CHEMISTRY PROJECT ON:-

***

***
CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS
INSECTICIDES
PESTICIDES
(HERBICIDES, D.D.T, NITROLIM, CHLOROPICRIN, UREA)
***

***
SUBMITTED BY:-
KARUN JOHN SANTHOSH
XII – C
ROLL NO – 17
ST.THOMAS RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL
***
CONCLUSION

The production of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides

and certain pesticides must be outlawed. Chemical herbicides
and pesticides kill bees and other pollinators. Chemical
fertilizers do not put minerals into the soil. Consequently, the
crops grown have very few minerals. Vegetation alone has the
unique ability to convert inorganic minerals absorbed from the
soil and water into organic forms that animals and humans can
use. Because humans are at the top of the food chain, we are
suffering the most. Chemical fertilizers, herbicides and
pesticides contaminate the air and water. Top soil is not held in
place, and it blows away.
If used properly then the advantages of these chemicals can
benefit humans more without damaging the environment.
Even though chemistry gifted us these chemicals we must take
good care not to over-use it and cause damage to our mother
Earth.

***
INSECTICIDES
An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. They include
ovicides and larvicides used against the eggs and larvae of insects
respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry
and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the
major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in the
20th century. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly
alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans; and others are
concentrated in the food chain.

Classes of agricultural insecticides

The classification of insecticides is done in several different ways:

 Systemic insecticides are incorporated by treated plants. Insects

ingest the insecticide while feeding on the plants.
 Contact insecticides are toxic to insects brought into direct
contact. Efficacy is often related to the quality of pesticide
application, with small droplets (such as aerosols) often
improving performance.
 Natural insecticides, such as nicotine, pyrethrum and neem
extracts are made by plants as defences against insects.
Nicotine based insecticides have been barred in the U.S. since
2001 to prevent residues from contaminating foods.[3]
 Inorganic insecticides are manufactured with metals and include
arsenates, copper compounds and fluorine compounds, which
are now seldom used, and sulfur, which is commonly used.
 Organic insecticides are synthetic chemicals which comprise the
largest numbers of pesticides available for use today.
  Mode of action – how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest – is
another way of classifying insecticides. Mode of action is
important in predicting whether an insecticide will be toxic to
unrelated species, such as fish, birds and mammals.

Heavy metals, e.g. arsenic have been used as insecticides; they are
poisonous and very rarely used now by farmers.

Commonly used class of insecticides

 Organochlorine compounds
 Organophosphates
 Carbamates
 Pyrethroids
 Neonicotinoids
 Biological insecticides

Antifeedants

Many plants have evolved substances, like polygodial, which prevent

insects from eating, but do not kill them directly. The insect often
remains nearby, where it dies of starvation. Since antifeedants are
nontoxic, they would be ideal as insecticides in agriculture. Much
agrochemical research is devoted to make them cheap enough for
commercial use.

HERBICIDES
An herbicide is a substance used to kill unwanted plants. Selective
herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired crop relatively
unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the
weed and are often synthetic "imitations" of plant hormones.
Herbicides used to clear waste ground, industrial sites, railways and
railway embankments are non-selective and kill all plant material with
which they come into contact. Smaller quantities are used in forestry,
pasture systems, and management of areas set aside as wildlife
habitat.

Some plants produce natural herbicides, such as the genus Juglans

(walnuts), or the tree of heaven; the study of such natural herbicides,
and other related chemical interactions, is called allelopathy.
 Classification of herbicides
Herbicides can be grouped by activity, use, chemical family, mode of
action, or type of vegetation controlled.

By activity:

 Contact herbicides destroy only the plant tissue in contact

with the chemical. Generally, these are the fastest acting
herbicides. They are less effective on perennial plants, which
are able to regrow from rhizhomes, roots or tubers.
 Systemic herbicides are translocated through the plant,
either from foliar application down to the roots, or from soil
application up to the leaves. They are capable of controlling
perennial plants and may be slower acting but ultimately
more effective than contact herbicides.

By use:

 Soil-applied herbicides are applied to the soil and are taken

up by the roots and/or hypocotyl of the target plant. There are
three main types of soil-applied herbicides:

Major herbicides in use today

 2,4-D, a broadleaf herbicide in the phenoxy group used in turf
and in no-till field crop production. Now mainly used in a blend
with other herbicides that allow lower rates of herbicides to be
used, it is the most widely used herbicide in the world, third
most commonly used in the United States. It is an example of
synthetic auxin (plant hormone).
 aminopyralid is a broadleaf herbicide in the pyridine group,
used to control broadleaf weeds on grassland, such as docks,
thistles and nettles. Notorious for its ability to persist in
compost.
 atrazine, a triazine herbicide used in corn and sorghum for
control of broadleaf weeds and grasses. Still used because of
its low cost and because it works extrodinarily well on a broad
spectrum of weeds common in the U.S. corn belt, Atrazine is
commonly used with other herbicides to reduce the over-all
rate of atrazine and to lower the for potential groundwater
contamination, it is a photosystem II inhibitor.
Environmental effects of Herbicides &
Insecticides
Effects on nontarget species

Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they

are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat
food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake
insecticide granules on the ground for food and eat it.

Sprayed insecticides may drift from the area to which it is applied and
into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially. Herbicides
have widely variable toxicity. In addition to acute toxicity from high
exposures there is concern of possible carcinogenicity as well as other
long-term problems such as contributing to Parkinson's Disease.

Some herbicides cause a range of health effects ranging from skin

rashes to death.The pathway of attack can arise from intentional or
unintentional direct consumption, improper application resulting in the
herbicide coming into direct contact with people or wildlife, inhalation
of aerial sprays, or food consumption prior to the labeled pre-harvest
interval. Under extreme conditions herbicides can also be transported
via surface runoff to contaminate distant water sources. Most
herbicides decompose rapidly in soils via soil microbial decomposition,
hydrolysis, or photolysis.

PESTICIDES
 A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended
for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest. A
pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as
a virus or bacterium), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used
against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds,
molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and
microbes that destroy property, spread disease or are a vector
for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to
 the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential
toxicity to humans and other animals. Pesticides also defined as:
 any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing,
destroying or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or
animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing
harm during or otherwise interfering with the production,
processing, storage, transport or marketing of food, agricultural
commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or
substances which may be administered to animals for the control
of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on their bodies. The
term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth
regulator, defoliant, desiccant or agent for thining fruit or
preventing the premature fall of fruit, and substances applied to
crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity
from deterioration during storage and transport.

History
Since before 20 BC, humans have utilized pesticides to protect their
crops. The first known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in
ancient Sumer about 4,500 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia. By the
15th century, toxic chemicals such as arsenic, mercury and lead were
being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century, nicotine sulfate
was extracted from tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th
century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides,
pyrethrum, which is derived from chrysanthemums, and rotenone,
which is derived from the roots of tropical vegetables. Until the 1950s,
arsenic-based pesticides were dominant.[4] Paul Müller discovered that
DDT was a very effective insecticide. Organochlorines such as DDT
were dominant, but they were replaced by organophosphates and
carbamates by 1975. Since then, pyrethrin compounds have become
the dominant insecticide.

Classification
Pesticides can be classified by target organism, chemical structure,
and physical state. Pesticides can also be classed as inorganic,
synthetic, or biologicals (biopesticides), although the distinction can
sometimes blur. Biopesticides include microbial pesticides and
biochemical pesticides. Plant-derived pesticides, or "botanicals", have
been developing quickly. These include the pyrethroids, rotenoids,
nicotinoids, and a fourth group that includes strychnine and scilliroside.

Pesticides can be classified based upon their biological mechanism

function or application method. Most pesticides work by poisoning
pests. A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption
by the plant. With insecticides and most fungicides, this movement is
usually upward (through the xylem) and outward. Increased efficiency
may be a result. Systemic insecticides, which poison pollen and nectar
in the flowers, may kill bees and other needed pollinators.

Uses
Pesticides are used to control organisms considered harmful. For
example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially
deadly diseases like west nile virus, yellow fever, and malaria. They
can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions.
Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by
parasites such as fleas. Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that
could be caused by mouldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can
be used to clear roadside weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill
invasive weeds that may cause environmental damage. Herbicides are
commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such
as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and
fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant. Uncontrolled
pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as
houses. Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities
to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain. Each use
of a pesticide carries some associated risk.

Pesticides can save farmers' money by preventing crop losses to

insects and other pests; in the U.S., farmers get an estimated fourfold
return on money they spend on pesticides.

DDT, sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochloride that has

been used to fight malaria since the 1950s.

Environmental effects
Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of
sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other
than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and
soil. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as
particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating
them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some
pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil
contamination.
In addition, pesticide use may also reduce biodiversity, reduce nitrogen
fixation,contribute to pollinator decline, can reduce habitat, especially
for birds, and can threaten endangered species.

Pesticide runoff is one of the most significant effects of pesticide use.

The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service tracks the
environmental risk posed by pesticide water contamination from farms,
and its conclusion has been that "the Nation's pesticide policies during
the last twenty six years have succeeded in reducing overall
environmental risk, in spite of slight increases in area planted and
weight of pesticides applied. Nevertheless, there are still areas of the
country where there is no evidence of progress, and areas where risk
levels for protection of drinking water, fish, algae and crustaceans
remain high".

Health effects
Pesticides can be dangerous to consumers, workers and close
bystanders during manufacture, transport, or during and after use.

The American Medical Association recommends limiting exposure to

pesticides and using safer alternatives:

Particular uncertainty exists regarding the long-term effects of low-

dose pesticide exposures. Current surveillance systems are inadequate
to characterize potential exposure problems related either to pesticide
usage or pesticide-related illnesses…Considering these data gaps, it is
prudent…to limit pesticide exposures…and to use the least toxic
chemical pesticide or non-chemical alternative.

Consumers

There are concerns that pesticides used to control pests on food crops
are dangerous to people who consume those foods. These concerns
are one reason for the organic food movement. Many food crops,
including fruits and vegetables, contain pesticide residues after being
washed or peeled. Chemicals that are no longer used but that are
resistant to breakdown for long periods may remain in soil and water
and thus in food.

The public

Exposure routes other than consuming food that contains residues, in

particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general
public.
The Bhopal disaster occurred when a pesticide plant released 40 tons
of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, a chemical intermediate in the
synthesis of some carbamate pesticides. The disaster immediately
killed nearly 3,000 people and ultimately caused at least 15,000
deaths.[

In China, an estimated half million people are poisoned by pesticides

each year, 500 of whom die.

Alternatives
 Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of
cultivation, use of biological pest controls (such as pheromones
and microbial pesticides), genetic engineering, and methods of
interfering with insect breeding. Application of composted yard
waste has also been used as a way of controlling pests. These
methods are becoming increasingly popular and often are safer
than traditional chemical pesticides. In addition, EPA is
registering reduced-risk conventional pesticides in increasing
numbers.
 Cultivation practices include polyculture (growing multiple types
of plants), crop rotation, planting crops in areas where the pests
that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when
pests will be least problematic, and use of trap crops that attract
pests away from the real crop.
 Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another
example of an alternative to pesticide use. These organisms can
include natural predators or parasites of the pests. Biological
pesticides based on entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria and
viruses cause disease in the pest species can also be used.
 Another alternative to pesticides is the thermal treatment of soil
through steam. Soil steaming kills pest and increases soil health.
 In India, traditional pest control methods include using
Panchakavya, the "mixture of five products." The method has
recently experienced a resurgence in popularity due in part to
use by the organic farming community.
DDT

IUPAC NAME 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di(4-chlorophenyl)ethane

Molecular formula C14H9Cl5

Molar mass 354.49 g/mol
Density 0.99 g/cm³
Melting point 109 °C
Boiling point decomp.

DDT (from its trivial name, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is one of

the most well-known synthetic pesticides. It is a chemical with a long,
unique, and controversial history.

First synthesized in 1874, DDT's insecticidal properties were not

discovered until 1939, and it was used with great success in the
second half of World War II to control malaria and typhus among
civilians and troops. The Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his
discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against
several arthropods." After the war, DDT was made available for use as
an agricultural insecticide, and soon its production and use
skyrocketed.

Properties and chemistry

DDT is an organochlorine, similar in structure to the insecticide
methoxychlor and the acaricide dicofol. It is a highly hydrophobic,
colorless, crystalline solid with a weak, chemical odor. It is nearly
insoluble in water but has a good solubility in most organic solvents,
fats, and oils. DDT does not occur naturally, but is produced by the
reaction of chloral (CCl3CHO) with chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) in the
presence of sulfuric acid, which acts as a catalyst.

Mechanism of action

In insects, it has potent insecticidal properties, where it kills by

opening sodium ion channels in the neurons, causing them to fire
spontaneously leading to spasms and eventual death. Insects with
certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT
and other similar insecticides. DDT resistance is also conferred by up-
regulation of genes expressing cytochrome P450 in some insect
species.

First synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler,[3] DDT's insecticidal

properties were not discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul
Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology
and Medicine for his efforts.

Environmental impact

Degradation of DDT to form DDE (by elimination of HCl, left) and DDD
(by reductive dechlorination, right)

DDT is a persistent organic pollutant that is extremely hydrophobic and

strongly absorbed by soils. Depending on conditions, its soil half life
can range from 22 days to 30 years. Routes of loss and degradation
include runoff, volatilization, photolysis and aerobic and anaerobic
biodegradation. When applied to aquatic ecosystems it is quickly
absorbed by organisms and by soil or it evaporates, leaving little DDT
dissolved in the water itself. Its breakdown products and metabolites,
DDE and DDD, are also highly persistent and have similar chemical and
physical properties. These products together are known as "total DDT".
DDT and its breakdown products are transported from warmer regions
of the world to the Arctic by the phenomenon of global distillation,
where they then accumulate in the region's food web.

Effects on wildlife and eggshell thinning

DDT is toxic to a wide range of animals in addition to insects. It is

highly toxic to aquatic life, including crayfish, daphnids, sea shrimp
and many species of fish. It is less toxic to mammals, but may be
moderately toxic to some amphibian species, especially in the larval
stages. Most famously, it is a reproductive toxicant for certain birds
species, and it is a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle,
brown pelican peregrine falcon, and osprey. Birds of prey, waterfowl,
and song birds are more susceptible to eggshell thinning than chickens
and related species, and DDE appears to be more potent than DDT.

Effects on human health

Potential mechanisms of DDT on humans are genotoxicity and
endocrine disruption. DDT may have direct genotoxicity, but may also
induce enzymes that produce other genotoxic intermediates and DNA
adducts. It is an endocrine disruptor; The DDT metabolite DDE acts as
an antiandrogen (but not as an estrogen). o,p'-DDT, a minor
component in commercial DDT has weak estrogenic activity. However,
p,p'-DDT, the main component of DDT, has little or no androgenic or
estrogenic activity.[41]

Other

Occupational exposure to DDT (either as a farmer or a malaria control

worker) has been linked to:

 Neurological problems
 Asthma

UREA
Urea is an organic compound with the chemical formula (NH2)2CO. The
molecule has two amine (-NH2) residues joined by a carbonyl (-CO-)
functional group.

Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing

compounds by animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance
in the urine of mammals. Being solid, colourless, odorless (although
the ammonia which it gives off in the presence of water, including
water vapor in the air, has a strong odor), neither acidic nor alkaline,
highly soluble in water, and relatively non-toxic, urea is widely used in
fertilizers as a convenient source of nitrogen. Urea is also an important
raw material for the chemical industry. The synthesis of this organic
compound by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 from an inorganic precursor
was an important milestone in the development of chemistry.

History
Urea was first discovered in urine in 1773 by the French chemist Hilaire
Rouelle. In 1828, the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler obtained urea
by treating silver isocyanate with ammonium chloride in a failed
attempt to prepare ammonium cyanate:

AgNCO + NH4Cl → (NH2)2CO + AgCl

This was the first time an organic compound was artificially

synthesized from inorganic starting materials, without the involvement
of living organisms. The results of this experiment implicitly discredited
vitalism: the theory that the chemicals of living organisms are
fundamentally different from inanimate matter. This insight was
important for the development of organic chemistry. For this discovery,
Wöhler is considered by many the father of organic chemistry.

Uses
Agriculture

More than 90% of world production of urea is destined for use as a

nitrogen-release fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all
solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common use (46.7%). Therefore, it has
the lowest transportation costs per unit of nitrogen nutrient.

In the soil, it hydrolyses to ammonia and carbon dioxide. The ammonia

is oxidized by bacteria in the soil to nitrate which can be absorbed by
the plants. Urea is also used in many multi-component solid fertilizer
formulations. Urea is highly soluble in water and is, therefore, also very
suitable for use in fertilizer solutions (in combination with ammonium
nitrate: UAN), e.g., in 'foliar feed' fertilizers. For fertilizer use, granules
are preferred over prills because of their narrower particle size
distribution which is an advantage for mechanical application.

Because of the high nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important

to achieve an even spread. The application equipment must be
correctly calibrated and properly used. Urea dissolves in water for
application as a spray or through irrigation systems.
In irrigated crops, urea can be applied dry to the soil, or dissolved and
applied through the irrigation water. Urea will dissolve in its own
weight in water, but it becomes increasingly difficult to dissolve as the
concentration increases. Dissolving urea in water is endothermic,
causing the temperature of the solution to fall when urea dissolves.

Chemical industry

Urea is a raw material for the manufacture of many important chemical

compounds, such as

 Various plastics, especially the urea-formaldehyde resins.

 Various adhesives, such as urea-formaldehyde or the urea-
melamine-formaldehyde used in marine plywood.
 Potassium cyanate, another industrial feedstock.
 Urea nitrate, an explosive.

Automobile systems

Urea is used in SNCR and SCR reactions to reduce the NOx pollutants in
exhaust gases from combustion from diesel, dual fuel, and lean-burn
natural gas engines. The BlueTec system, for example, injects water-
based urea solution into the exhaust system. The ammonia produced
by the hydrolysis of the urea reacts with the nitrogen oxide emissions
and is converted into nitrogen and water within the catalytic converter.

Other commercial uses

 A stabilizer in nitrocellulose explosives.

 A component of animal feed, providing a relatively cheap source
of nitrogen to promote growth.
 A non-corroding alternative to rock salt for road de-icing, and the
resurfacing of snowboarding halfpipes and terrain parks.
 A flavor-enhancing additive for cigarettes.
 A main ingredient in hair removers such as Nair or Veet.
 A flame-proofing agent, commonly used in dry chemical fire
extinguisher charges such as the urea-potassium bicarbonate
mixture.
 An ingredient in many tooth whitening products.
 An ingredient in dish soap.
 Along with ammonium phosphate, as a yeast nutrient, for
fermentation of sugars into ethanol.
 A nutrient used by plankton in ocean nourishment experiments
for geo engineering purposes.
  As an additive to extend the working temperature and open time
of hide glue.
 As a solubility-enhancing and moisture-retaining additive to dye
baths for textile dyeing or printing.

Medical use

 Urea is used in topical dermatological products to promote

rehydration of the skin. If covered by an occlusive dressing, 40%
urea preparations may also be used for nonsurgical debridement
of nails. This drug is also used as an earwax removal aid.
 Certain types of instant cold packs (or ice packs) contain water
and separated urea crystals. Rupturing the internal water bag
starts an endothermic reaction and allows the pack to be used to
reduce swelling.
 Like saline, urea injection is used to perform abortions.
 Urea is the main component of an alternative medicinal
treatment referred to as urine therapy.
 The blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test is a measure of the amount
of nitrogen in the blood that comes from urea. It is used as a
marker of renal function.

Synthetic production

Urea is produced on a scale of some 100,000,000 tons per year

worldwide.

Industrial methods

For use in industry, urea is produced from synthetic ammonia and

carbon dioxide. Large quantities of carbon dioxide are produced during
the manufacture of ammonia from coal or from hydrocarbons such as
natural gas and petroleum-derived raw materials. Such point sources
of CO2 facilitate direct synthesis of urea.

The basic process, developed in 1922, is also called the Bosch-Meiser

urea process after its discoverers. The various urea processes are
characterized by the conditions under which urea formation takes
place and the way in which unconverted reactants are further
processed. The process consists of two main equilibrium reactions,
with incomplete conversion of the reactants. The first is an exothermic
reaction of liquid ammonia with dry ice to form ammonium carbamate
(H2N-COONH4):
 2 NH3 + CO2 ↔ H2N-COONH4 ()

Laboratory processes

Ureas in the more general sense can be accessed in the laboratory by

reaction of phosgene with primary or secondary amines, proceeding
through an isocyanate intermediate. Non-symmetric ureas can be
accessed by reaction of primary or secondary amines with an
isocyanate.

Chemical properties
Molecular and crystal structure

The urea molecule is planar. In solid urea, the oxygen center is

engaged in two N-H-O hydrogen bonds. The resulting dense and
energetically favourable hydrogen-bond network is probably
established at the cost of efficient molecular packing: The structure is
quite open, the ribbons forming tunnels with square cross-section. The
carbon in urea is described as sp2 hybridized, the C-N bonds have
significant double bond character, and the carbonyl oxygen is basic
compared to, say, formaldehyde. Urea's high aqueous solubility
reflects its ability to engage in extensive hydrogen bonding with water.

By virtue of its tendency to form a porous frameworks, urea has the

ability to trap many organic compounds. In these so-called clathrates,
the organic "guest" molecules are held in channels formed by
interpenetrating helices comprising of hydrogen-bonded urea
molecules. This behaviour can be used to separate mixtures, e.g. in
the production of aviation fuel and lubricating oils, and in the
separation of paraffins.

Reactions

Urea reacts with alcohols to form urethanes. Urea reacts with malonic
esters to make barbituric acids.

Safety
 Urea can be irritating to skin, eyes, and the respiratory tract.
Repeated or prolonged contact with urea in fertilizer form on the
skin may cause dermatitis.
  High concentrations in the blood can be damaging. Ingestion of
low concentrations of urea, such as are found in typical human
urine, are not dangerous with additional water ingestion within a
reasonable time-frame. Many animals (e.g., dogs) have a much
more concentrated urine and it contains a higher urea amount
than normal human urine; this can prove dangerous as a source
of liquids for consumption in a life-threatening situation (such as
in a desert).

CHLOROPICRIN

Molecular formula CCl3NO2

Molar mass 164.375
Appearance colorless liquid
Melting point -69 °C
Boiling point 112 °C (dec)

Chloropicrin, also known as PS, is a chemical compound with the

structural formula Cl3CNO2. This colourless highly toxic liquid was once
used in chemical warfare and is currently used as a fumigant and
nematocide.

History
Chloropicrin was first discovered in 1848 by a Scottish chemist John
Stenhouse. He prepared it by the reaction of a chlorinating agent with
picric acid:

HOC6H2(NO2)3 + 10 NaOCl → 3 Cl3CNO2 + 3 NaOH + NaCl + 3 CO2

Because of the precursor he used, Stenhouse named the compound

chloropicrin, although the two compounds are structurally dissimilar.

Arguably, chloropicrin's most famous use was in World War I. In 1917,

there were reports that the Germans were testing and using a new
chemical in warfare. That chemical was chloropicrin. While not as
lethal as other chemical weapons, it caused vomiting and was a
lachrymatory agent. This combination of properties forced Allied
soldiers to remove their masks to vomit, exposing them to toxic gases.
This caused a large number of casualties on the Italian front.

Preparation
Chloropicrin is manufactured by the reaction of nitromethane with
sodium hypochlorite:

H3CNO2 + 3 NaOCl → Cl3CNO2 + 3 NaOH

Properties
As listed in the Table, chloropicrin is a colorless liquid that is insoluble
in water, with which it is stable. With a vapor pressure of 24 mm Hg, its
volatility is between that of phosgene and mustard gas in persistency,
although closer to phosgene because it is related to the compound.
Tests have shown that chloropicrin causes humans to shut their eyes
involuntarily. Chloropicrin can be absorbed systemically through
inhalation, ingestion, and the skin. It is severely irritating to the lungs,
eyes, and skin. Because of these properties, chloropicrin can only be
delivered in shell form as a chemical weapon.

Application
Chloropicrin, today, is used as a fumigant to control pests found in the
soil. Although less common it can be used as a poison for vertebrates,
such as rabbits. Chloropicrin is commonly used in combination with
other fumigants, such as methyl bromide and sulfuryl fluoride, for
increased potency and as a warning agent.

Chloropicrin has been used in chemical warfare. It first appeared in

1917 when the Germans tested a new chemical weapon on the Italian
front. The new chemical weapon was devastating to the Allies at first,
since they had never encountered it before.

Safety
 Chloropicrin is a highly toxic chemical
  Examples of industrial exposure in humans: 27 workers in a
cellulose factory who were exposed to high levels of chloropicrin
for 3 minutes developed pneumonitis after 3 to 12 hours of
irritated coughing and difficulty on breathing; they subsequently
devloped pulmonary oedema and one died.
 Because of chloropicrin's stability, protection requires highly
effective absorbents, such as activated charcoal. Chloropicrin,
unlike its relative compound phosgene, is absorbed readily at
any temperature, which may pose a threat in low or high
temperature climates

CALCIUM CYANAMIDE [NITROLIM]

IUPAC name[hide]
Calcium cyanamide
Other names[hide]
Cyanamide calcium salt, Lime Nitrogen, UN 1403,
Nitrolime
Molecular
CaCN2
formula
Molar mass 80.102 g/mol
White solid (Often gray or black
Appearance
from impurities)
Odor odorless
Density 2.29 g/cm3
Melting point 1340 °C [1]
Boiling point 1150-1200 °C (sublim.)
Solubility in
Reacts
water
Flash point Non-flammable
Related Cyanamide
compounds Calcium carbide
 •

Calcium cyanamide or CaCN2 is a calcium compound used as

fertiliser, first synthesized in 1898 by Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro.
It is formed when calcium carbide reacts with nitrogen. It is
commercially known as Nitrolim.

CaC2 + N2 → CaCN2 + C

The reaction takes place in large steel chambers. An electric carbon

element heats the reactants to red heat. Nitrogen is pressurised at 2
atmospheres.

Preparation
 Calcium cyanamide is prepared from calcium carbide. The
carbide powder is heated at about 1,000°C in an electric furnace
into which nitrogen is passed for several hours. The product is
cooled to ambient temperatures and any unreacted carbide is
leached out cautiously with water.

CaC2 + N2 → CaCN2 + C (ΔHƒ°= –69.0 kcal/mol at 25°C)

Uses
 The main use of calcium cyanamide is in agriculture as a
fertilizer. In contact with water it decomposes and liberates
ammonia:

CaCN2 + 3 H2O → 2 NH3 + CaCO3

 It was used to produce sodium cyanide by fusing with sodium

carbonate, which was used in cyanide process in gold mining:

CaCN2 + Na2CO3 → 2 NaCN + CaO + O2

 It can also be used in the preparation of calcium cyanide and

melamine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to thank my Chemistry
teachers Mrs. Poonam Lal & Mrs. Solly Varghese for allowing
me to do this project. I thank my friends and my parents who have
helped and motivated me. Last but not the least I thank God for
helping me complete this project on time