Letters are written to a person (a friend, a newspaper editor, etc) or a group of

people (students’ society, the local NGOs, local authorities, etc) for a specific
reason (to give advice, to make a complaint, etc). They include:

 Informal letters, to people you know well, written in a personal chatty

style;
 Formal letters, to managers, officials, etc, written in a polite formal style;
 Semi-formal letters, to people you do not know well, or to people you
know but you want to sound polite and respectful (a teacher, a superior),
written in a polite and respectful style.

A. INFORMAL LETTERS are sent to people you know well (friends,

relatives). They include information, such as recent news, personal problems.
Informal letters are written in a personal, chatty tone, having an informal style.

Informal style is characterized by the use of:

 everyday vocabulary, e.g. I had a great day
 colloquial expressions/idioms, e.g. drop me a line
 phrasal verbs, e.g. get on, settle in
 short forms, e.g. I’ll, don’t, won’t

 TASK 1: Read the sample letter and:

 underline the part of the letter that is the main reason for writing;
 put in a box the verbs/structures in past simple that give news;
 circle the verbs/structures that are used to express future plans;
 identify the structure of the letter by completing the blank spaces on
the right.

1
 66 Victory Street

Fagaras
nd
2 May, 2006

Dear Mark, INTRODUCTION

Paragraph 1
I am sorry it took me so long to decide to write to you. I
have been busy with work since I came back to Romania. I
want to thank you for this wonderful summer holiday. It
was the most interesting holiday I’ve ever spent. I could
never imagine that I would have so much fun in a foreign
country.

Since I returned home I have gone to work day by day. It

is a difficult period for us because we have a lot to do in BODY
order to accomplish the new NATO standards. Sometimes
Paragraph(s) 2-3-
I feel very tired and I’d like to have a short break at least 
for a day or two. It is not possible at this moment. The 4
only way to feel better is playing with my son, who is two
years and almost three months old. He is in good health
and he likes to play with me and his mother very much.

I hope that we will meet again as soon as possible. Have I

told you how amazing winters are here? Wouldn’t you like
to come to Fagaras for Christmas? I promise I’ll teach you
some Romanian carols, and we can also go skiing on the
hills nearby. What do you say?

I’m looking forward to hearing from you soon. CONCLUSION

Final paragraph
Yours,
Martin

 TASK 2: Look at the suggested letter topics below. How many body
paragraphs would each letter have? What kind of information would you
include?

1. You are about to visit a friend in another country and you are not sure what
clothes to take with you and how to get to their house.

the number of body paragraphs may vary depending on the topic/task requirements

2
 e.g. two body paragraphs:
- ask about clothes to take with you
- ask directions to get to your friend’s house

2. You have recently moved into a new house. Write a letter to your family
describing your new house and inviting him/her to spend a week with you.

3. Your best friend has invited you to attend his/her wedding. Write a letter thanking
him/her for the invitation and asking for details about the event.

4. Your office mate is going to attend the same course as you. Write a letter giving
him information about the city, the accommodation, and schedule.

 TASK 3: Write your own informal letter on one of the following topics:

1. Write a letter to a friend telling him/her about a party you have recently been to,
describing a person that you met there.

2. Write a letter to your friend, apologizing for not having attended his wedding party
and explaining him the reasons.

3. You had an unpleasant experience while traveling abroad. Write a letter to a

friend, describing what happened and giving suggestions/recommendations for
similar situations.

 TASK 4:
A. Read the following text and decide:
1. Why is the letter written?
2. Is it written in formal or informal style?
3. Is the style appropriate for the letter?

B. Replace the underlined sections with the more formal equivalents

from the given list:

at the earliest opportunity payment arrangements nevertheless

3
 in order to furthermore thank you in addition to
to consider to discuss however to grant to complete
concerning therefore a further inform us of your availability
your previous to schedule a number of issues moreover
failure to meet received to authorize interim prior to
to query to contact it should be brought to the meeting

Thanks for your letter. I got it 14 Sept. I’ve sent a copy to comp.
H.Q. along with a memo re. your financial situation. I’ve set a
meeting for 3 Oct at 11 am to talk about another bank loan. So,
please let us know if you can make it a.s.a.p.

But, we might ask you a few things to do with your inc. and exp.
before giving you a loan. Also I need to get in touch with the G.M.
to okay it. Plus, we’ll first have to think about the last time you
didn’t keep up with payments.

Anyway, in the meantime, you need to fill in this business plan.

Bring it to the meeting with you.

C. Make further changes to the text by replacing the abbreviations with their
full-length version.

e.g. “inc. and exp.” = income and expenditure

D. Rewrite the letter in formal style, taking into account all the suggested
changes at points B and C.

B. FORMAL LETTERS are sent to people in official positions or

people you don’t know well. They can be used to apply for a job or course,

4
make a complaint, give or request official information, etc. Formal letters are
written in a formal style, with a polite, impersonal tone.

Formal style is characterized by the use of:

 advanced vocabulary e.g. I am writing to enquire whether;
 formal linking words and phrases e.g. Furthermore, the manger
needs to be contacted;
 passive voice e.g. The business plan should be brought to the
meeting.
 polite forms without contractions e.g. I would be grateful if…
 colloquial expressions, phrasal verbs, idioms and short forms are
not used in formal style.

1. LETTER OF APPLICATION
 TASK 1: Read the sample letter and match each paragraph with the type of
information it contains. Then write them sequentially in the right section of the
text.
Paragraph 1 closing remarks
Paragraph 2 personal qualities
Paragraph 3 age, present job, qualification
Paragraph 4 opening remarks/reason(s) for writing
Paragraph 5 experience

Dear Mrs. White,

INTRODUCTION
With reference to your advertisement in Paragraph 1
Wednesday’s edition of the San Antonio Post, I am
interested in applying for the position of high school
teacher.

BODY
I am 34 years old and currently teaching in San
Paragraph 2
Antonio. I have a B.S. degree awarded by the
Texas University in 1995. I completed my
certificate in education at Austin Teacher Training
College in 1996.

I have been working for Palo Alto Secondary Paragraph 3

School in San Antonio since 1997. During this time,
I have enjoyed teaching a variety of subjects, such
5
as English, History and Geography.

I consider myself to be punctual, industrious and

Paragraph 4
reliable. I enjoy working with children and
teenagers and have good people skills.

I enclose a reference from my present employer. I CONCLUSION

would be grateful if you would consider my Paragraph 5
application. I am available for interview any
weekday morning. I look forward to hearing from
you.

Yours sincerely,
(signature)
Jane Bowman

 TASK 2: Write a letter of application in response to one of the ads below:

1. Hard-working young assistant wanted for part-time job in a bookshop during

July/August. No sales experience needed, but a good understanding of English is
essential.
Apply in writing to Bookworms.

2. Large department store looking for ambitious and experienced floor manager to
work on a full time basis. Computer skills an asset.
For more information call J.T. Reeves at 217-3233.

3. Military School seeking NCO for the position of course administrator. At least 3
years experience and specialized training needed. Post your application letter at
NCO Military School, 32 Cambridge Street, Brussels.

2. LETTER OF COMPLAINT
 TASK 1: Read the sample letter below and write the topic of each paragraph
in the space provided on the right.

6
 Emil Chidean

11 Primaverii Street
Zip Code 42568
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
17th October 2006
Sasha Polanski
3 Paulista Bvd.
Sarajevo, Croatia
OPENING
Dear Manager, REMARKS

I am sorry to contact your company with a complaint.

Last year, in autumn, on 5th November, I bought a video
camera from your specialized store. I chose a Panasonic
XP5 model, an expensive product. I used it the entire
time I stayed in your country. Unfortunately, after I
arrived in Romania, it did not work properly anymore. I
have decided to write this letter because the camera is
completely out of order now. BODY

At the beginning, in Romania, the video camera

purchased from your store got blocked while recording.
First, I tried to charge the battery full, but it proved not to
be the right solution. After that, I thought there was
something wrong with the CD. I changed three kinds of
CDs but my camera still did not function. CLOSING
REMARKS

The warranty for this product is available until 2nd

November 2006. I think the problem can be solved by
your service department within this period of time. If it is
possible, your store should replace my camera with a
new one, as specified in the contract and in the warranty
certificate.

I am waiting for an answer as soon as possible.

Respectfully,
(signature)
Emil Chidean
 TASK 2: Read the situations and list at least two complaints for each of
them:

7
 I. A month ago you ordered some skiing equipment from a sports shop
and paid by credit card. Although you asked for it to be sent by courier,
you have received nothing. You urgently need this equipment.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

II. You recently bought an air conditioner which has been advertised on
television. On receiving it, you discovered that it was nothing like the
product shown in the advertisement.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

III. You have just come back from a package holiday where you were
disappointed by the lack of facilities and poor services.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

IV. You have just received the package with the living-room furniture you
ordered one month before. As you opened it, you discovered there was
something wrong with the furniture items.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

 TASK 3: The main purpose of a letter may be to communicate information

to a reader. However, another important purpose of a letter may be to express
the author’s attitude or emotion on the subject..
8
I. Put the phrases below into categories, depending on what emotion or attitude
they convey. There are several possible answers.

dissatisfaction satisfaction apology annoyance desires gratitude

I am particularly unhappy about… I’m sorry to have to say…

I’m sorry that… I’m very keen to… Unfortunately, …
I was delighted to see/hear that… Thank you so much for…
Happily, … Please accept my apologies for… Despite my request for…
…is not what I expected What would suit me best is…
… was most impressive Even though I previously mentioned…

II. Complete the possible sentences below from different letters by adding a
phrase from above. More than one combination may work.

a. The way she remembered all our names ________________.

b. ________________ try your new software.
c. ________________ your colleague behaved abominably.
d. ________________ we arrived in time for dinner.
e. ________________ the flowers.
f. The design ________________.
g. ________________ the mess we made.
h. ________________ her disability, no ramp was available.
i. ________________ a lecture room with an OHP.
j. ________________ privacy, the papers got to hear about it.
k. ________________ we were too late.
l. ________________ you passed your driving test.
m. ________________we didn’t make it to the funeral.
n. ________________ the suggested color scheme for the kitchen.

III. Choose three sentences and decide who wrote the letter to whom and about
what.
 TASK 4: You are an office worker and you are dissatisfied with the layout of
your office. There are a number of points that you are not happy about:

9
  Windows don’t open – no ventilation
 Book shelves – cut out natural light
 Open plan desks – workers easily distracted
 Office used as a corridor
 Doors constantly opened and banged shut by through-traffic
 Photocopier, franking machine and color printer – noisy and give off
fumes
 Desks (your desk) too near coffee area – too noisy and smoky
 Coffee area – always messy

Write a letter to your employer explaining what is the reason for your
dissatisfaction and what you think should be done.

 TASK 5: Write a complaint letter on one of the following topics:

1. You are currently attending a military course abroad. You are

dissatisfied with the accommodation and services provided. Write a
complaint letter to the military hostel administrator, explaining the
situation and your expectations.

2. You are on a mission abroad. You work for the logistics department
and you were in charge with ordering some office equipment. You
made a mail order but, on receiving the parcel you discovered that it
was nothing like the products you had seen in the catalog. Write a
complaint letter to the company customer service, requesting
immediate measures to be taken in order to solve the situation.

3. You are on a long term mission abroad together with your family. You
have noticed that at your son’s school, the students are left unattended.
Write a letter of complaint to the headmaster, asking him to take
immediate steps and make sure that the situation does not continue.

3. LETTER OR REQUEST

10
 TASK 1: Read the following sample letter of request and answer the
questions:
1. Who is the letter addressed to?
2. What is the reason for writing?
3. Where is the request stated?
4. What is the suggested solution?

205 Logan Road

Memphis, Tennessee 31650
April 22, 2006

China Sea Buffet

331 Spruce Street
Memphis, Tennessee 31640

Dear Sir/ Madam,

I am writing in connection with a pair of gloves I left in your

restaurant on 25 November.

I would be very grateful if you could send me the gloves to the

address above. Please find enclosed a check for $2.50 to cover
postage.

I look forward to hearing from you soon. If you need any further
information, please do not hesitate to get in touch.

Sincerely yours,
(signature)
Mr. A.M.Case

 TASK 2: Look at the situations below and answer the following questions:

 What greetings would you use?

 What reasons for writing would you suggest?
 What results do you expect?
 What closing remarks would you use?
 How would you sign the letters?

11
Situation 1: You want to request a loan from your bank manager for home
improvements.

Situation 2: You want a travel agency to send you brochures concerning the
holiday packages they offer for large groups.

Situation 3: You want the town council to place special bins in your area to
encourage recycling.

Situation 4: You want an insurance company to send you their available offers
regarding pension options.

Situation 5: You want your bank to send you the account statement with your
last year transactions.

 TASK 3: Write your own request letter on one of the following topics:

1. You a member of an environmental protection society which is

organizing a “clean-up” weekend. Write a letter to the headmaster of
the local school asking for students’ help. Explain what activities will
be involved and how useful it will be for the community as a whole.

2. You coach an amateur football team. Write a letter to the local school
requesting permission to use their facilities and explaining why your
team cannot find facilities elsewhere. Suggest how this may be
arranged so that your team’s training will not interfere with the
school’s activities.

3. You are in charge with organizing a military international seminar.

Write a letter to the local City Council asking for a guide to join the
group of guests in a sightseeing tour of the city. Suggest tourist
objectives to be visited and a possible schedule.

12
 INFORMAL / FORMAL LETTERS
- Comparative approach –

14 Alcol Road 17 Brick Street

Dallas, Texas Los Angeles, California
12th Feb., 2006 4th March 2006

Holiday Travels
84 Claredon Road
Dear Jane, Los Angeles, California
Thank you for your letter. It was lovely to
hear from you, and yes, I’d really like to Dear Sir,
come and stay next weekend. You know
how much I love spending weekends in I saw you advertisement for
the country after working all week in the holiday cottages in the Guardian
city. I’ll catch the usual bus on Friday newspaper.
evening.

Do you remember Harry? Well, I met him
at a party the other day. He’s fine, busy
as always. We went to the theater
together and saw an amusing play by
Miller.
Could you please send me a copy
of your 2005 brochure, and
include information such as price
lists and booking arrangements?

Anyway, I’ll give you more of my news I look forward to hearing from you,
when I see you. Must rush now because and thank you in advance.
I’m going to see Jack’s new flat this
evening. I’m really looking forward to the
weekend. Give my best wishes to Peter
and the children. Yours faithfully,
Jack Black
Love,
Pat

TASK: Compare the two letters in terms of:

 layout
 opening/closing remarks
 salutation
 organization and content
 informal/formal language
13
Write your conclusions in the following table:

INFORMAL LETTER FORMAL LETTER

e.g. sender’s address and LAYOUT e.g. sender’s address

date – top right corner and date – top right
corner

SALUTATION

OPENING/CLOSING
REMARKS

ORGANIZATION
AND CONTENT

FORMALITY
(structures)

14
Here are suggested some expressions that can be used for these types of
letters. Feel free to choose the ones you like!!!

BEGINNING LETTERS ENDING LETTERS CLOSINGS

I am sorry it has taken me so long I am looking forward to Sincerely…

to reply… hearing from/to seeing you
soon… Sincerely yours…
I have just received your letter…
I hope you will soon be Cordially yours…
I was very sorry to hear… well…
Best,…
What a surprise to get a letter I hope to hear from you
from you after such a long time… soon… Best wishes,…

You will be glad to hear that… Please give my Yours,…

I hope you and your family are love/regards/best wishes
well… to…
Best regards,…
Thank you for answering my Looking forward to
letter so quickly… receiving news about…
Love,…
How nice it was to hear from
you…

It has been so long since you

wrote that…

In reply to your letter of… I sincerely hope that you Respectfully,…

will be able to help me in
I am sorry to have to say that… this matter. Respectfully yours,…

I wonder if you could… I would greatly appreciate Your truly,…

In accordance to your request…
Please accept my thanks for…
I regret to inform you that…
I acknowledge your letter of…
I have carefully considered
your…
I am writing to inquire if…
an early reply.
Yours faithfully,…
Looking forward to a reply
at your earliest Your sincerely,…
convenience, I remain,…
Would you please let me
know as soon as possible
whether you could be
willing to…
I am looking forward/I look
forward to hearing from
you soon.

15
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY: LETTERS THAT CHANGED HISTORY

1. Read the following letters:

Dear President Lincoln, Dear Diana,

I regret to have to inform you that tonight’s
theatre performance has been cancelled.
This is due to a last minute technical
problem that cannot easily be remedied.
Please accept my sincere apologies for the
inconvenience caused to you and your wife,
and it is my sincere hope that we shall be
able to reschedule the theatre visit in the
near future.
Your humble servant,
Kurt N. Call
Kurt N. Call
Theatre Manager
Thank you for your company the other
night. I really enjoyed going to the theatre
with you and hearing all about your week.
I’m writing because I’m sure you, like I,
have been reading the newspapers and have
seen the pictures of us together published
in the tabloid press. I imagine that you have
also read and heard people speculating
about us, discussing the possibility that we
may be having a relationship.
For this reason I feel that we shouldn’t see
each other again. I hope that this does not
come as too much of a shock and that you
understand. I would like to wish you every
success for the future.

Charles
Dear Paul,

Dear Mr. Gates It was good to meet you at the church fair
last week. I’m glad you enjoyed listening to
Thank you for coming to visit us at IBM last may band and I was pleased that you were
week. We were very interested in the interested in joining us.
presentation you gave us of your new computer
software (Microsoft), and, following preliminary Unfortunately, I have had an argument with
trials, feel that you have a very good product. the other members of the band and we have
split up. I hope you’re not too disappointed
IBM would be interested in using your about this. I want to be a painter, so I have
“Windows” software, but in agreeing to do so decided to go to art college and won’t have
cannot agree to you retaining the rights to future time for music any more. Good luck with
upgrades and improvements. everything.

We look forward to hearing how you wish to Cheers,

proceed. John

Yours sincerely,

Jack Peachy

Jack Peachy

16
2. Answer the following questions:
a. How did American President Abraham Lincoln die and where?
b. How was Bill Gates able to build his “virtual” empire?
c. Who did Prince Charles marry in 1981?
d. How was “The Beatles” formed?

3. Discussion: How would history have been different if these letters had
been in fact sent?

4. Writing: Think of other similar situations and write letters that might have
changed the course of history (e.g. Brutus writes to Julius Caesar and tells
him about tells him about the plot against him.)

17
 A. MILITARY REPORTS are written in accordance to NATO
documents, as required by NATO structures. We can identify different
types of reports, according to the purpose they are written for: progress
reports, inspection reports, after-action reports.

 SAMPLE TASK: You have just returned from a course. Write a report to
your commanding officer in which you talk about the course. Mention the
following points:
 graduation day
 description of a mate
 advantages to your career

TO: Capt. Mike Austin

FROM: Lt. Tom Sinclair
SUBJECT: Course presentation
DATE: Nov, 02, 2006 LOCATION: FLC, Sibiu
DESCRIPTION OF EVENTS:

In the blank spaces provided, write the content of each paragraph:

Yesterday I graduated from the English course at the Foreign

Language Center in Sibiu. It was a very interesting ____________________
experience and I learnt a lot of new and valuable things. ____________________
Yesterday afternoon we had the graduation ceremony, and ____________________
before that we had to take the final exam, which was very ____________________
difficult and lasted for 3 hours. During the graduation day, we ____________________
had a very big ceremony with all the students that graduated
that day and all the teachers and other guests, friends and
family.

During the course I made a very good friend which I still keep ____________________
in touch with. He is from Timisoara and is also a lieutenant, ____________________
like me. He is 25 years old, a tall, athletic person. He is a ____________________
blue-eyed, dark-haired, very charming man. He proved to be ____________________

18
a very good colleague, a very sociable and reliable person;
he helped me a lot throughout the course.

I consider that this course was very challenging but also a

good and beneficial experience for me, in the light of my
future career. Now, I have better chances to go on a mission
or on a course abroad. I recommend that this course be
followed by military personnel in need of improving their
English knowledge and skills.

DATE: Nov, 02, 2006 SIGNATURE: LT. Tom Sinclair

 TASK: You are part of a NATO/PfP mission. Last night, while patrolling,
you witnessed an accident involving a military jeep. Write a report to your CO,
describing the incidents and actions. Include the following:
 Description of events
 Description of the guilty driver
 Recommendations/lessons learned

TO:
FROM:
SUBJECT:
DATE OF INCIDENT: LOCATION OF INCIDENT:
DESCRIPTION OF EVENTS:

DATE: SIGNATURE:

19
 B. MEMORANDUM (MEMO)
1.THE FORMAL MEMORANDUM is used to correspond formally
(internally and externally) with commanders, staff, agencies, military
personnel within the Department of Defense.

SAMPLE TASK: Write a memo to inform the personnel about the following:

MILNET MEETING
Personnel in question: IT specialists/O1- 6/NCOs
1. Meeting place: Officers’ Club
Date/time: 12 Dec/0900 hrs
2. Purpose: discussions, progress, evaluation, obstacle identification
3. List of participants: to be received by 02 Dec 2006.

MEMORANDUM FOR: See distribution

SUBJECT: MILNET meeting, 12 Dec 2006

1. The next LF Command information technology specialists meeting will

be held in HQ conference centre in the officers’ club building on 12 Dec
2006, 0900 hrs. The presence of all personnel involved in the MILNET
project is mandatory.

2. The meeting will be chaired by the HQ Chief IT specialist and its purpose
is to evaluate the progress and discuss the bottlenecks encountered.

3. Addressee will advise this office of the names of participants by 02 Dec

2006.

(Name) L. Battlefield
(Rank) Colonel
(Position) Chief, Administrative
(Department) Services

20
 TASK: Write a memo to inform the personnel about a seminar of operational
law. Include the following:
 Law experts/officers
 Land Forces Academy
 15 February/0800hrs
 Lectures (rules of engagement, humanitarian aid), debates,
progress, evaluation, obstacle identification
 Lists of participants to be received by 05 February

2.THE INFORMAL MEMORANDUM is used to correspond

informally (internally) within a unit, organization, or agency

 TASK 1: Read the sample memo below. In the blank spaces provided, write
the content of each paragraph and identify the purpose for which it was written.

MEMORANDUM

1000-4536328360

05 Jan 07

Report of stolen article:

1. This memo is to inform you that my raincoat was stolen

in the mess hall on 03 Jan 07.

2. On 03 Jan 07, it was raining as I went to the mess hall to

have lunch. I left my raincoat in the corridor because it was
wet. Then I went inside to have lunch. When I returned, my
raincoat was missing.

3.I am assuming it was stolen.

NAME
RANK

TASK 2: Write a memo in which you report that your camcorder was stolen.
21
3.THE MEMORANDUM FOR RECORD is used to document
conversations, meetings and other events for future reference.

SAMPLE:

04 January 2007

MEMORANDUM FOR RECORD

Subject: Command Procedure Manual Update

1. All Company Commanders are to review the attached documents.

These procedures are being implemented into the Command
Procedure Manual.
2. These procedures are effective immediately.

Jerome H. Jones, Capt, USA

Executive Officer

TASK 1: Observe the format of the sample memorandum for record. How is it
different from the other two types of memos?

TASK 2: Correct the style in the following memorandum:

MEMORANDUM FOR: list of addressees

SUBJECT: Legal Advisor Meeting, 15 February 2007

It is my pleasure to inform you that we are going to organize the LF Command legal
advisors meeting in HQ conference centre in the officers’ club building at 10 a.m. on 15
February 2007. All the officers and NCOs who work in this office have to be present.

The meting will be chaired by the HQ Chief legal advisor and its purpose is to evaluate
the newly implemented NATO rules and regulations and discuss possible means of
interpretation.

We expect to receive the lists of the participants by 08 February 2007.

22
The paragraph is the basic unit of composition. In written form, the act of
communication is divided into paragraphs to distinguish one main idea from
other main ideas.

A.PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

1. TOPIC VERSUS TOPIC SENTENCE

The first sentence of a paragraph is usually called the topic sentence. It is

possible to place the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph (as a kind of
conclusion), or even in the middle (as a kind of link between the two parts). It is
even possible not to have a topic sentence at all; in this case we say that the
topic sentence is implied or suggested. However, remember that a topic sentence
placed at the beginning of a paragraph is the clearest kind of paragraph
organization.
What makes a good topic sentence? Try to make a statement about your
topic which limits it to a certain extent. One good way to limit your topic is to
place key words or phrases in the topic sentence. These words or phrases are
sometimes called controlling words or phrases, since they control the
organization of the paragraph. In a paragraph on soccer, for example, they will
immediately indicate to the reader that you plan to do one of the several things:

Discuss the history of soccer

Compare it with another sport
Describe its difficulty
Explain the rules of the game

2. PARAGRAPH UNITY

23
 Besides a topic sentence, a paragraph includes several other sentences
which in some way contribute to or support the idea in the topic sentence. In
other words, all these sentences must be related to the topic and must therefore
refer back to the topic sentence. Notice the arrows in the following diagram.

Topic
Sentence_______________________________________________

Supporting Sentence
Supporting Sentence
Supporting Sentence
Supporting Sentence
and so forth

It is possible, of course, that some sentences may be directly related to the

preceding supporting sentences (that is, they provide examples, details, or
further explanation):

Topic
Sentence_______________________________________________

Supporting Sentence
Supporting Sentence
Supporting Sentence
Supporting Sentence
and so forth

 TASK 1: Identifying Irrelevant Sentences

The following paragraphs contain sentences which are not directly related
to the main idea of those paragraphs. Draw a line through the irrelevant
sentence(s) of each paragraph. Then circle the key words in the topic sentences.

1. 1Different people spend their weekends in different ways. 2Some enjoy

going in the mountains to hike, ski, or just relax. 3Water skiing is much
more difficult than snow skiing. 4Others prefer going to the beach to
24
enjoy the seashore activities and to get a suntan. 5Some of these people
work very hard during the week, others have rather relaxing jobs. 6Still
others like to relax by staying home and reading a good book.

2. 1Ever since the time of Greeks, drama has played an important role in
people’s lives. 2The Greek tragedies and comedies were a central part of
the life of the citizens of ancient Greece. 3During the Middle Ages, Bible
stories were acted out in churches, and wandering companies of players
performed in the streets. 4William Shakespeare lived during the
Elizabethan period. 5The English language has changed somewhat since
Shakespeare’s time. 6In modern times, drama is brought directly into
people’s homes through the magic of television. 7Television also offers
people such things as quiz variety and shows.

3. 1The general population often resists innovations, whether practical or

aesthetic. 2When the early experimenters in the field of aviation began
their work, there were many who said, “If God had wanted man to fly, He
would have given him wings.” 3The Wright brothers made the first
powered flights in a heavier-than-air craft in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North
Carolina. 4Even today there are many who strongly object to modern art
and music as being nothing more than “splashes of paint and honing
horns”. 5The painter Picasso’s well-known masterpiece “The Three
Musicians” is done primarily in blues and browns.

4. 1Zoos are popular with all children. 2They are able to see examples of
wildlife from all continents. 3In wildlife preservers in Africa, the animals
wander about freely without far of being captured. 4Perhaps the favorite
spot in a zoo is the elephant cage. 5There the elephants entertain
children by spraying themselves with their trunks and doing various
tricks. 6The children are especially delighted when an elephant takes
peanuts from them with its trunk.

 TASK 2: Identifying Suitable Topic Sentences

After reading each of the following paragraphs, select the most suitable
topic sentence from the three choices following it, and write the sentence which
you have selected in the blank then try to explain why each of the other two
items is not appropriate.

1.________________________________________________________.
Where Britons end certain words with –se, Americans usually end the
same words with –ce, (British practise versus American practice); the
25
reverse is sometimes true, too (British defence versus American
defense). Notice also the British preference for final –re over the
American –er (metre versus meter). Finally, most Americans consider
neighbor a correct spelling, but a Briton characteristically adds a ”u” and
spells the word neighbour.

a. British and American English are not the same.

b. There are some minor differences between American and
British spelling.
c. The endings of British and American words are not the same.

2.________________________________________________________.
The operation of both devices can be thought of as being divided into
three phases: input, processing, and output. In the case of the computer,
the information which is fed into the machine – the data – is the input;
the internal operations of the machine constitute the processing; and the
result – usually a printout – is called the output. The telephone, too, acts
on information presented to it and produces a result. The input is the
actual dialing of the number. The switching system which locates the
number can be considered the processing phase. Finally, the telephone
rings on the other end of the line, indicating that the call has been
completed; this constitutes the output.

a. Both the computer and the telephone are helpful inventions.

b. Computer terminology, such as input and output, is frequently
used in other contexts.
c. Despite apparent differences, the operation of the computer and
the telephone have much in common.

TASK 3: Supplying Appropriate Topic Sentences

The topic sentences of the following paragraphs have been omitted. After a
careful reading, write an appropriate topic sentence for each.

1.________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
The one most people are familiar with is the “desk dictionary”,
sometimes referred to as a general – purpose dictionary. Another kind is
the pronouncing dictionary, which is concerned with a word’s
pronunciation more than with its meaning. A third type is the bilingual
26
dictionary, which lists the words in one language and attempts to give
equivalent meanings in another language. Other types include technical
dictionaries, special-purpose dictionaries, and scholarly dictionaries.

2.________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________ .
Under this system, the customer’s monthly telephone bill includes
specific information for each long-distance call: the date and the time of
each call, the rate charged per minute (based on the company’s discount
system), the length of time the call took, the number and the place
called, whether the call was direct-dialed or operator-assisted, and the
amount charged for the call. As each call is placed, all of this information
is fed into a computer and programmed onto each customer’s billing
card, thus simplifying and clarifying the entire billing process. The
telephone company hopes that its billing procedure will reduce the
number of inquiries and free its employees to do work which computers
are not yet able to perform.

3.________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
Surveys indicate that Social Security benefits constitute the main source
of income (about 37 percent) for retired Americans who are over sixty-
five years of age. The Social Security system, which is a fund financed
jointly by workers, employers, and the federal government, provides
monthly payments to retired persons and pays for some of their medical
bills. Earnings from part-time jobs account for approximately 25 percent
of the income of retired Americans. Almost half of the retired population
works on a part-time basis, and most do so at a lower salary than they
earned before retirement. Assets, including property, stocks, and money
saved during working years provide another 23 percent of retirement
income. Surprisingly, money from pensions (retirement plans) supplies
only 13 percent of retirees’ total fiscal support. The remaining 2 percent
is attributed to unspecified other sources.

4.________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
It will teach you how to pronounce new words correctly. It will also show
you the correct spellings of these words. Most dictionaries will then give
27
you certain important grammatical information about each word –
whether it is a noun or an adjective, for example, or how the past tense
of a verb is spelled. Many dictionaries will also give the etymology of a
word, telling you which language it originally came from. But perhaps
most importantly, a dictionary tells you what a word means. Most words
have several meanings, and a good dictionary helps you to understand
the word in all its different meanings by giving you clear definitions and
useful examples.

5.________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
In some cultures, the act of touching another person is considered very
intimate and is therefore reserved for people who know each other very
well. In the United States, for example, young children are taught that it
is rude to stand too close to people. By the time they are adults,
Americans have learned to feel most comfortable when standing at
about arm’s length away from the people to whom they are talking. And
many Americans do not touch each other with great frequency while
talking (this is particularly true of men). In contrast, other cultures have
more relaxed ruled regarding touching. For example, it is usual for
friends - both men and women – to embrace each other when they meet.
When they talk, they generally stand closer than Americans do, and they
touch each other more often. They are as much at ease doing this as
Americans are with more space between them, and they feel just as
uncomfortable with Americans’ “touching rules” as Americans feel with
theirs.

6.________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
First, with a word processor it is possible to type over a word or words
that you want to change, while with a standard typewriter it is necessary
either to erase or use correction fluid or tape and then type in the
corrections. The second advantage is that you can add words or
sentences in the middle of paragraph and then command the computer
to put your text back in proper paragraph form. When using a standard
typewriter, the only way to add new information is to retype the entire
paragraph. A third benefit of using computer to write is that you can
move entire paragraphs within longer papers simply by pushing a key.
With a typed text, this can be accomplished only with scissors and paste,
which produces sloppy-looking work.
28
3. WAYS OF SUPPORTING TOPIC SENTENCES

 TASK 4: There are many ways in which we can support a topic sentence.
Read the following paragraphs, then decide what methods were used for
developing and clarifying the topic sentences. In the blank space provided on
the left, write a definition or a description of that particular method.

1. Some of the most interesting words in English are the

actual names of the people first involved in the activities
suggested by the meanings of the words. The word boycott,
for instance, derives from the case of Sir Charles
Boycott(1832-97), a land agent in Ireland whose tenants
ostracized him because he refused to lower their rents.
Vidkun Quilsing’s name quickly became am infamous
addition to the English language during World War II. He
was a Norwegian politician who betrayed his country to the
Nazis, and his name, quilsing, is now synonymous with
traitor. Perhaps a more common example is Levis. These
popular blue jeans are named after Levis Strauss, the man
who first manufactured them in San Francisco in 1850.
Perhaps most omnipresent of all is the sandwich, named after
the Fourth Earl of Sandwich (1718-92), who created this
quick portable meal so that he would not have to leave the
gambling table to eat. Other words in this unique category
include lynch, watt, davenport, and zeppelin.

2. Landlords usually require a renter to sign a very

complicated contract called a lease. It stipulates the length of
time the person must stay in the apartment and the amount of
rent he or she must pay. It can limit the number of people
allowed to live in the apartment and restrict the renter from
having pets. A lease may prohibit the renter from subletting
and include a provision by which the renter is charged a
certain amount of money if he or she breaks the contract. The
agreement also includes the responsibilities of the landlord,
such as providing adequate heat, garbage removal, and
exterior maintenance of the apartment building.

3. The term population explosion is usually applied to the

rapid growth of the last three centuries. In the 200 years from
1650 to 1850, world population doubled and reached its first

29
 billion. In the next 80 years, it doubled again; and by 1975, it
had doubled once more to a total of 4 billion. At the
beginning of the 21st century, it is estimated it will exceed 6
billion and possibly approach 8 billion unless there is a major
reduction in birth rates or major increase in death rates.

4. Physical gestures and body language have different

meanings in different cultures, and misunderstanding these
signals can sometimes be embarrassing. Although I had spent
a lot of time among non-Americans, I had never realized
what this could mean in practical terms. I had an experience
which taught me well, however. Some years ago, I organized
and accompanied a small group of visiting foreign students
to New York for four days of sightseeing by bus. Because
these students were rather young, and because New York is
such an overwhelming city, I was constantly counting heads
to be sure we hadn’t lost anyone. In the U.S., it is very
common to count people or things by pointing the index
finger and, of course, I used this method. One young man
became extremely quiet and pensive, and I thought that
perhaps he wasn’t enjoying himself. When I asked him what
the matter was, he replied, “In my country, we count people
with our eyes. We use our fingers to count the pigs.”

B. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT – PATTERNS

OF ORGANIZATION
I. ENUMERATION
1. DEFINITION
- a technique used to arrange supporting sentences in a logical and
cohesive manner
- the structure of an enumerative paragraph: general class

members/parts
SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

30
There are three kinds of materials that can be found in any good library. First,
there are books on all subjects, both in English and in many other languages.
These books are organized according to the subject, title and author in a central
file called the card catalog. Books can generally be checked out of the library
and taken home for a period of two to four weeks. Second, there are reference
books, which include encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, atlases, and
so forth and which generally must be used in the library itself. Third, there are
periodicals – magazines, newspapers, pamphlets – which are filed
alphabetically in racks, or which have been microfilmed to conserve space.

Topic sentence: There are three kinds of materials that can be found in any good
library.

Types of library materials: books, reference works, periodicals

Supportive information: description/examples

The coherence and cohesion of the paragraph is ensured by:

 Enumerators:
- key words
- included in the topic sentence
- announce what the paragraph is structured on
-examples: kinds, types, classes, parts, elements, factors,
characteristics, aspects, divisions, subdivisions, categories

 Listing signals: - connectives of sequence

- examples: first, second, third

 Order of the supportive sentences:

- equal order: all the items are equally important
- ascending order: one item is more important, essential and it is
placed LAST
- descending order: one item is more important, essential, and it is
placed FIRST

 TASK 1: Analyzing enumerative paragraphs

31
1. Of the ten largest cities in the United States in the late 1980s, three
are located in the state of Texas. Of these, Huston, which ranks
fourth in the country, has the biggest population with 1,705,697
residents. Next comes Dallas, which has 974,243 people and is the
seventh largest city in the U.S. The smallest Texas city on the top-
ten list is San Antonio, ranking tenth among U.S. cities and having a
population of 842,779.

Enumerator(s): city/population______________________
Listing signals: next, the smallest ________
Order: descending________________________________

2. Astronomers use three basic types of telescopes to explore the

vastness of space. The refractor telescope uses two lenses – one to
collect light from a distant object and bring it into focus, and
another in the eyepiece to magnify the image. Second, there is a
reflector telescope, which makes use of a concave mirror instead if a
lens to reflect light rays to the upper end of the telescope. Last, and
perhaps most important in terms of studying phenomena outside
the earth’s atmosphere, is the radio telescope, which gathers waves
with a wire antenna serving as a parabolic reflecting surface. The
discovery of mysterious quasars and pulsars was made possible by
this kind of telescope.

Enumerator(s):__________________________________
Listing signals: _________________________________
Order:_________________________________________

3. Air travel, as determined by the number of passengers served in the

United States’ busiest airports, has been steadily increasing during
the later part of the 20th century. In 1977, 13.2 million passengers
boarded, deplaned or transferred through Washington D.C.’s
National Airport, while in 1987, that figure rose to over 14.3 million.
Next in volume of passengers was San Francisco’s International
Airport, which served 20.2 million people in 1977 and 28.5 million in
1987. Finally, Chicago’s O’Hare Field, the nation’s busiest airport
both in 1977 and 1987, tallied an increase in air travelers from 44
million to well over 53 million.

Enumerator(s): _______________________________________
Listing signals: _______________________________________
Order: ______________________________________________
4. Because the earth turns on its axis at the same time as it is moving
around the sun, there are two ways to determine the period of time
which constitutes a day. It is possible to define a day as the interval
32
 of time between the highest point of the sun in the sky on two
successive days. This determination, mean solar time, produces the
twenty-four-hour day when it is averaged out of the year. It is
equally possible, however, to define a day as the period of time
between the points when the vernal equinox is directly overhead.
This method of measuring is called sidereal time and is almost four
minutes shorter per day than solar mean time.

Enumerator(s):__________________________________
Listing signals: _________________________________
Order: _________________________________________

5. Educational researchers have identified four distinctive learning

styles which students use when attempting to master new
information and concepts. First, some students prefer auditory
learning. They learn best from lectures, tape recordings, and class
discussions. The second of these styles is tactile learning.
This is a learning-by-doing approach, which involves such things as
dissecting animals to handle their internal organs rather than
dealing about them. Still, other students are best suited to
experiential learning. Making use of all their senses, such as a field
trip to a forest when studying botany, is the best way for these
learners to understand new material fully. The last of these styles is
visual learning. The student who favors this style relies heavily on
what can be seen – books and charts, for instance – to acquire
knowledge. Of these four learning styles, none is considered best;
but rather they are descriptive of techniques individuals use to learn
effectively.

Enumerator(s): ______________________________________
Listing signals: ______________________________________
Order: _________ ____________________________________

6. Bioethicists, a new breed of scientist-philosophers, concern

themselves with pressing problems which have arisen as a result of
technological advances in modern medicine. One consideration is
the recent development of techniques which enable doctors to
perform test-tube cross-fertilization, producing the test-tube babies.
Recombinant DNA, or genetic engineering, is another medical
achievement which is accompanied by dubious moral implications.
Artificial organ implantation (heart, kidneys, eyes) generates
questions of who should be chosen as recipient of these life-
sustaining gifts and how these choices should be made. On the
opposite end of the spectrum, machines which are capable of
prolonging life indefinitely, even though the patient may never
regain consciousness, bring up the problem of establishing a precise
definition of what death is.
33
 Enumerator(s): _______________________________________
Listing signals: ________________________________________
Order:______________________________________________

2. TYPES OF ENUMERATION

A. PROCESS PARAGRAPH
- tells how something is made or done (usually in present tense)
- an enumeration of steps or stages:

PROCESS

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

and so forth

- most common enumerators: step, stage, phase

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

In his will, Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the
science awards he endowed are to be selected. First, each year the Swedish
Academy of Sciences (physics and chemistry) and the Caroline Medical Institute
(physiology and medicine) solicit nearly 2,000 recommendations from past
laureates, university professors and other experts from all over the world. The
second step is the review of recommendations received and the selection of
preliminary candidates by special committee members are specifically
instructed that those chosen “shall have conferred the greatest benefit on
mankind” and that no consideration be given to the candidates’ nationalities.
Next, after lengthy investigation and discussion, the final choices are made for
each discipline. Finally, telegrams informing them of their awards are sent to
the new Nobel laureates about one month prior to the award ceremony.

 TASK 1: Analyze the sample paragraph and write the required information
in the blank spaces:

34
Topic sentence – key words: _________________________________________
Enumerator(s): ____________________________________________________
Listing signals: ____________________________________________________

 TASK 2: Write 2 process paragraphs, giving instructions (how to boil an

egg, how to make a sandwich, how to send an e-mail, etc.) and directions (how
to get from point A to point B).

B. CHRONOLOGICAL (NARRATIVE) PARAGRAPH

- presents events in a time sequence
- enumerators (rarely used): thing, event
- time clues:  past verb forms
 prepositional phrases of time: in 1956; in January; in
the evening; at 0900; at noon; on Monday; on July 6; etc.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

Although the U.S. Air Force was not officially created until after the Second
World War, it had existed under other names since the beginning of the century.
The Army Air Forces were started in August 1, 1907, as a part of the
Aeronautical Division of the U.S. Signal Corps, and it was more than one year
later that this small division carried out its first mission in its own airplane.
When the United States entered World War I in 1917, the Aviation Service, as it
was then called, had only thirty five pilots. On December 7, 1941, the renamed
Army Air Forces had only 3,000 of their 10,000 planes ready for combat.
Finally, in 1947, the U.S. Air Force was established as a separate branch of the
military.

 TASK 1: Arrange the events chronologically on the time line:

1907

Aeronautical Division

 TASK 2: Rewrite the process paragraph (about Nobel Prize winners). This
time, assume that the entire process occurred several months ago. In other

35
words, describe it as a real past event. The first sentence has been provided as
example:

Earlier this year, preparations were made once again to pick the new Nobel
science laureats ___________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

 TASK 3: Write about the events in the life of __________, which contributed
to his/her success.

C. ARGUMENTATIVE PARAGRAPH
- supports a thesis statement / develops one main idea
- provides an enumeration of arguments / reasons
- most common enumerators: reason, argument

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

Going abroad to study or to live is not always a pleasure. Anybody can have
difficulties trying to adapt to the customs and traditions of the new country. In
fact, facing unpleasant situations makes the difference between a brave person
and a coward. There are three reasons why a person should try to get
assimilated into the new culture. First, it has been demonstrated that the culture
shock doesn’t last forever. After a period of time, the discrepancy between
cultures will appear smaller. The second reason is that struggling with all kinds
of problems will conduct to a greater final satisfaction. Finally, a person who
adapted to a new culture will be a bridge connecting the two cultures. This is an
important step in the attempt of understanding the differences and the
similarities.

TASK 1: Analyze the sample paragraph and write the required information in
the blank spaces:

36
Topic sentence – key words: _________________________________________
Enumerator(s): ____________________________________________________
Listing signals: ____________________________________________________

TASK 2: Write your own argumentative paragraph, providing at least three

arguments for the topic sentence below:

Crime problem can be controlled by applying stiffer and stricter laws.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

II. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

DEFINITION: Comparison = similarity / Contrast = difference

1. Focus on comparison
In a paragraph based on comparison, the information is rendered in order to
show the likeliness and similarities between the two elements of the comparison
(as stated in the topic sentence). Differences are omitted, the focus being on
common points.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

Are you aware of the striking similarities between of the two most popular U.S.
presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the
names Lincoln and Kennedy both have the same number of letters. Both men
had their elections legally challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both
remembered by their sense of humor, as well as for their interest in civil rights.
Lincoln became president in 1860; Kennedy in 1960. Lincoln’s secretary was
Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither man took the
advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on which he
was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday in the
presence of their wives. Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey
Oswald have fifteen letters in their names, and both were murdered before they
37
could be brought to trial. Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern
Democrat named Johnson, so was Kennedy. And finally, the same caisson
carried the bodies of both men in their funeral procession.

 TASK 1: Use the following table in order to analyze the sample paragraph:

ELEMENTS OF COMPARISON COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES

- same number of letters in their - both (their names both have the
names same…)
- elections challenged - both (both men)

Structures used for pointing similarities:

 Adjectives and prepositions: exactly/ almost/ practically the same…as,
somewhat/rather very/quite similar to, like
 Conjunctions: both…and, neither…nor, not only…but also
 Predicative structures: to closely/greatly resemble, to have
things/features/aspects/characteristics/qualities/attitudes in common,
there are certainly many/several/two similarities
 Connectives: similarly, correspondingly, likewise, in the same way

2. Focus on contrast

In a paragraph focused on contrast, the elements of the comparison are dealt

with from the point of view of their differences.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

According to the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, every person’s

personality can be placed somewhere on a scale running from extreme
extroversion (an outgoing personality) to extreme introversion (a withdrawn
personality). The typical extrovert is particularly fond of people and people-
oriented activities: he or she is sociable, likes parties, has many friends, needs
to have people to talk to, and does not like reading or studying alone. The
typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of person,
introspective, fond of books rather than people. Unlike the extrovert, who craves
excitement, takes chances and is generally impulsive, the introvert shuns
excitement, takes matters of everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a

38
well-ordered mode of life. Whereas the extrovert tends to be aggressive and
loses his or her temper easily, the introvert tends to keep his or her feelings
under control, seldom behaves in an aggressive manner, and does not lose his
or her temper easily. The introvert is more reliable and less optimistic than the
extrovert, the extrovert may often be subject to criminal or psychopathic
behavior, in contrast to the introvert, who may exhibit neurotic tendencies. A
further difference between the two involves the ability to remember. Studies
have tended to show that the extrovert learns faster than the introvert, but, in
the end, remembers last.

 TASK 2: Use the following table in order to analyze the sample paragraph:

ELEMENTS OF CONTRAST CONTRASTIVE STRUCTURES

Extrovert Introvert on the other hand
Sociability
Fond of people, Prefers books to
likes parties, people, is quiet
sociable and retiring
Risk-taking

Expression of feelings, aggression

Reliability, optimism

Ability to remember

Structures of contrast:
 Adjectives: comparative and superlative forms
 Prepositions: unlike, contrary to, as opposed to
 Adverbial clauses introduced by: whereas, while
39
  Verbal structures: to contrast with, to differ from, to be different from
 Connectives: however, on the other hand, nevertheless, although, but

The comparison-contrast paragraph can be written according to two types

of organizational patterns: the block pattern and the point-by-point pattern.

A. In a block pattern, the writer first presents all topic A information, then
gives all topic B information. Generally, this is the easiest pattern to organize
and write.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

The two kinds of elephants – the African and the Indian – have
similarities and differences. The African elephant is large and dark. It has large
ears and a sloping forehead. Training the African elephant to de work is
sometimes a difficult task. The African elephant sleeps standing up. The Indian
elephant, on the other hand, is not as large or as dark. It has smaller ears and a
less sloping forehead. Training the Indian elephant to do work is relatively easy.
The Indian elephant usually sleeps lying down.

B. Point-by-point comparisons first offer a topic A element compared

and/or contrasted with a topic B element, then a second topic A element is
compared and/or contrasted with a topic B element, and so on until all terms of
comparison and/or contrast have been eliminated.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

The two kinds of elephants – African and Indian – have similarities and
differences. The African elephant is larger and darker than his Indian brother.
The African elephant also has larger ears and a more sloping forehead than the
Indian elephant. Both can be tamed, but the African elephant is not as easily
trained as the Indian one. When the African elephant sleeps, it usually stands
up, but his Indian brother usually sleeps lying down.

 TASK 3: For each the following paragraphs identify:

- main idea
- paragraph type
- organizational pattern
40
 - elements of comparison/contrast
- connectives

1. Although they are thousand of miles apart and on different continents, New
York City, USA and Cairo, Egypt, are remarkably similar. New York City is
over populated with people from all over the world and all walks of life. It has a
fascinating mixture of nationalities, cultures, religions, and beliefs. Because of a
shortage of land to build outward, most New Yorkers live in high-rise apartment
buildings and condos. Because of the large population, there is heavy traffic; this
makes the public transportation system indispensable. Besides the subway
system, the streets are packed with cars, taxis and buses. New York City is the
hub of the international-cultural scene in the entire US. It offers Broadway
plays, operas, international cuisine, museums, and many tourist sites, such as the
Statue of Liberty, the Empire State Building, and the United Nations. Just as
New York City is overpopulated, the same is true of Cairo, the most populated
city in Egypt. It also has a variety of nationalities, cultures, religions, and
beliefs. The land area is limited, as with New York City, so the Cairens live
mainly in apartment buildings of two to twenty stories high. There is heavy
traffic in Cairo as well. Besides a small subway system, you can see cars, taxis,
buses, motorbikes and even carriages and wagons. Like New York City, Cairo is
the center of international-cultural activities in Egypt. It also offers international
entertainment, museums, cuisine, and many tourist sites, such as the Nile River,
and the Sphinx and the Great Pyramids in a neighboring town. These are two of
the world’s most exciting and captivating towns.

Main idea _______________________________________________________

Paragraph type___________________________________________________
Organizational pattern____________________________________________
Elements of comparison/contrast____________________________________
Connectives______________________________________________________

2. Although they are thousand of miles apart and on different continents, New
York City, USA and Cairo, Egypt, are remarkably similar. Both cities are
overpopulated with people from all over the world and from all walks of life;
each city has a fascinating mixture of nationalities, cultures, religions and
beliefs. Since there is no more land to build outward in either city, most New
Yorkers live in high-rise apartment buildings and condos while the Cairens live
mostly on apartment buildings of two to twenty stories high. There is heavy
traffic in New York, as well as in Cairo, so the public transportation system in
each of these metropolises is indispensable. Besides the subway system, the
streets are packed with cars, taxis, buses, motorbikes and, sometimes, even
41
horse-drawn carriages. New York City is the hub of the international-cultural
scene in the entire US. It offers Broadway plays, operas, international cuisine,
museums, and many tourist sites, such as the Statue of Liberty, the Empire State
Building, and the United Nations. In the same way, Cairo also offers
international entertainment, museums, cuisine, and many tourist sites, such as
the Nile River, and the Sphinx and the Great Pyramids in a neighboring town.
These are two of the most exciting and captivating towns in the world.

Main idea _______________________________________________________

Paragraph type__________________________________________________
Organizational pattern____________________________________________
Elements of comparison/contrast____________________________________
Connectives______________________________________________________

3.Even though both get you to the destination, traveling by car and traveling by
plane are altogether different. Traveling by car is one of the cheapest forms of
motorized transportation. With the cost of gasoline decreasing, car travel is very
cost-efficient. The only big expense connected with car travel might be a
maintenance check (and possible repairs), before one sets out on a long trip.
Traveling by car takes longest to reach one’s destination; however, if the driver
has plenty of vacation time, the length of time of the trip probably doesn’t
matter. For the person who enjoys beautiful scenery and sightseeing, traveling
by car is ideal. Because car travel is slower than some other types of
transportation, a person can take advantage of his/her surroundings. In fact,
many drivers will make frequent stops to take pictures or to take side trips to see
places of interest off the main highway. In contrast to car travel, airplane travel
is the most expensive form of transportation. Even though one can sometimes
find bargains on plane fares, ticket prices are still costlier than gasoline prices.
Flying may be more expensive, but a traveler can get to his/her destination
quickly. To get to a location by car could take days or even weeks. If the traveler
is not interested in sightseeing or taking in beautiful scenery, plane travel is the
way to go. Ten minutes into the flight, the only scenery one can see is the
blanket of clouds through which the plane is flying. Both modes of
transportation have their advantages and disadvantages, so neither is the better
nor the worse way to go. It is simply up to the individual traveler to weigh the
pros and the cons, and then make a decision.

Main idea________________________________________________________
Paragraph type__________________________________________________
Organizational pattern____________________________________________
Elements of comparison/contrast____________________________________
42
Connectives______________________________________________________

4. My twin daughters Dora and Lora share a few common traits, yet they differ
in several important ways. Naturally, being identical twins, they are alike in
appearance. They both have blond hair, green eyes, and fair complexions. They
are approximately the same height and weight, as well. As far as school is
concerned, they are equally motivated and always come home with good grades.
That’s where the similarities end. Personality-wise, Lora is somewhat shy and
quiet, and she has only a few close friends. On the other hand, Dora is extremely
outgoing, has joined several school clubs, and has quite a few friends. The girls’
taste in clothing varies, too. Lora seems to prefer conservative, inconspicuous
clothing, apparently to match her personality. In contrast, Dora likes to keep up
with the latest fads and fashions, no matter how eccentric they are. Probably the
biggest difference between the two girls is their interests. Lora is very artistic, so
she can always be found drawing, writing poetry, or playing her guitar. Unlike
Lora, Dora is the scientist in the family. She loves to take things apart, much to
my dismay, in order to see how they work. In addition, she can always be found
helping her father whenever he’s working on the car. This all goes to prove that
you can’t judge a book by its cover. Even though Lora and Dora look the same
on the surface, they are two distinct individuals.

Main idea ______________________________________________________

Paragraph type__________________________________________________
Organizational pattern____________________________________________
Elements of comparison/contrast____________________________________
Connectives______________________________________________________

 TASK 4: Now write you own compare and contrast paragraph, on one of the
following topics:
 Differences and similarities between your native town and the town you
work in;
 Differences and similarities between you and a friend of yours;
 Differences and similarities between two members in your family;
 Differences and similarities between your life as a teenager and your life
as an adult.

Use any of the two organizational patterns, at least 5 elements of

comparison and contrast and relevant connectives to make your ideas
coherent and logically linked.

43
III. CAUSE AND EFFECT

1. DEFINITION
- describes a casual relationship between the topic sentence and the
supporting sentences
- supporting sentences = a list of effects (what a certain situation has lead
to or has resulted in)
= a list of causes (reasons or explanation why
something is the way it is, or why it happened
the way it did)

Cause #1
Effect #1

Cause #2 SITUATION SITUATION Effect #2

Cause #3 Effect #3

Sample paragraph :

Some scientists warn that the gradual warming of the earth’s atmosphere,
known as the Greenhouse Effect, will cause dramatic changes in the world as
we know it. First of all, because of the increase in temperature of up to 10
degrees F by the end of the next century, which some believe has already begun,
there will be changes in existing patterns of agriculture. Such fertile areas as
the U.S. Great Plains may become deserts, while the now arid lands in Saudi
Arabia may become grain-producing farmland. Secondly, since rainfall patterns
will change, water supplies in some areas will diminish. Experts predict, for
instance, that the rice fields in Southeast Asia will someday require irrigation to
sustain crops. Changes in water levels will also be responsible for altered living
patterns. Coastal areas, such as Florida and the Netherlands, will experience
such a dramatic rise in water levels that they will fall below sea level and
become uninhabitable. In other areas, like the Great Lakes, water levels will
fall; consequently, they will no longer be able to support industry with energy
supplies and a ready means of transportation. Since most experts on the

44
Greenhouse Effect are convinced that it is irreversible, they advise us to plan
now for how best to cope with a changing world.

Topic sentence: cause and effect (Greenhouse effect; changes it will bring
about)
Supporting sentences: list and explain the effects

CAUSE EFFECTS
Changes in
agricultural
Temperature
patterns
increase

Great Plains
Saudi Arabia

Greenhouse
Effect

45
2. STRUCTURAL SIGNALS

a. Sentence Connectors - used to join two complete grammatical structures

- the connector is preceded by a semicolon (;)
AS A RESULT e.g. In other areas, like the Great Lakes,
CONSEQUENTLY water levels will fall; consequently, they
THEREFORE
BECAUSE OF THIS
will no longer be able to support
DUE TO THIS industry with energy supplies and a
HENCE ready means of transportation.
THUS
- the two sentences linked by the connector can be
separated by a period (.)
e.g. In other areas, like the Great Lakes,
water levels will fall. Therefore, they
will no longer be able to support
industry with energy supplies and a
ready means of transportation.

b. Conjunctions - always preceded by commas

e.g. In other areas, water levels will fall. So they will

no longer be able to support industry.
SO
FOR
Task: Rewrite the sentences using for as
conjunction.
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________

c. Clause Structures – intercalated within the structure expressing effect

1. SO + adj/much/many + THAT
SUCH (A) + adj+noun + THAT

e.g.

be so great that
happen so fast that
dry out so much land that
The rise in destroy so many crops that agricultural patterns
46
 temperature will cause such terrible damage that will change.
patterns cause such a severe heat wave that

 Task: Fill in the blanks by using so, such:

There will be __________ great rise in temperature that agricultural patterns

will change. This change will occur __________ suddenly and farmers will be
__________ unprepared for it that agriculture may even die out in some sections
of the United States. In fact, __________ many farmers will be ruined that fewer
people may want to become farmers in the future. But even if the number of
farmers does not diminish, the great shift in agriculture will have __________
unpleasant consequences that no one will be unaffected by it. It will cause
__________ acute hardship and __________ much unhappiness all over the
United States that the people may well remember it for centuries.

2.
SINCE e.g. Since most experts on the Greenhouse
BECAUSE
BECAUSE OF THE FACT Effect are convinced that it is irreversible,
THAT they advise us to plan now for how best to
DUE TO THE FACT
THAT
cope with a changing world.

d. Phrase Structures – a phrase (group of words) is not a complete

sentence; therefore, it must be connected to the main
sentence.

BECAUSE OF
DUE TO e.g. Due to the increased heat, agricultural
AS A RESULT OF patterns will change.
IN VIEW OF

 Task: Rewrite the example using because (NOT because of) and as a
result (NOT as a result of).

47
 ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

e. Predicate Structures – predicate = verb + other parts (nouns, adjectives,

prepositions)
TO CAUSE - can indicate the cause-effect relationship
TO RESULT IN
TO BE THE REASON FOR e.g. Changes in water level will result in
TO BE RESPONSIBLE FOR
TO CONTRIBUTE TO changes in the living patterns.
TO LEAD TO

f. Participial Phrases = -ing verbs + preposition

e.g. Water levels will change, leading to

CAUSING changes in living patterns.
LEADING TO
CONTRIBUTING TO
RESULTING IN  Task: Rewrite the example using resulting
RESULTING FROM
FOLLOWING FROM from.
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
______________________________________

 Task 1(focus on effect): Write a developed paragraph in which you answer

the following question: What effects has improved technology (in
communication, transportation, agriculture) had on life?

 Task 2 (focus on cause): Analyze the following paragraph:

Why is it that American working women complain about job

discrimination? Statistics suggest that there is a basis for their grievances.
According to recent Census Bureau statistics, 45 percent of all women of
working age are in the labor force. Although they have made progress in recent
years, women are still underrepresented in traditionally male professions. For
example, women constitute only 9.4 percent of electrical engineers, 17.4 percent
of doctors, and 15.2 percent of lawyers. A second area of complaint is women’s
median weekly and yearly earnings in comparison with men’s. The average
48
male factory worker earns $336 per week, while a female worker earns only
$225. Further, the salary gap is even more pronounced among women with
higher education. The average woman college graduate makes $21,889 annually,
but the average male college graduate makes $33,934, a difference of 55
percent.

Topic sentence ___________________________________________________

Enumerator(s) ________________________________________________
Listing signals ___________________________________________________

 Task 3: Fill in the following chart, with information from the preceding text:

CAUSES EFFECT(S)

Traditionally male professions:

Median weekly/yearly earnings:

1.The average factory worker

a.

b.

2.

a.

b.

 Task 4: Reconstruct the paragraph, based on the following chart:

Topic sentence: It has been estimated that one in every two

homes in the U.S. will have 49
a VCR by the end of the century.
What factors have led to the overwhelming popularity of the
VCRs?
 CAUSES EFFECT
all family
ease of members can
operation operate it

watch movies - avoid crowds the VCR has become

at home - save money very popular

Prices have very

gone down affordable

50
The essay is a paragraph in an extended form, a sequence of connected
paragraphs, organized around one central idea. There is a logical connection, in
terms of both content and structure, between the paragraph and the essay:

a paragraph has a topic sentence, a body, a conclusion

an essay has an introduction, a body, a conclusion

In the examples provided below, notice how the paragraph has been extended
into an essay, by developing the topic sentence and its supporting details into
five distinct paragraphs.

MODEL PARAGRAPH

Because Americans are a blend of people from many countries, there are
only a few characteristics which can be applied to all Americans. Perhaps the
most basic of these is American individuality, which is evident in our history
from the days of our founding fathers. The second characteristic shared by
all Americans is our paradoxical combination of idealism and practicality.
Another typically American feature is the emphasis we place on money and
the things it can buy – that is, our materialism. Finally, in practically all
American families, our parents exert less influence onus than do parents in
other parts of the world. These elements are deeply embedded in the
American character, but like may other things American, are subject to
change in a relatively short period of time.

51
MODEL ESSAY

WE AMERICANS

Since we Americans are a blend of people from many countries, we have a

very short history which can properly be called American. Therefore, it is
hard to find characteristics which apply to all Americans. We combine many
extremes from many different cultures. Nevertheless, we can make some
generalizations. Our main characteristics include individuality, a
combination of idealism and practicality, materialism, and a lack of parental
influence, all of which permeate our lives.

We Americans value individuality. Our country was founded by strong

individuals, and we do not like to be forced into conformity. Therefore, we
insist on having a great deal of freedom. Interestingly enough, however, most
Americans use this freedom to behave much like most other Americans, and
we are suspicious of those who do not conform. Hippies are individualists,
for example, but most Americans do not like them. For the same reason, we
consider ourselves very faithful to the laws of our country, but there are few
among us who would not break one if it was felt that no harm would be done
by doing so – such as by exceeding the speed limit or failing to report
informally-received cash income on tax forms.

Secondly, we Americans are both practical and idealistic. We place great

value doing things for ourselves, for this is what our pioneer forefathers were
forced to do. Many foreign visitors are surprised to find that many couples of
comfortable means do their own yard work, their own housework, their own
repairs. On the other hand, we are very idealistic: we think we have the best
political, social, economic system yet devised, and we therefore expect
everything to go smoothly. As a result of out idealism, we are easily
disillusioned. This is why so many marriages end in divorce – young couples’
expectations from marriage are often unrealistically high. Similarly, it helps
explain the dissatisfactions and protests of many young people, and even
older people, who enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the world.

A third characteristic of us Americans is that money is more important than

prestige to us. People work extremely hard, so many, unfortunately, either
have little leisure time, or do not know how to enjoy it. Why do we work so
hard? It is not to achieve greater status or prestige, but simply to have more
of the material objects and comfort that money can buy.

52
Finally, our parents have less influence on us than parents do in other
countries. Many children are left in day-care centers by their working
mothers, or with babysitters when their parents go out at night.
Furthermore, peer pressure is very great because children’s feelings and
desires are taken very seriously, and they are given a lot of freedom to form
strong personalities. We leave home at a relatively early age, usually after
high school, to take jobs and to have our own apartments, or to go to college,
where we are allowed a great deal of freedom. We choose our spouses, even if
our parents object. And, later in life, when our parents are old and helpless,
we often live far away from them; many prefer to put them in nursing homes
rather than to have the responsibility of caring for them daily. Many
foreigners find this practice heartless. I suppose it is, but like many other
qualities we Americans share, it is subject to change over a relatively short
period of time.

A five-paragraph essay has the following structure:

INTRODUCTION: - prepares the reader for what follows;
- contains the thesis statement, the essay’s central idea (it
must be general enough to include all the topic sentences
in the essay);

BODY: - the longest part;

- explains and supports the thesis statement (usually focusing around
3 main points);

CONCLUSION: - signals the end of the essay and leaves the reader with a final
thought.

53
 1. INTRODUCTION

SUPPORTING MATERIAL

1st supporting paragraph

2. BODY
2nd supporting paragraph

3rd supporting paragraph

3. CONCLUSION

 TASK 1: Read the essay provided as example. On the text, underline:

the thesis statement
the topic sentence of each paragraph
the supporting details
the final, concluding thought.

STEPS FOR WRITING AN EFFECTIVE ESSAY:

NARROW THE TOPIC – focus on one specific aspect of the general

topic

e.g. History of the Desert Warfare Rommel’s February 1942

Counteroffensive in Lybia

The Army of The Future The Infantry Rifle of 2015

TASK 2: Narrow down the following general topics:

Famous Tank Battles

The History of the Submarine

54
 WRITE THE THESIS STATEMENT – it must clearly state, in
sentence form, the essay’s central point, the main idea supported by the
essay. It must be as specific as possible, limited and direct.

 TASK 3: Rewrite the following thesis statements into more developed

sentences. (The first two have been done as an example)

My Army experience was really The leadership and the examples set
good. by my commanders helped me
mature greatly and made my army
experience both educational and
exciting.

My family includes several unusual My uncle, a house painter who lives

people. in a tree house, and my niece, a very
successful one-armed mechanic,
typify the sort of odd folk inhabiting
my family.

Marriage is a good idea.

Living in a foreign country may be

difficult.

Technology is good.
55
 ORGANIZING/WRITING THE BODY – the body supports and discusses
the thesis statement. Developing the body is basically reduced to derivating
topic sentences from the thesis statement, which will be further analyzed in
separate paragraphs.

e.g: Thesis statement: There are three things to be observed before buying an
used car.

Topic sentence 1: Decide exactly how much you can spend initially and
how much maintenance the car might need.

Topic sentence 2: Choose a car of a size to meet your needs.

Topic sentence 3: Shop around and don’t assume that the first dealer you
visit has the best bargains.

 TASK 4: Write you own derivative topic sentences from the given thesis
statements.

1. Thesis statement: The computer has changed military life in these three
ways.

Topic sentence 1:

Topic sentence 2:

Topic sentence 3:

2. Thesis statement: Married life has both advantages and disadvantages.

Topic sentence 1:

Topic sentence 2:

Topic sentence 3:

56
3. Thesis statement: Smoking should be banned in all public places.

Topic sentence 1:

Topic sentence 2:

Topic sentence 3:

4. Thesis statement: Advances in science and technology have created a safer

world.

GIVE YOUR ESSAY A SENSE OF CLOSURE AND FINALITY, BY

WRITING IN THE END A MEMORABLE CONCLUDING
STATEMENT.

The letter to the editor is a complex type of formal letter, which is written
to express one’s opinion on a topic that is of interest to the general public. It
serves different communication purposes: showing agreement or disagreement,
defending one’s point of view, discussing a problem, suggesting solutions. The
letter to the editor is written in formal style (see chapter 1, formal letters) and
follows the structure of the essay.

Task: Read the letter below and, on the right column, write the content of each
paragraph:

11 Bucium Street
Cluj Napoca
January 23, 2007

Washington Post
84 Calderon Bvd.
Washington D.C.
INTRODUCTION
57
Dear Editor,

As a consequence of your editorial, which appeared in Paragraph 1

“Washington Post” last week, about one of Benetton’s most
controversial ads, I decided to write this letter. I would like to
express my opinion about this issue. In the next lines I will
develop three aspects about the advertising of this Italian
company.

BODY
First of all, I am sure that the ill man and his family gave their
agreement for using that photo. This action could have two
Paragraphs 2 – 41
different reasons: a financial aspect (because the treatment for
AIDS requires lots of money) and a moral one (the dying man
wanted to sensitize the public opinion about that awkward
malady of the last century). His intention was to give a hope to
the others who were found HIV positive. I am absolutely
convinced that he prayed in his last moments for a quantum
leap in the fight against AIDS.
Secondly, I want to remind everybody that Benetton has run for
fifteen years a campaign called “Food for Life” in partnership
with United Nations. It has the purpose to help the poorest
regions of Asia and Africa. People from these parts of the world
have faced many social problems, including AIDS. The
presentation of that touching photo in the advertising campaign
could be an important step in the attempt to prevent AIDS
spread and reduce its consequences. The ad has obviously
shocked the viewers and might have changed their outlook on
life, their attitude and conduct.

The third aspect related to this photo and the reactions against it
is censorship. It is well known that the Italian company has
brought in front of consumers many shocking images. The photo
that started this debate took the man from his bad physical state
and gave him a different connotation. The background is a
positive one. The ambivalent campaign – for selling products CONCLUSION
and charity – respects, in my opinion, the dignity of the ill person
and common sense. Paragraph 5

I greatly appreciate your editorials and your work for educating

people. I sincerely hope our society will be able to concentrate
its
1
efforts on the real problems. I would be so glad if that kind of
number of paragraphs may vary, depending on the topic and the task
58
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