SUBJECT:-BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

FOUNDATION IN HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION:
FOUNDATION:-
Foundation is the interface between the superstructure of the high-rise and the ground. Its task is
to transfer safely the building loads into the ground and to keep settlement as small as possible.
The foundation system must be designed to ensure sufficient external stability of the entire
system and maintain the internal load-bearing capacity of the building components through
appropriate design of the components.

DEEP FOUNDATION:-
A deep foundation is a type of foundation distinguished from shallow foundations by the depth
they are embedded into the ground. There are many reasons a geotechnical engineer would
recommend a deep foundation over a shallow foundation, but some of the common reasons are
 Very large design loads,
 A poor soil at shallow depth, or
 Site constraints (like property lines).
There are three principal deep foundation options to transfer the heavy loads from high-rises to
the ground:
1) Raft foundations, where the loads are transferred to the ground via a foundation raft;
2) Pile foundations, where high-rise loads are transferred to a deeper load-bearing layers
via piles or diaphragm wall elements; and
3) Pile and raft foundations (PRF), where the high-rise load is taken partly by the raft and
partly by the piles or diaphragm wall. Raft is able to provide a reasonable measure of
both stiffness and load resistance. Piled raft foundations utilize piled support for control
of settlements with piles providing most of the stiffness at serviceability loads, and the
raft element providing additional capacity at ultimate loading.
Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete.
Design of the buildings must take into account both
 The short and long term deformations of the foundations (serviceability limit state) and
 The strength of the foundations at ultimate loading (ultimate limit state).

TYPES OF LOADS ON FOUNADTIONS:-

Although the foundations are out of sight once the building is completed, they are of immense
importance for ensuring that the dead weight and live loads of the building are safely
transmitted to the native subsoil. These loads are not inconsiderable.
These loads often exert different pressures on the subsoil, thus resulting in uneven
settlement of the building.
In order to avoid such developments where possible, these buildings must be erected on
subsoil of high load-bearing capacity, such as solid rock.
This can be done in several ways:-
1. One is to produce round or rectangular
caissons which are lowered to the required
depth and bear the foundation structure.
2. Pile foundations are probably the most widely
used method.
GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN
PROCEDURE:-
The geotechnical design procedure for high-rise buildings consists of several phases from the
feasibility study and the concept / realization of the soil investigation to the soil report and finally
the final geotechnical design.
The serviceability of construction has to be evaluated regarding the uniform settlement of the
construction, the differential settlement, the tilting as well as the deflection ratio.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES
DESIGN ISSUES
The following issues usually need to be addressed in the design of foundations for high-rise
buildings:
1. Ultimate capacity of the foundation under vertical, lateral and moment loading combinations.
2. The influence of the cyclic nature of wind, earthquakes and wave loadings (if appropriate) on
foundation capacity and movements.
3. Overall settlements.
4. Differential settlements, both within the high-rise footprint, and between high-rise and low-
rise areas.
5. Structural design of the foundation system
6. Possible effects of externally-imposed ground movements on the foundation system, for
example, movements arising from excavations for pile caps or adjacent facilities.
7. Earthquake effects, including the response of the structure foundation system to earthquake
excitation, and the possibility of liquefaction in the soil surrounding and/or supporting the
foundation.
8. Dynamic response of the structure-foundation system to wind induced (and, if appropriate,
wave) forces.
SETTLEMENT AND SUBSIDENCE
Settlement and subsidence are another risk. It must be pointed out, however, that a certain degree
of settlement will be unavoidable in all these projects. The equilibrium of forces originally
present in the ground is disturbed by excavation of the soil for the underground floors and by
application of the structural loads. Depending on the type of building, the soil conditions and the
foundation selected, settlement will occur immediately or at a later date.
Depending on the method selected (diaphragm wall, bore diaphragms), the retaining wall can
also cause the ground to settle and result in damage to third-party property. For this reason, it is
advisable to record prior damage on neighbouring buildings as evidence before starting the work.
The planning engineer is responsible for ensuring that such settlement is determined correctly
and for ordering appropriate structural precautions so that the settlement remains within tolerable
limits. This can be achieved by a corresponding arrangement of joints in the building and other
structural measures, such as the use of hydraulic jacks.
Attention must be devoted to the horizontal forces in particular when designing the foundations
for high-rise buildingson sloping ground.
It is very difficult to repair a high-rise building when its stability has been jeopardized by such
severe subsidence.The defective foundations can be reinforced with the aid of injections,
supplementary piles or root piles if necessary on account of the limited height available on the
underground floors.

TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS:-

1. PILE FOUNDATIONS:
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to
carry and transfer the load of the structure to the
bearing ground located at some depth below ground
surface. The main components of the foundation are
the pile cap and the piles.
Piles are long and slender members which transfer the
load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity
avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity.
The main types of materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete. Piles made from these
materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps. The load is
transferred by end bearing and the skin friction of the piles into the ground.

It is used where the good soil is at higher depth (10 or 15 m) or soil having low bearing capacity.
Pile foundation is a structural member which is used to transit the load from
super structure to under layer soil stratum; it’s usually used in case of:
- Low bearing capacity of the soil.
- High load condition such as in bridge, towers.
There are different types of Piles like Bulb pile etc. which is used at specific location. For to
good stability of structure in Eq and wind load, it is advisable pile foundation for High rise
building. We can also maintain CG of building and load as near as possible with the help of Pile
foundation.

The piles can either be prefabricated and then inserted in the native soil or they can be
produced on site in the form of concrete drilling piles.
The method depends on both
1. The structural concept and
2. The soil conditions prevailing on site.
Pile foundations are used extensively for the support of buildings, bridges, and other structures to
safely transfer structural loads to the ground and to avoid excess settlement or lateral movement.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS:-
The selection should be based on an evaluation of engineering feasibility and comparative costs
for the potential alternatives considering such factors as safety, reliability, constructability, and
life cycle performance.
STRUCTURAL AND GEOTECHNICAL COORDINATION:-
Some of the critical aspects of the design process which require coordination are:
a. Preliminary and final selection of pile type.
b. Allowable deflections at the ground line and fixity of the pile head.
c. Preliminary evaluation of geotechnical data and subsurface conditions.
d. Selection of loading conditions, loading effects, potential failure mechanisms, and other
related features of the analytical models.
e. Minimum pile spacing and maximum batter.
f. Lateral resistance of soil.
g. Required pile length and axial capacity.
(1) Maximum stresses during handling, driving, and service loading.
(2) Load testing and monitoring programs.
h. Drivability of the pile to the selected capacity.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:-
a. FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF STRUCTURE:-
The type, purpose, and function of the structure affect decisions regarding subsurface
investigation programs, analytical methods, construction procedures and inspection, and
performance monitoring. Generally, the proposed structure should be evaluated on the basis of
the consequences of failure, that is, the potential for loss of lives and property.
In order to reduce the potential for failure, as well as to minimize the cost, the designer must
apply appropriate factors of safety to the design.

b. DEFINITIONS OF FAILURE:-
Structure or foundation failures can be categorized as an actual collapse or a functional failure.
Functional failure can be due to excessive deflection, unacceptable differential movements,
excessive vibration, and premature deterioration due to environmental factors.
Therefore, designers should be cognizant not only of the degree of safety against collapse but
also of effects of settlement and vibration on the functional performance.

c. FACTORS OF SAFETY:-
Factors of safety represent reserve capacity which a foundation or structure has against collapse
for a given set of loads and design conditions. For most hydraulic structures, designers should
have a high level of confidence in the soil and pile parameters and the analysis.
Therefore, the designer consider the functional significance of the project, the degree of
uncertainty in the design parameters and the analytical approach, and the probability of failure
due to both collapse and functional inadequacy.

d. SOIL-STRUCTURE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ANALYSIS:-

The functional significance and economic considerations of the structure will determine the type
and degree of the foundation exploration and testing program, the pile test program, the
settlement and seepage analyses, and the analytical models for the pile and structure. For critical
structures the foundation testing program should clearly define the necessary parameters for the
design of the pile foundation, such as soil types and profiles, soil strengths, etc.
A well planned and monitored pile load test program will usually save money by allowing the
designer to utilize a lower factor of safety or by modifying the required number or length of piles
required.
Where differential movement between monoliths is a concern, an accurate estimate of pile
settlement may be crucial, particularly if the monoliths have significantly different load levels.

e. CONSTRUCTION AND SERVICE CONSIDERATIONS:-

The proof of the entire design and construction process is in the performance of the final product
under service conditions. Therefore, the designer should consider the analysis and design of a
structure and its foundation. The designer prepares the specifications and instructions for field
personnel to assure the proper execution of the design.

NATURE OF LOADINGS:-
a. Usual:- Usual loads refer to conditions which are related to the primary function of a structure
and can be reasonably expected to occur during the economic service life. The loading effects
may be of either a long term, constant or an intermittent, repetitive nature. Pile allowable loads
and stresses should include a conservative safety factor for such conditions. The pile foundation
layout should be designed to be most efficient for these loads.

b. Unusual:- Unusual loads refer to construction, operation or maintenance conditions which are
of relatively short duration or infrequent occurrence.
Only minor cosmetic damage to the structure may occur during these conditions. Lower factors
of safety may be used for such loadings, or overstress factors may be applied to the allowable for
these loads. A less efficient pile layout is acceptable for these conditions.

c. Extreme: - Extreme loads refer to events which are highly improbable and can be regarded as
emergency conditions. Such events may be associated with major accidents involving impacts or
explosions and natural disasters due to earthquakes or hurricanes. Extreme loadings may also
result from a combination of unusual loading effects. Extreme loadings may cause significant
structural damage which partially impairs the operational functions and requires major
rehabilitation or replacement of the structure.

CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behavior:
1. End bearing piles (point bearing piles)
2. Friction piles (cohesion piles )
3. Combination of friction and cohesion piles
END BEARING PILES
These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth below the base
of the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of
the soil at the toe of the pile
The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such. Load is transmitted to
the soil through friction or cohesion.
"Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This, sometimes have considerable effect on the capacity of
the pile.

FRICTION OR COHESION
PILES
Carrying capacity is derived mainly
from the adhesion or friction of the
soil in contact with the shaft of the
pile

COHESION PILES
These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction. This process of driving
such piles close to each other in groups greatly reduces the porosity and compressibility of the
soil within and around the groups. Therefore piles of this category are sometimes called
compaction piles.

FRICTION PILES
These piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin friction. The process of driving
such piles does not compact the soil appreciably. These types of pile foundations are commonly
known as floating pile foundations.

COMBINATION OF FRICTION PILES AND

COHESION PILES
An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not
hard, such as a firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower
material to develop adequate frictional resistance. A farther variation
of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged bearing areas.
Bored piles which are provided with a bell have a high tensile
strength and can be used as tension piles
 PILES FORMED BY
MANUAL
METHODS (e.g.
HAND-DUG
CAISSON)

PILES FORMED BY MECHANICAL METHODS (e.g. BORED PILES OF VARIOUS

KINDS)

PILES FORMED BY PERCUSSION METHODS:-

CLASSIFICATION OF PILE WITH RESPECT TO
TYPE OF MATERIAL
• Timber
• Concrete
• Steel
• Composite piles

TIMBER PILES
Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works
in regions where timber is plentiful. Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and piling
beneath embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and should not have been
attacked by insects. For timber piles of length less than
14 meters, the diameter of the tip should be greater than 150 mm. If the length is greater than 18
meters a tip with a diameter of 125 mm is acceptable. It is essential that the timber is driven in
the right direction and should not be driven into firm ground.
To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles can be provided with toe cover.
Pressure creosoting is the usual method of protecting timber piles.

CONCRETE PILE
Pre cast concrete Piles or Pre fabricated concrete
piles: Usually of square, triangle, circle or
octagonal section, they are produced in short
length in one meter intervals between 3 and 13
meters. They are pre-caste so that they can be
easily connected together in order to reach to the
required length. This will not decrease the
design load capacity. Reinforcement is
necessary within the pile to help withstand
both handling and driving stresses.
Pre stressed concrete piles are also used and
are becoming more popular than the ordinary
pre cast as less reinforcement is required.

DRIVEN AND CAST IN PLACE

CONCRETE PILES
Two of the main types used in the UK are:
West’s shell pile : Pre cast, reinforced concrete
tubes, about 1 m long, are threaded on to a steel
mandrel and driven into the ground after a concrete shoe has been placed at the front of the
shells. Once the shells have been driven to specified depth the mandrel is withdrawn and
reinforced concrete inserted in the core. Diameters vary from 325 to 600 mm.

STEEL PILES
Steel piles: (figure 1.4) steel/ Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths.
Their relatively small cross-sectional area combined with their high strength makes penetration
easier in firm soil. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding. Although tar coating or
cathodic protection can be employed in permanent works, it is common to allow for an amount
of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In
this way the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion
is 0.2-0.5 mm/year and, in design, this value can be taken as 1mm/year

FOUNDATION USING ROCK

SOCKETEDSTEEL H-PILE IN PRE-BORED
HOLE
Steel H-pile can be installed within a pre-bored holes formed
in bedrock and grouted with cement or concrete to become a
pile. Though this kind of pile is not for end-bearing purpose,
it can be effective for taking load up to 3500 kNper pile in particular in boulderedsub-soil
condition

COMPOSITE PILES
Combination of different
materials in the same of
pile. As indicated earlier, part of a timber pile which is installed above ground
water could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete
or steel pile is used above the ground water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground
water level.
CLASSIFICATION OF PILE WITH RESPECT TO EFFECT ON THE SOIL
A simplified division into driven or bored piles is
often employed.

DRIVEN PILES
Driven piles are considered to be displacement
piles. In the process of driving the pile into the
ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft
enters the ground. There may also be a component
of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.

BORED PILES
Bored piles (Replacement piles) are generally
considered to be no displacement piles a void is
formed by boring or excavation before piles is produced. Piles can be produced by casting
concrete in the void. Some soils such as stiff clays are particularly amenable to the formation of
piles in this way, since the bore hole walls do not requires temporary support except cloth to the
ground surface. In unstable ground, such as gravel the ground requires temporary support from
casing or bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may be permanent, but driven into a hole
which is bored as casing is advanced. A different technique, which is still essentially non-
displacement, is to intrude, a grout or a concrete from an auger which is rotated into the granular
soil, and hence produced a grouted column of soil.
There are three non-displacement methods: bored cast- in - place piles, particularly pre-formed
piles and grout or concrete intruded piles.

SMALL TO MEDIUM SIZED IN-SITU CONCRETE PILE(300mm to 900mm to dia)

MEDIUM SIZED IN-SITU CONCRETE PILE USING CONTINUOUS FIGHT

AUGER( 5000mm to 1200mm in DIA)
LARGE DIA CONCRETE BORE PILES MANUAL –DUG METHOD (HAND –

DUG CAISSON)

FORMATION OF BORED-PILE USING DRILLING FLUID

The following are replacement piles:
1. Augered
2. Cable percussion drilling
3. Large-diameter under-reamed
Types incorporating pre caste concrete unite
Drilled-in tubes Mini piles
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT PILE
MATERIAL
WOOD PILES
+ The piles are easy to handle
+ Relatively inexpensive where timber is plentiful.
+ Sections can be joined together and excess length easily removed.
-- The piles will rot above the ground water level. Have a limited bearing capacity.
-- Can easily be damaged during driving by stones and boulders.
-- The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water.

PREFABRICATED CONCRETE PILES (REINFORCED) AND PRE STRESSED

CONCRETE PILES. (DRIVEN) AFFECTED BY THE GROUND WATER
CONDITIONS.
+ Do not corrode or rot.
+ Are easy to splice. Relatively inexpensive.
+ The quality of the concrete can be checked before driving.
+ Stable in squeezing ground, for example, soft clays, silts and peats pile material can be
inspected before piling.
+ Can be driven in long lengths.
-- Relatively difficult to cut.
-- Displacement, heave, and disturbance of the soil during driving.
-- Can be damaged during driving. Replacement piles may be required.
-- Sometimes problems with noise and vibration.

DRIVEN AND CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES

PERMANENTLY CASED (CASING LEFT IN THE GROUND)
TEMPORARILY CASED OR UNCASED (CASING RETRIEVED)
+ Can be inspected before casting can easily be cut or extended to the desired length.
+ Relatively inexpensive.
+ Low noise level.
+ The piles can be cast before excavation.
+ Pile lengths are readily adjustable.
+ Reinforcement is not determined by the effects of handling or driving stresses.
-- Heave of neighbouring ground surface, which could lead to re consolidation and the
development of negative skin friction forces on piles.
-- Displacement of nearby retaining walls. Lifting of previously driven piles, where the
penetration at the toe has been sufficient to resist upward movements.
-- Tensile damage to unreinforced piles or piles consisting of green concrete, where forces at the
toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.
-- Cannot be driven where headroom is limited.
-- Relatively expensive.
-- Time consuming. Cannot be used immediately after the installation.

BORED AND CAST IN -PLACE (NON -DISPLACEMENT PILES)

+ Length can be readily varied to suit varying ground conditions.
+ Soil removed in boring can be inspected and if necessary sampled or in- situ test made.
+ Can be installed in very large diameters.
+ End enlargement up to two or three diameters are possible in clays.
+ Material of piles is not dependent on handling or driving conditions.
+ Can be installed in very long lengths.
+ Can be installed without appreciable noise or vibrations.
+ Can be installed in conditions of very low headroom.
-- Susceptible to "waisting" or "necking" in squeezing ground.
-- Concrete is not placed under ideal conditions and cannot be subsequently
inspected.
-- Water under artesian pressure may pipe up pile shaft washing out cement.
-- Enlarged ends cannot be formed in cohesionless materials without special techniques.
-- Cannot be readily extended above ground level especially in river and marine structures.

STEEL PILES (ROLLED STEEL

SECTION)
+ The piles are easy to handle and can easily
be cut to desired length.
+ Can be driven through dense layers. The
lateral displacement of the soilmduring
driving is low (steel section H or I section
piles) can be relatively easily spliced or
bolted.
+ Can be driven hard and in very long
lengths.
+ Can carry heavy loads.
+ Can be successfully anchored in sloping
rock.
+ Small displacement piles particularly useful
if ground displacements and disturbance
critical.
-- The piles will corrode,
-- Will deviate relatively easy during driving.
-- Are relatively expensive.

CASE STUDY:-
COMMERZBANK:-
LOCATION FRANKFUT / MAIN.GERMANY
HEIGHT OF BUILDING 259M/299M
FOUNDATION OF HIGH-RISE PILE FOUNDATION
NUMBER OF PILES 111
LENGTH / DIAMETER OR THE BORED 38-46M / 1.8M
PILES
THICKNESS OF PILES 2.5M
TIME OF CONSTRUCTION 1995-96
TASKS GROUND/GROUNDWATER EXPERTISE
FOUNDATION DESIGN
GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT

The Commerzbank is situated in Frankfurt, Germany

within the banking district. The building reaches a height
of 299 m. The building is founded on a pile foundation.
The building was constructed directly next to an existing
high-rise building. The existing building reaches a height
of 103 m and is founded on a raft.
A total of 111 telescopic piles with diameter of 1.8
m within the first 20 m beneath the raft, followed by
a diameter of 1.5 m were installed. All piles were
constructed with a jet grouted shaft as well as jet grouting
10 m underneath the piles in the cavernous limestone.
Up to a depth of 5 m beneath the surface fillings
were encountered underlying by quaternary sands and
gravels in depth of 10 m. Underneath the ground
layers of the Hydrobien (Frankfurt clay) is found up to a
depth of 35 to
40 m. The ground layers of the Inflaten (Frankfurt
limestone) and Certithien (marl) were encountered
beneath the Hydrobien. The Frankfurt clay consists of
clay interbedded with sand and limestone. The
thickness of the Inflaten layer is approx. 25 m. The
Inflaten consists of limestone, sand, silt and marl.
Two groundwater levels were found in the project site: An unconfined groundwater level in the
quaternary sands and gravels as well as a confined groundwater level circulating in the sands and
limestone of the Hydrobien.
The calculations were carried out in
consideration of the symmetry of
the building.
A sixth part of the building was
modeled by Finite- and Infinite-
Elements.
The extent of the model is 200 m x
180 m x 120 m. Infinite elements
were used to model the ground
outside the tower area. The used
material law for the finite elements
is a elastic-plastic stress-strain
behavior with the yield conditions
of Drucker-Prager with cap. An
elastic material law was
implemented for the structural
elements (piles and raft).
The maximum settlements of the
building add up to 2.1 cm. The minimum settlements were encountered with 1.5 cm. This leads
to a tilting of smaller than 1/2000. These results cause no negative effect on the serviceability of
the building.

The monitoring shows that the 111 piles of

the Commerzbank carry approx. 96 % of the
total load of the building. This indicates that
not all loads are transferred by the piles into
the ground.

TESTING:
Although the load-bearing capacity can be
roughly calculated on the basis of soil
characteristics, the maximum permissible
pile load is determined by applying test
loads to the finished piles with the aid of
hydraulic presses and comparing the
resultant settlement with the permissible
settlement.

2. RAFT FOUNDATION:-

The raft foundation is characterized by the following specifications:

• The loads are transferred by raft into the ground.
• The raft covers the entire area of the structure.

In case of expected large differential settlements the raft must be separated (Joints), this
can cause difficult construction phases. In general the stress distribution (bearing pressure) of a
raft foundation is described by Boussinesq.

The ultimate limit state (ULS) and for the serviceability limit state (SLS) for a raft foundation
must be proved with the following calculations:

In subsoil with good load-bearing capacity, as dense sand and gravel, un-piled raft foundation
can be the most economic option for high-rises. The Trianon tower, which is almost 190m high
and Main Plaza tower, 90m high, in Frankfurt are good examples, where the settlement remained
under 100 mm and the tilting less than 1:800.

3. COMBINED PILE RAFT FOUDATION:

In raft foundations, it is generally observed allowable that bearing capacity of such rafts are quite
high so that such foundation can withstand the applied loads due to high-rise buildings to a great
extent without causing shear failure but the major problem of such foundation is that the total
settlement below the foundation at different locations will be very high beyond permissible
limits.
In the context of above a new foundation system is being adopted for such high-rise buildings, in
which raft foundation is being provided over the base of the whole building and some piles are
being provided with raft at designed specified location below the raft.
The use of the piles is intended to reduce the total and differential settlement of raft to a
considerable degree causing large scale economy without compromising the safety and
performance of the foundation. Such a foundation makes use of both the raft and piles and are
referred as piled-raft.
The loads are transferred by skin friction and end bearing as well as contact pressures of the raft
foundation (bearing pressure). The piles are used up to their ultimate bearing capacity (load
level) which is higher than the permissible design value for a comparable single pile The
combined pile-raft-foundation represents a complex foundation system, which requires a
qualified understanding of the soil-structure interactions.
One of the most important buildings constructed with such system is for the foundation system
of the world’s tallest building the Burj Dubai
Piled raft foundations are increasingly being recognized as an economical and effective
foundation system for tall buildings. Principles of design for such foundations include design for
the geotechnical ultimate limit state, the structural ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit
state

FOUNDATION CONCEPT:-
In piled raft foundations utilized piled support for control of settlement with piles providing most
of the stiffness at service load and the raft provides additional capacity at ultimate loading
Therefore such a system considers not only the capacity of pile elements and raft elements but
also their combined capacity and interaction under service load.

TWO CLASSES OF PILE- RAFT FOUNDATIONS:

1. “Small” piled- rafts, where the primary reason for adding the piles is to increase the factor of
safety (this typically involves rafts with widths between 5 and 15 m);
2. “Large” piled- raft, whose bearing is sufficient to carry the applied load with a reasonably
safety margin, but piles are required to reduce settlement or differential settlement. In such cases,
the width of the raft is large in comparison with the length of the piles (typically, the width of the
raft exceeds the length of the piles).
A piled-raft foundation consists of three elements- the raft, the piles and the subsoil. The load is
taken partly by the contact pressure between the raft and the soil and partly by the piles.

FAVOURABLE AND UNFAVOURABLE CIRCUMSTANCES FOR PILED-

RAFTS:
The following situations may be favourable:
• Soil profiles consisting of relatively stiff clays
• Soil profiles consisting of relatively dense sands.
In both circumstances, the raft can provide a significant proportion of the required load capacity
and stiffness, with the piles acting to “boost” the performance of the foundation, rather than
providing the major means of support.
Conversely, there are some situations which are unfavourable, including:
• Soil profiles containing soft clays near the surface
• Soil profiles containing loose sands near the surface
• Soil profiles which contain soft compressible layers at relatively shallow depths
• Soil profiles which are likely to undergo consolidation settlements
• Soil profiles which are likely to undergo swelling movements due to external causes.
In the first two cases, the raft may not be able to provide significant load capacity and stiffness,
while in third case, long-term settlement of the compressible underlying layers may reduce the
contribution of the raft to the long-term stiffness of the foundation. The latter two cases should
be treated with considerable caution. Consolidation settlement (such as those due to dewatering
or shrinking of an active clay soil) may result in a loss of contact between the raft and the soil,
thus increasing the load on the piles, and leading to increased settlement of the foundation
system. In the case of swelling soils, substantial additional tensile forces may be induced in the
piles because of the action of the swelling soil on the raft.

FOUDATION SYSTENS AND DESIGN ISSUES:-

For most piled raft foundations, the primary purpose of the piles is to act as settlement reducers.
The proportion of load carried by the piles is considered to be a secondary issue in the design.
Unlike the conventional piled foundation design in which the piles are designed to carry the
majority of the load, the design of a piled-raft foundation allows the load to be shared between
the raft and piles and it is necessary to take the complex soil-structure interaction effects into
account.

The performance of a piled raft can be influenced by several factors such as the conditions of the
supporting soil, relative stiffness between piles and soil, loading conditions, size and length of
the piles, and pile arrangement. Therefore, the design has to take account of these factors to
achieve the objective of economic construction with satisfactory performance.

In the design of foundations for tall buildings, design engineers have to understand the
mechanism of load transfer from the raft to the piles and to the soil and then to address the
following issues:
· Ultimate capacity of the foundation subjected to vertical, horizontal and moment loading
combinations.
· Influence of the cyclic nature of wind and earthquake on foundation capacity and movements.
· Overall settlement of the foundation.
· Differential settlements, both within the high-rise footprint and between high-rise and low-rise
areas.
· Load-sharing between raft and piles and load distributions along the piles.
· Possible effects of externally-imposed ground movements on the foundation system, for
example movement arising from excavations for pile caps or adjacent facilities or movements
arising from ongoing consolidation settlement of soft soils.
· Earthquake effects, including the response of the structure-foundation system to earthquake
excitation and the possibility of liquefaction in the soil surrounding and/or supporting the
foundation.
· Dynamic response of the structure–foundation system to wind-induced forces.

DESIGN PROCESS
Prior to the commencement of a project, it is necessary to have a well planned design process.
The design process should include several phases as follows:
Phase 1 – Subsurface exploration
 Carry out a ‘desktop’ study of all the geotechnical engineering data and work available
from previous investigations and geotechnical engineering recommendations in the
vicinity of the site.
 Perform site specific geotechnical investigation to explore the soil strata profiles and
groundwater conditions across the site and carry out in-situ and laboratory testing to
obtain the properties of each soil strata.
Phase 2 – Foundation Design o Develop geotechnical models and parameters based on the
available geotechnical information obtained from Phase 1.
 Preliminary selection of a foundation system using simplified geotechnical profiles and
analysis methods.
 Detailed design of a foundation system based on detailed geotechnical models and
structural loads provided by the structural engineers to predict the performance of the
foundation including the ultimate capacity of the foundation and anticipated settlement of
the foundation under loading combinations.
 If excavation is required, design the retention system. The design has to consider a
system of controlling groundwater inflow during construction and for the completed
project.
 Assessment of seismicity of the site including changes in soil and rock conditions during
earthquakes and possible effects on the foundation system.
 Assess the effects of construction on adjacent properties and on other facilities within the
site.
Phase 3 – Foundation testing and monitoring
 Perform a pile load test for the verification of design assumptions in Phase 2.
 If necessary, refine the foundation design based on the interpreted test results.
 Monitor the performance of the foundation and compare the measured performance with
the predicted performance.

ADVANTAGES OF PILED RAFT FOUNDATIONS

Piled raft foundations utilize piled support for control of settlements with piles providing most of
the stiffness at serviceability loads, and the raft element providing additional capacity at ultimate
loading. Consequently, it is generally possible to reduce the required number of piles when the
raft provides this additional capacity.
In addition, the raft can provide redundancy to the piles. Another feature of piled rafts, and one
that is rarely if ever allowed for, is that the pressure applied from the raft on to the soil can
increase the lateral stress between the underlying piles and the soil, and thus can increase the
ultimate load capacity of a pile as compared to free-standing piles.
A geotechnical assessment for design of such a foundation system therefore needs to consider
not only the capacity of the pile elements and the raft elements, but their combined capacity and
interaction under serviceability loading.
The most effective application of piled rafts occurs when then raft can provide adequate load
capacity, but the settlement and/or differential settlements of the raft alone exceed the allowable
values.
The task for the geotechnical engineer is to evaluate the load distribution between the
piles and the raft.

The ultimate limit state (ULS) and for the serviceability limit state (SLS) for a combined
pile-raft-foundation must be proved with the following calculations:
I CASE STUDY:- DREHSCHEIBE
LOCATION FRANKFUT / MAIN.GERMANY
HEIGHT OF BUILDING 77M
FOUNDATION OF HIGH-RISE COMBINED PILE RAFT FOUNDATION
NUMBER OF PILES 31
LENGTH / DIAMETER OR THE BORED 10.5-16.5M / 1.2M
PILES
THICKNESS OF PILES 2.0M
TIME OF CONSTRUCTION 2004-05
TASKS GEOTECHNICAL APPROVAL OF
FOUNDATION AND OF MEASURES
AGAINST UPLIFT
The Drehscheibe is situated in Frankfurt, Germany. The new high-rise building
Drehscheibe is currently under construction. The building area of approx. 5400 m² consists of a
77 m high rise tower with 19 floors which is connected to
surrounding low buildings with max. 6 floors like shown on the
site plan. Below the whole area an underground parking with 3
basement floors on a continuous foundation slab is currently
under construction.

The raft of the whole building complex had to be designed

continuously without any joints because of the groundwater
situation. The eccentric loading of the building complex with a raft
foundation causes large differential settlements and angular
displacements. Thus a raft foundation was not advisable.

It was decided to carry out a combined pile-raft-foundation

(CPRF) underneath the high-rise building. The surrounding low
buildings are constructed by means of a raft foundation.
The design of the CPRF consists of a foundation raft with a thickness of 2.5 m and an area of
approx. 900 m². The 31 foundation piles with a diameter of 1.2 m and length between 10.5 and
16.5 m are installed underneath he high loaded core section of the high-rise building.

The explored ground consists of fills, sand

and gravel underlying by tertiary sandy,
silty clay (congerien and prososthenien layer).
Below this sequence fossil limestone
(Landschneckenmergel) and hydrobien layer
was found.
The reef structures of the fossil limestone
consist of an alternating sequence of
layered facies of clay and silt (marl) as well
as vertical extending columns (fossil reef
structures). The experience in the local area
gained from former projects like the
construction of subway tunnels showed
diameters of up to 3 m for these reef
structures. The reef structures are described
as cavernous and compressible and arose of
former coral reefs.

The calculations were carried out by means

of the Finite-Element-Method. The chosen
numerical model represents the realistic
geometry of the foundation raft
of the high-rise building and a strip of 20 m width of the
raft of the bordering low
rise buildings, the positioning of the piles as well as the
pile length.

For the modelling of the soil behaviour an elastic-

plastic constitutive law with isotropic hardening was
implemented. The used material law for the ground
elements is a elastic-plastic stress-strain behaviour (Mohr-
Coulomb). An elastic material law was implemented for
the structural elements (piles and raft).

The maximum settlements of the building add up to 3.0 cm. The minimum settlements were
encountered with 2.2 cm. This leads to a tilting of smaller than 1/1000. These results cause no
negative effect on the serviceability of the building.
The results of the calculation shows that the 31 piles of the Drehscheibe carry approx. 64 % of
the total load of the building (aCPRF = 0.64).

II. CASE STUDY:-TREPTOWERS:-

LOCATION BERLIN GERMANY
 HEIGHT OF BUILDING 121M
FOUNDATION OF HIGH-RISE COMBINED PILE RAFT
FOUNDATION
NUMBER OF PILES 54
LENGTH / DIAMETER OR THE 15-25M / 1.5M
BORED PILES
THICKNESS OF PILES 1.5-2.5M
TIME OF CONSTRUCTION 1995-98
TASKS GROUND/GROUNDWATER
EXPERTISE FOUNDATION
DESIGN/PIT DESIGN
FROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT
The Treptowers is situated in Berlin, Germany directly next to the river Spree.
The building reaches a height of 121 m. The building is founded on a combined pile-raft-
foundation. The bordering low-rise building with 10 floors is founded on the raft.

A total of 54 piles with a diameter of 88 cm were installed. All piles were constructed with a jet
grouted shaft. The length of the piles varies from 12.5 m to 16m. The bottom of the raft is up to 8
m beneath the surface.

The ground and groundwater conditions were explored by boreholes up to a depth of 40

m. Up to a depth of 4m beneath the surface fillings and
organic soils were encountered underlying by loose
to medium dense sands of the Pleistocene.
These sands were found up to depth of approx.
19m.Dense sands were encountered in depth of > 19 m.
locally a layer of boulder clay with a thickness of 1.5 m
was found.

The groundwater level is approx. 3 to 4 m beneath the

surface. The calculations were carried out in
consideration of the symmetry of the building. The used
material law is an elastic-ideal-plastic stress-strain
behavior with the yield conditions of Mohr-Coulomb.
The jet-grouting of the pile shaft is modelled by an expansion of the pile
elements.

An elastic material law was implemented for

the structural elements (piles and raft).
The maximum settlements of the building add
up to 7.3 cm. The minimum settlements were
encountered with 5.0 cm. This leads to a tilting
of smaller than 1/2000. The mean value of settlement is 6.3 cm. These results cause no negative
effect on the serviceability of the building.
The monitoring shows that the 54 piles of the Treptowers carry approx. 55 % of the total load of
the building. The  CPRF factor, the
summation of the piles loads
divided by the total load, amount
therefore to 0.55 ( CPRF = 0.62). The
factor  CPRF of the numerical calculation
is 0.62.

FOUNDATION DESIGN FOR

THE BURJ DUBAI – THE
WORLD’S TALLEST
BUILDING

DIAPHRAGM WALLS:-

Diaphragm walls are another means of producing deep foundations. These walls are produced
directly in the ground and are between 60 and 100 cm thick.
They are produced in sections with the aid of special equipment and a stabilizing bentonite
slurry. The result is a continuous wall in the ground.
This method is used in particular when subsoil of high load-bearing capacity is only found
at considerable depth.

Diaphragm walls and piles are also used to safeguard the foundation pit required for construction
of the underground part of the building. The effort entailed can be considerable, particularly if
the neighbouring buildings are very close.

Rotating drills are mostly used today to minimize vibrations when installing the retaining
wall. Foundation pits can easily be produced to depths of 30 m or more using this method.