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I. Slater's Rules
The general principle behind Slater's Rule is that the actual charge felt by an electron is
equal to what you'd expect the charge to be from a certain number of protons, but minus a
certain amount of charge from other electrons. Slater's rules allow you to estimate the
effective nuclear charge (Zeff) from the real number of protons in the nucleus and the
effective shielding of electrons in each orbital "shell" (e.g., to compare the effective nuclear
charge and shielding 3d and 4s in transition metals). Slater's rules are fairly simple and
produce fairly accurate predictions of things like the electron configurations and ionization
energies.
SLATER'S RULES
Step 1: Write the electron configuration of the atom in the following form:
(1s) (2s, 2p) (3s, 3p) (3d) (4s, 4p) (4d) (4f) (5s, 5p) . . .
Step 2: Identify the electron of interest, and ignore all electrons in higher groups (to
the right in the list from Step 1). These do not shield electrons in lower groups
Step 3: Slater's Rules is now broken into two cases:
o the shielding experienced by an s- or p- electron,
electrons within same group shield 0.35, except the 1s which shield
0.30
electrons within the n-1 group shield 0.85
electrons within the n-2 or lower groups shield 1.00
o the shielding experienced by nd or nf valence electrons
electrons within same group shield 0.35
electrons within the lower groups shield 1.00
Sum together the contributions as described in the appropriate rule above to obtain an
estimate of the shielding constant, S, which is found by totaling the screening by all
electrons except the one in question.
S=∑niSi
One set of estimates for the effective nuclear charge (Zeff) was presented in Figure 2.5.1.
Previously, we described Zeff as being less than the actual nuclear charge (Z) because of the
repulsive interaction between core and valence electrons. We can quantitatively represent
this difference between Z and Zeff as follows:
S = Z−Zeff
1. Electron Configuration: Electron configuration of an atom or ion will be the one
bearing lower energy of the last electron.
2. Ionization Energies
Exercises
Problem 1. Based on Slater’s Rule, calculation of First ionization energy of He.
Problem 2
2.1. At high temperature, the oxygen atom has been ionized to be O7+. Based on the Bohr
equation for energy of electron: En = -13,6 Z2/n2 (eV); calculate the wavelength of emitted
radiation incase electron of O7+ moved from n = 3 to n = 1
2.2. Based on Slater’s rule, calculate and compare energy of Fe2+ (Z = 26) for each
following electron configuration:
a) 1s22s22p63s23p63d6
b) 1s22s22p63s23p63d44s2
When Fe atom has been ionized to be Fe2+, which will be the preferable electron
configuration?
Problem 3. Based on the Slater’s Rule, demonstrate the following statements:
3.1. The electron configuration (b) of the atom M (Z = 25) is more stable than (a)
a) 1s22s22p63s23p63d7
b) 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s2
3.2. The electron configuration (d) of the ion M2+ (Z = 25) is more stable than (c)
a) 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2
b) 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
Which electrons will be separated when M ionized to be M2+ ?
Problem 4. According to Allred-Rochow equation for calculation of electronegativity value
of atom:
Using Slater’s rule, calculation of Cl and F electronegativity values if covalent radii of Cl
and F are 0.99 and 0.71 Angstrom, relatively.
+ Conservation law of momentum: The total momentum of the interacting particles before
and after a reaction are the same.
+ Conservation of entire energy: Energy, including rest mass energy, is conserved in nuclear
reactions. Einitial = Efinish
f) Entire energy of nuclear: the sum of rest mass energy and kinetic energy of nuclear
E=
g) Relation of momentum and kinetic energy:
II.3. Exercise
Problem 1.
2. Calculation of Ra nuclear binding energy, specific nuclear binding energy. m p = 1.00726u, mn = 1.008665u,
me = 0.00549u, 1 u = 931 MeV/c 2
Problem 2.
If we know mC = 12.000 u; mα = 4.0015u, mn = 1.0087u, mp = 1.0073u; 1u = 931MeV/c2; 1
eV = 1.6x10-19 (J). The minimum required energy to separate a C nuclear to 03 α particles
is ? (in eV and J)
Problem 3
Polonium (Po: 210) is an α emission nuclear, in radioactive decay, Po emit 01 α and
transform to X. The half-life of Polonium is T = 138 days.
1. What is X ?
2. There are 0.01 g of Po at initial time. Calculate the radioactivity of sample after 03 half-
life periods.
3. In another sample, if we have 0.168 g of Po, how many atom are decayed after 414 days?
Calculate the mass of generated X.
4. How long for the mass of Po reach to 10.5 mg?
Problem 4
The Radium ( ) has its half-life of 1570 years, it decays to 01 α and transform to X.
Calculate number of X nuclei at the year of 786 if we have 2.26g of Ra. Considered atomic
masses equal to its nucleons number.
Problem 5
Beach sand mineral, monazite, is a rich source of thorium, available in large quantities in the state
of Kerala in India. A typical monazite sample contains about 9 % ThO2 and 0.35 % U3O8. 208Pb a
206
Pb are the stable end-products in the radioactive decay series of 232Th and 238U, respectively. All
the lead (Pb) found in monazite is of radiogenic origin.
The isotopic atom ratio 208Pb/232Th, measured mass spectrometrically, in a monazite sample was
found to be 0.104. The half-lives of 232Th and 238U 1.41 ×1010 years and 4.47×109 years, respectively.
Assume that 208Pb, 206Pb, 232Th and 238U remained entirely in the monazite sample since the
formation of monazite mineral.
5.1 Calculate the age (time elapsed since its formation) of the monazite sample.
5.2 Estimate the isotopic atom ratio 206Pb/238U in the monazite sample.
5.3 Thorium-232 is a fertile material for nuclear energy. In thermal neutron irradiation, it absorbs
a neutron and the resulting isotope forms 233U by successive β– decays. Write the nuclear
reactions for the formation of 233U from 232Th
In nuclear fission of 233U a complex mixture of radioactive fission products is formed. The fission
product 101Mo initially undergoes radioactive decay as shown below:
5.4. A freshly prepared radiochemically pure sample of 101Mo contains 5000 atoms of 101Mo
initially. How many atoms of i) 101Mo ii) 101Tc iii) 101Ru will be present in the sample after 14.6 min?
Homeworks
Exercise 1.
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Exercise 2.
Exercise 03