later,
taking the median would be a better measure of central tendency in this situation.

Another time when we usually prefer the median over the mean (or mode) is when our data is skewed
(i.e., the frequency distribution for our data is skewed). If we consider the normal distribution - as this is
the most frequently assessed in statistics - when the data is perfectly normal, the mean, median and
mode are identical. Moreover, they all represent the most typical value in the data set. However, as the
data becomes skewed the mean loses its ability to provide the best central location for the data because
the skewed data is dragging it away from the typical value. However, the median best retains this
position and is not as strongly influenced by the skewed values. This is explained in more detail in the
skewed distribution section later in this guide.

Median

The median is the middle score for a set of data that has been arranged in order of magnitude. The
median is less affected by outliers and skewed data. In order to calculate the median, suppose we have
the data below:

65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92

We first need to rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):

14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89 92

Our median mark is the middle mark - in this case, 56 (highlighted in bold). It is the middle mark because
there are 5 scores before it and 5 scores after it. This works fine when you have an odd number of
scores, but what happens when you have an even number of scores? What if you had only 10 scores?
Well, you simply have to take the middle two scores and average the result. So, if we look at the
example below:

65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45

We again rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):

14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89

Only now we have to take the 5th and 6th score in our data set and average them to get a median of
55.5.

Mode

The mode is the most frequent score in our data set. On a histogram it represents the highest bar in a
bar chart or histogram. You can, therefore, sometimes consider the mode as being the most popular
option. An example of a mode is presented below:
Normally, the mode is used for categorical data where we wish to know which is the most common
category, as illustrated below:
We can see above that the most common form of transport, in this particular data set, is the bus.
However, one of the problems with the mode is that it is not unique, so it leaves us with problems when
we have two or more values that share the highest frequency, such as below:
We are now stuck as to which mode best describes the central tendency of the data. This is particularly
problematic when we have continuous data because we are more likely not to have any one value that
is more frequent than the other. For example, consider measuring 30 peoples' weight (to the nearest 0.1
kg). How likely is it that we will find two or more people with exactly the same weight (e.g., 67.4 kg)?
The answer, is probably very unlikely - many people might be close, but with such a small sample (30
people) and a large range of possible weights, you are unlikely to find two people with exactly the same
weight; that is, to the nearest 0.1 kg. This is why the mode is very rarely used with continuous data.

Another problem with the mode is that it will not provide us with a very good measure of central
tendency when the most common mark is far away from the rest of the data in the data set, as depicted
in the diagram below:
In the above diagram the mode has a value of 2. We can clearly see, however, that the mode is not
representative of the data, which is mostly concentrated around the 20 to 30 value range. To use the
mode to describe the central tendency of this data set would be misleading.

Skewed Distributions and the Mean and Median

We often test whether our data is normally distributed because this is a common assumption underlying
many statistical tests. An example of a normally distributed set of data is presented below:
When you have a normally distributed sample you can legitimately use both the mean or the median as
your measure of central tendency. In fact, in any symmetrical distribution the mean, median and mode
are equal. However, in this situation, the mean is widely preferred as the best measure of central
tendency because it is the measure that includes all the values in the data set for its calculation, and any
change in any of the scores will affect the value of the mean. This is not the case with the median or
mode.

However, when our data is skewed, for example, as with the right-skewed data set below:
We find that the mean is being dragged in the direct of the skew. In these situations, the median is
generally considered to be the best representative of the central location of the data. The more skewed
the distribution, the greater the difference between the median and mean, and the greater emphasis
should be placed on using the median as opposed to the mean. A classic example of the above right-
skewed distribution is income (salary), where higher-earners provide a false representation of the
typical income if expressed as a mean and not a median.

If dealing with a normal distribution, and tests of normality show that the data is non-normal, it is
customary to use the median instead of the mean. However, this is more a rule of thumb than a strict
guideline. Sometimes, researchers wish to report the mean of a skewed distribution if the median and
mean are not appreciably different (a subjective assessment), and if it allows easier comparisons to
previous research to be made.

Summary of when to use the mean, median and mode

Please use the following summary table to know what the best measure of central tendency is with
respect to the different types of variable.

Measures of Variability: Range, Interquartile Range, Variance, and Standard Deviation

By Jim Frost 49 Comments

A measure of variability is a summary statistic that represents the amount of dispersion in a dataset.
How spread out are the values? While a measure of central tendency describes the typical value,
measures of variability define how far away the data points tend to fall from the center. We talk about
variability in the context of a distribution of values. A low dispersion indicates that the data points tend
to be clustered tightly around the center. High dispersion signifies that they tend to fall further away.

In statistics, variability, dispersion, and spread are synonyms that denote the width of the distribution.
Just as there are multiple measures of central tendency, there are several measures of variability. In this
blog post, you’ll learn why understanding the variability of your data is critical. Then, I explore the most
common measures of variability—the range, interquartile range, variance, and standard deviation. I’ll
help you determine which one is best for your data.

The two plots below show the difference graphically for distributions with the same mean but more and
less dispersion. The panel on the left shows a distribution that is tightly clustered around the average,
while the distribution in the right panel is more spread out.

Why Understanding Variability is Important

Let’s take a step back and first get a handle on why understanding variability is so essential. Analysts
frequently use the mean to summarize the center of a population or a process. While the mean is
relevant, people often react to variability even more. When a distribution has lower variability, the
values in a dataset are more consistent. However, when the variability is higher, the data points are
more dissimilar and extreme values become more likely. Consequently, understanding variability helps
you grasp the likelihood of unusual events.

In some situations, extreme values can cause problems! Have you seen a weather report where the
meteorologist shows extreme heat and drought in one area and flooding in another? It would be nice to
average those together! Frequently, we feel discomfort at the extremes more than the mean.
Understanding that variability around the mean provides critical information.

Variability is everywhere. Your commute time to work varies a bit every day. When you order a favorite
dish at a restaurant repeatedly, it isn’t exactly the same each time. The parts that come off an assembly
line might appear to be identical, but they have subtly different lengths and widths.

These are all examples of real-life variability. Some degree of variation is unavoidable. However, too
much inconsistency can cause problems. If your morning commute takes much longer than the mean
travel time, you will be late for work. If the restaurant dish is much different than how it is usually, you
might not like it at all. And, if a manufactured part is too much out of spec, it won’t function as intended.

Some variation is inevitable, but problems occur at the extremes. Distributions with greater variability
produce observations with unusually large and small values more frequently than distributions with less
variability.

Example of Different Amounts of Variability

Let’s take a look at two hypothetical pizza restaurants. They both advertise a mean delivery time of 20
minutes. When we’re ravenous, they both sound equally good! However, this equivalence can be
deceptive! To determine the restaurant that you should order from when you’re hungry, we need to
analyze their variability.

Suppose we study their delivery times, calculate the variability for each place, and determine that their
variabilities are different. We’ve computed the standard deviations for both restaurants—which is a
measure that we’ll come back to later in this post. How significant is this difference in getting pizza to
their customers prom

The graphs below display the distribution of delivery times and provide the answer. The restaurant with
more variable delivery times has the broader distribution curve. I’ve used the same scales in both graphs
so you can visually compare the two distributions.
In these graphs, we consider a 30-minute wait or longer to be unacceptable. We’re hungry after all! The
shaded area in each chart represents the proportion of delivery times that surpass 30 minutes. Nearly
16% of the deliveries for the high variability restaurant exceed 30 minutes. On the other hand, only 2%
of the deliveries take too long with the low variability restaurant. They both have an average delivery
time of 20 minutes, but I know where I’d place my order when I’m hungry!

As this example shows, the central tendency doesn’t provide complete information. We also need to
understand the variability around the middle of the distribution to get the full picture. Now, let’s move
on to the different ways of measuring variability!

Range

Let’s start with the range because it is the most straightforward measure of variability to calculate and
the simplest to understand. The range of a dataset is the difference between the largest and smallest
values in that dataset. For example, in the two datasets below, dataset 1 has a range of 20 – 38 = 18
while dataset 2 has a range of 11 – 52 = 41. Dataset 2 has a broader range and, hence, more variability
than dataset 1.
While the range is easy to understand, it is based on only the two most extreme values in the dataset,
which makes it very susceptible to outliers. If one of those numbers is unusually high or low, it affects
the entire range even if it is atypical.

Additionally, the size of the dataset affects the range. In general, you are less likely to observe extreme
values. However, as you increase the sample size, you have more opportunities to obtain these extreme
values. Consequently, when you draw random samples from the same population, the range tends to
increase as the sample size increases. Consequently, use the range to compare variability only when the
sample sizes are similar.

The Interquartile Range (IQR) . . . and other Percentiles

The interquartile range is the middle half of the data. To visualize it, think about the median value that
splits the dataset in half. Similarly, you can divide the data into quarters. Statisticians refer to these
quarters as quartiles and denote them from low to high as Q1, Q2, and Q3. The lowest quartile (Q1)
contains the quarter of the dataset with the smallest values. The upper quartile (Q4) contains the
quarter of the dataset with the highest values. The interquartile range is the middle half of the data that
is in between the upper and lower quartiles. In other words, the interquartile range includes the 50% of
data points that fall between Q1 and Q3. The IQR is the red area in the graph below.

The interquartile range is a robust measure of variability in a similar manner that the median is a robust
measure of central tendency. Neither measure is influenced dramatically by outliers because they don’t
depend on every value. Additionally, the interquartile range is excellent for skewed distributions, just
like the median. As you’ll learn, when you have a normal distribution, the standard deviation tells you
the percentage of observations that fall specific distances from the mean. However, this doesn’t work
for skewed distributions, and the IQR is a great alternative.
I’ve divided the dataset below into quartiles. The interquartile range (IQR) extends from the low end of
Q2 to the upper limit of Q3. For this dataset, the range is 21 – 39.

Using other percentiles

When you have a skewed distribution, I find that reporting the median with the interquartile range is a
particularly good combination. The interquartile range is equivalent to the region between the 75th and
25th percentile (75 – 25 = 50% of the data). You can also use other percentiles to determine the spread
of different proportions. For example, the range between the 97.5th percentile and the 2.5th percentile
covers 95% of the data. The broader these ranges, the higher the variability in your dataset.

Related post: Percentiles: Interpretations and Calculations

Variance

Variance is the average squared difference of the values from the mean. Unlike the previous measures
of variability, the variance includes all values in the calculation by comparing each value to the mean. To
calculate this statistic, you calculate a set of squared differences between the data points and the mean,
sum them, and then divide by the number of observations. Hence, it’s the average squared difference.

There are two formulas for the variance depending on whether you are calculating the variance for an
entire population or using a sample to estimate the population variance. The equations are below, and
then I work through an example in a table to help bring it to life.

Population variance

The formula for the variance of an entire population is the following:

In the equation, σ2 is the population parameter for the variance, μ is the parameter for the population
mean, and N is the number of data points, which should include the entire population.

Sample variance

To use a sample to estimate the variance for a population, use the following formula. Using the previous
equation with sample data tends to underestimate the variability. Because it’s usually impossible to
measure an entire population, statisticians use the equation for sample variances much more
frequently.

In the equation, s2 is the sample variance, and M is the sample mean. N-1 in the denominator corrects
for the tendency of a sample to underestimate the population variance.

Example of calculating the sample variance

I’ll work through an example using the formula for a sample on a dataset with 17 observations in the
table below. The numbers in parentheses represent the corresponding table column number. The
procedure involves taking each observation (1), subtracting the sample mean (2) to calculate the
difference (3), and squaring that difference (4). Then, I sum the squared differences at the bottom of the
table. Finally, I take the sum and divide by 16 because I’m using the sample variance equation with 17
observations (17 – 1 = 16). The variance for this dataset is 201.
Because the calculations use the squared differences, the variance is in squared units rather the original
units of the data. While higher values of the variance indicate greater variability, there is no intuitive
interpretation for specific values. Despite this limitation, various statistical tests use the variance in their
calculations. For an example, read my post about the F-test and ANOVA.

While it is difficult to interpret the variance itself, the standard deviation resolves this problem!

Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is the standard or typical difference between each data point and the mean.
When the values in a dataset are grouped closer together, you have a smaller standard deviation. On
the other hand, when the values are spread out more, the standard deviation is larger because the
standard distance is greater.

Conveniently, the standard deviation uses the original units of the data, which makes interpretation
easier. Consequently, the standard deviation is the most widely used measure of variability. For
example, in the pizza delivery example, a standard deviation of 5 indicates that the typical delivery time
is plus or minus 5 minutes from the mean. It’s often reported along with the mean: 20 minutes (s.d. 5).

The standard deviation is just the square root of the variance. Recall that the variance is in squared
units. Hence, the square root returns the value to the natural units. The symbol for the standard
deviation as a population parameter is σ while s represents it as a sample estimate. To calculate the
standard deviation, calculate the variance as shown above, and then take the square root of it. Voila!
You have the standard deviation!

In the variance section, we calculated a variance of 201 in the table.

Therefore, the standard deviation for that dataset is 14.177.

The Empirical Rule for the Standard Deviation of a Normal Distribution

When you have normally distributed data, or approximately so, the standard deviation becomes
particularly valuable. You can use it to determine the proportion of the values that fall within a specified
number of standard deviations from the mean. For example, in a normal distribution, 68% of the values
will fall within +/- 1 standard deviation from the mean. This property is part of the Empirical Rule. This
rule describes the percentage of the data that fall within specific numbers of standard deviations from
the mean for bell-shaped curves.

Mean +/- standard deviations Percentage of data contained

1 68%

2 95%

3 99.7%

Let’s take another look at the pizza delivery example where we have a mean delivery time of 20 minutes
and a standard deviation of 5 minutes. Using the Empirical Rule, we can use the mean and standard
deviation to determine that 68% of the delivery times will fall between 15-25 minutes (20 +/- 5) and 95%
will fall between 10-30 minutes (20 +/- 2*5).

Which is Best—the Range, Interquartile Range, or Standard Deviation?

First off, you probably notice that I didn’t include the variance as one of the options in the heading
above. That’s because the variance is in squared units and doesn’t provide an intuitive interpretation.
So, I’ve crossed that off the list. Let’s go over the other three measures of variability.

When you are comparing samples that are the same size, consider using the range as the measure of
variability. It’s a reasonably intuitive statistic. Just be aware that a single outlier can throw the range off.
The range is particularly suitable for small samples when you don’t have enough data to calculate the
other measures reliably, and the likelihood of obtaining an outlier is also lower.

When you have a skewed distribution, the median is a better measure of central tendency, and it makes
sense to pair it with either the interquartile range or other percentile-based ranges because all of these
statistics divide the dataset into groups with specific proportions.

For normally distributed data, or even data that aren’t terribly skewed, using the tried and true
combination reporting the mean and the standard deviation is the way to go. This combination is by far
the most common. You can still supplement this approach with percentile-base ranges as you need.
I.Paksa/PamagatLupang Tinubuan ni Narciso G. ReyesII.Pangunahing KaisipanAng gustong ipaalaam o
nais ipaunawa ng manunulat kung bakitisang parusa na umalis o ipatapon sa ibsang lugar mula sa
iyongtinubuang lupa.III.BuodUmalis patungong malawaig sina Danding at ang kaniyang tiya Juanaupang
mang makiramay sa yumaong tiyo na kapatid ng kaniyang ama.Pagkadating sa nasabing lugar ay agad na
ipinakilala si Danding ng kaniyangtiya sa kanilang mga kamag-anak, tiya, tiyo at mga pinsan. Pagkapasok
sabulwagan ay naramdaman agad niya ang katahimikan, agad siyangdumiretso sa kabaong at
pinagmasdan ang mukha na may pagkahawig sakaniyang ama. Pagkatapos mananghalian ay nagtungo
ito sa bukid at unuposa ilalim ng mga puno. Nakita niya ang kaniyang lolo tasyo atnakipagkwentuhan
dito tungkol s akaniyang ama. Ang pagsasaranggola sabukid, ang pagkahulog s akalabaw, ang pagtago sa
mga kastila at angpagsulat ng tula. Inilibing na ang kaniyang tiyo at napuno ang lugar na iyonng mga
hikbi, siyang nilamon ng lungkot kaya siya’y naunang umalis. Ibigmapag isa kaya agad siyang nagpunta s
abukid. Nagmuni-muni atpinakiramdaman ang hangin, di naansing gabi na at siya’y tinatawag
na.Ngayo’y kaniyang hawak ang pag-ibig sa lupang tinubuan at naunawaankung bakit isang parusa ang
umalis o ipatapon mula s alupang tinubuan.IV.Pangsuportang DetalyeTauhan-Danding – Isang batang
naghahanap ng kasagutan mula salupang tinubuan ng kaniyang ama.Tiya Juana -Tiya ni Danding na
nagsama sa kaniya sa malawig
Lolo Tasyo -nagkwento tungkol sa kaniyang ama.Tagpuan-Sa malawig kung saan namatay ang
kaniyang Tiyo.Suliranin-Matinding paghihinagpis at lungkot buhat ng pagkamatay ngkamag-
anak.Damdamin-Lungkot ang aking naramdaman dahil alam ko angpakiramdam na mawalan ng
kamag anak.Konklusyon-Nakakalungkot naman talagang mawalan lalo na kung ito’ykadugo mo ngunit
masayang Makita kung saan lumaki atnagkaisip ang mga mahal mo sa buhay.Talasalitaan-Itinukod –
InilagayNaulila – nawalanGunita – alaalaPulutong – GrupoNasulyapan – nakitaV.Bisang Taglay ng
TekstoBisang Pandamdamin-Nakakalungkot ang nangyari at ramdam koang hinagpis ng nawalan
sapagkat ito’y aking naranasanBisang Pangkaisipan-Nagsasama-sama lahat ng magkakadugotuwing
nawawalan o kaya naman tuwing may pagdiriwang lamang.Bisang Pangkaasalan-Dati ay gusto kong
umalis sa akingkinagisnang bayan at pumunta sa iba’t-ibang pook ngunit ngayon,ganun pala magiging
kasabik bumalik sa iyong tinubuang lupa kapagika’y umalis.

Lupang Tinubuan Narciso G. Reyes

Lupang Tinubuan

Narciso G. Reyes

            Ang kwentong Lupang Tinubuan nabuo tungo sa karanasan sa buhay ng awtor.  Pinapakita din
dito ang kasaysayan ay  bahagi ng pagkahubog at bahagi ng buhay ng tao at ng mundo.

            Nagpapahiwatig sa bawat tauhan sa kwentong Lupang Tinubuan na dapat balikan mo ang lugar
kung saan ka ipinanganak at nagkamulat. Ang mga tauhan sa kwento ay si Danding, Tiya Juana, Tiyo
Gorio, Tata Inong at Lolo Tasyo.

            Ang pamilya ang pinaka-ugat ng isang komunidad at mahalaga ang pamilya sa pagbuo ng
sambayanan at ang magkaroon ka ng isang tunay na pamilya na may pagmamahalan ay napakalaking
nang kayamanan na maituturing. 

Sa kabuuan ng kwento na dapat kung saan tayo pinanganak, saan tayo namuhay at nakaranas ng ating
pagkabata ay dapat balikan natin ito at huwag natin kalimutan.

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang karanasan ng isang lipi ng tao na siyang masasalamin sa
kasaysayan ay bahagi ng kanyang pagkahubog. Nais din nitong ipakita na ang kasaysayan ay bahagi ng
buhay ng tao at ng mundo. Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang kalagayan at suliraning panlipunan ng
lipunang kinabibilangan ng may-akda. Naipakikita rito ang pamaraan ng mga tauhan sa pagsugpo sa
suliranin o kalagayan ng lipunan na nagsisilbing gabay sa mga mambabasa sa magpuksa sa mga katulad
na suliranin. Ang ating susuriing kwento ay ang “LUPANG TINUBUAN” ni Narciso Reyes. Ang kwentong
ito ay nagkamit ng parangal. Ang mga tauhan dito ay sina Danding, ang pangunahing tauhan, Juana at
Tiyo Gorio. Isa si Danding, kasama ang kanyang Tiya Juana at Tiyo Gorio sa mga taong naroon na uuwi sa
lalawigan upang makipaglibing sa kanyang Tata Inong na pinsan ng kanyang ama. Sa kanyang pag-uwi ay
marami pala siyang mga kamag-anak sa Malawig. At doon niya nakilala ang kanyang mga di-kilalang
kamag-anak. Isa nga sa mga kamag-anak niya ay si Lolo Tasyo. Nagkuwento ang matanda kay Danding
tugkol sa knayang Ama. Masasabing nabibilang ito sa toeryang historikal sapagkat gumamit ang awtor
ng flashback sa buhay ng isang tauhan sa kwento. Nabibilang iton sa teoryang historikal spagkat
tumutukoy ito sa mga kwento ng isang matanda sa pinagdaanan ng ama ni Danding noong bata pa siya.
’Kaparis ka ng iyong ama,’ ’Ang batang ito! Ako ang nagbaon ng inunan ng ama mo. Ako ang gumawa ng
mga una niyang laruan. Naulila agad siya sa ama.’ Doon siya malimit magpalipad ng saranggola noong
bata pa siyang munti. Sa kabilang pitak siya nahulog sa kalabaw, nang minsang sumama siya sa akin sa
pag-araro. Nasaktan siya noon, ang akala ko’y hindi siya titigil sa kaiiyak.’ Sa itaas ng punong ito
pinaakyat ko at pinagtago ang ama mo isang hapon, noong kainitan ng himagsikan, nang mabalitaang
may mga huramentadong Kastila na paparito. At doon, sa kinauupuan mo kanina, doon niya isinulat ang
kauna- unahan niyang tula-isang maikling papuri sa kagandahan ng isa sa mga dalagang nakilala niya sa
bayan. May tagong kapilyuhan ang ama mo.’ Ang mga katagang iyan ang ginamit ng awtor upang
magbalik-tanaw sa mga pangyayari sa kwento. Kung ating papansinin ang katagang ito: pagsasaranggola
sa bukid, ang pagkahulog sa kalabaw, dalaga sa bunton ng palay, ang lahat ay nananariwa sa kanyang
gunita ng isang tao o indibidwal. Para bagang isa itong karanasan ng isang tao. Ang mga ito ay
masasalamin sa kasaysayan ay bahagi ng kanyang pagkahubog ng awtor. Naipakikita rin rito ang
pamaraan ng mga tauhan sa pagsugpo sa suliranin kagaya ni Danding nabigyan ng linaw ang kanyanmg
mha tanong tungko sa kanyang ama. Sa sandaling iyon ay tila hawak ni Danding sa palad ang lihim ng
tinatawag na pag-ibig sa lupang tinubuan. Nauunawaan niya kung bakit ang pagkakatapon sa ibang
bansa ay napakabigat na parusa, at kung bakit ang mga nawawalay na anak ay sumasalungat sa bagyo at
baha makauwi lamang sa Inang Bayan. Kung bakit walang atubiling naghain ng dugo sina Rizal at
Bonifacio. Dito na pumasok ang teoryang historikal dahil nabanggit ng may-akda ang kadakilaan ng ating
mga bayani na si Rizal at Bonifacio. Hindi man deretsahang sianbi ng may-akda na nabuwis ng buhay ang
dalawang bayani ginamit niya naman ang dugo upang maging simbolo sa katapangan ng mga ito

Pagmamahal ay isang bagay na hindi natin maitatanggi at maikakaila bilang parte ng buhay natin dito sa
kinalulugmukan nating lupa. Pagmamahal sa sarili, sa kapwa, sa pamilya, kaibigan at lalung-lalo na sa
ating sariling bayan at bansa.

Ako, bilang isang mamamayan ng bansang Pilipinas, at bilang isang Filipino na labing-walong taon ng
namamalagi dito sa ating bayan ay nararapat magpamalas ng wagas at walang katulad na pag-big,
pagmamahal, pagrespeto at pagkalinga sa ating bansa.  Ang ating inang bayan na nagbigay tahanan sa
akin maging sa mga mahal ko sa buhay. Ang ating inang bayan na nagbigay ng maraming oportunidad
para makita at maramdaman ang mga iba’t-ibang bagay na nagbigay at magbibigay pa ng kulay sa aking
nag-iisang buhay. At ang ating inang bayan na walang sawang tayo ay kalingain at yapusin, tayo man ay
pansamantala o permanenteng lumisan.

“Kalakip din nito’y pag-ibig sa Bayan ang lahat ng lalong sa gunita’y mahal, mula sa masaya’t gasong
kasanggulan hanggang sa katawa’y mapasa-libingan.” Isang simpleng linyang ako ay nabighani at isang
simpleng linyang  nagpapahayag ng mga mahalagang mensahe. Sinasaad nito na ang ating sariling bansa,
na sa akin ay naghandog ng iba’t-ibang ligaya, sa sarili nating baya’y ako’y nakakilala ng mabubuting
kaibigan,sa sariling baya’y ako’y natutong umibig sa kapwa, sa sarili nating bayan ako’y nagpamalas ng
iba’t-ibang kakayahan, sa sarili nating bayan ko naramdaman ang pag-ibig, dalamhati, pighati, lubos na
kaligayahan at kasiyahan. Dito ako’y natutong bumasa at sumula’t na siyang aking magagamit upang
ipakita at ipahayag ang aking saloobin at pagpapasalamat. At dito naramdaman at naranasan ko ang
iba’t-ibang mga pagsubok na nagbigay sa akin ng matibay na pananampalataya at lakas ng loob. 
Ang pasasalamat ko sa ating bayan ay hindi mahihigitan. Hindi ako nagsisisi na ako’y dito sinilang. Hindi
ko ipagpapalit ang sarili kong bayan, sapagkat para sa akin ay hindi matutumbasan lahat ng aking mga
alaala na sa akin ay pinagkalooban. Dito walang katumbas at hindi maikukumpara ang kasiyahan at
pagkakaisa ng bawa’t sinuman. Aking ipinagmamalaki na sila at tayo ay lumaki at nabuhay dito sa ating
bayang tinubuan. At bilang isang ordinaryong mamamayan ng ating bayan, lubos akong nagpapasalamat
sa karangalang handog ng ating bayan.  Ito’y isang malaking biyaya ng Diyos na aking ipagmamalaki,
payayabungin, mamahalin at dadalhin maging sa aking huling hantungan.

Repleksyon sa Uhaw ang Tigangna Lupa ni Liwayway B. Arceo

Paanobamapapatunayannatunay ang pagmamahal?Angisabangpagkakamali aysapatna

dahilanpara iwananang minamahal?Itomarahilangnaissagutinni Bb.Arceosa kanyang akdang Uhaw
ang Tigangna Lupa. Isinulatsamata ng isangbata,naisngakda na patunayansa atinna sa
panahonngayon,mayroonparing tunayna pagmamahal,atmayroonpa ring halagasa
lipunanangpamilya.Samatang batangkarakter,ang kanyangpamilyaayperpekto-
angkanyanginaaymabait,sadyangdi galitin,atdi masyadongmasalita.Ang kanyangama ay
huwaransapamilya-masipag,mabaitatmaaruga.Parasa bata,ang kanyangpamilyaay masaya atpara
bangwala nangsuliranin,ngunitdi nyanaiisipnaisangbagaypala ang titibagsakanyang mga
impresyon.Tunggaliansaakdaang pagsulpotngkeridangkanyangama-na isikretongmatagal na
panahonhanggangsa natuklasanitonangnatagpuan ang kanyangtalaarawan.Sagitnangpagsubokna
itoang kanyangina ay nanahimikatnagsawalang-kibo,huwarankungiisipindahil kadalasangdi
kakayaninngisangbabae na harapinnangpasiboangganitongmga bagay.Sapagkakasakitngkanyang
asawa nagawapa nyangarugainitong buongpuso,atnangito ay gumalingnaibigaynarinnyaang
kanyangpagpapatawad.Marahil aynagtagumpayangakda dahil nagawanitongmakawalasa
tradisyunalnamgakaganapansa buhay.Maaringisipinnatinnaangginawangpagpapatawadsainasa
kasalananng asawaay pantasyangmalabonang magingrealidad,ngunitsatotoolangaykahanga-hanga
man kungitoay maganap.Palagiannanatingnaririnigsabalitaatnapapanuodsamga telenobelaang
kuwentongmga pamilyangnasisiradahilsapakikiapid,ngunitkungiisipinnatinaymalungkotna
repleksyonlangitosakunganumanangnagaganapsa lipunannatin.Marahil,kungangmgamag-asawa ay
magagawalamangnatibayinangpagsasama para sa kapakananng pamilya,masmabibigyannatin
ngmagandangkinabukasanangmgamusmod,namadalasnaiiwangnagtatakaatnagrerebelde sa
dahilangwalasilanginaoama.Ditomakikitanatinangakda bilangisang“feel-good”naakdana kapag
mataposmongbasahinaymapapaisipkaat mapapahanga.Angkuwento,sakabuuanayinspirasyonsa
atinna may mga bagay na posible pangmangyari.Samatangisangbata,lahataymaganda,lahatay
inosente,lahataymapagmahal.