Oilfield Corrosion

Did you know?

• Internationally, 1 tonne of steel turns into rust every 90

seconds.

• The energy required to make 1 tonne of steel is

approximately equal to the energy an average family
consumes over three months.

• Of every tonne of steel from the world’s production,

approximately 50% is required to replace rusted steel.

Source: Zinc Today, newsletter of the American Zinc Association (Spring 97)

1
BASICS OF CORROSION

Corrosion of Metals
All interactions between a metal (or Alloy) with
its environment.

Former Tank

1243-0019

2
Outlines

• Significance of Corrosion
• Why and How Corrosion Occurs
• Manifestations of Corrosion
• Corrosion Control Techniques
• Corrosion Monitoring

Significance
Why is Corrosion Important

• Operating Costs
• Health & Safety
• Environmental Impact

All three of the above will appear in most asset goals.

Corrosion can prevent the attainment of these goals on
one or more of these criteria

3
Significance
Operating Costs

• Direct (Money Spent) • Indirect (Money Not Saved)

Replacement
Unplanned shutdowns

Installation
Loss of product (oil or

Maintenance gas)

Clean up of spillages
Overdesign (“corrosion
allowances”)

Loss of efficiency (e.g.
thermal efficiency of
corroded heat
exchangers)

Bad publicity

Indirect costs are often considerably higher than

direct costs, BUT are difficult to quantify

Significance
Opportunity Costs

Shell
• Estimated costs of corrosion at $100MM in 1992
• Estimated 70% was avoidable

Another Major Oil Company

• Estimated costs of $320MM due to corrosion in a recent 3 year
period
• Equivalent to 6.5% of net asset value/yr
• 67% Repairs, 33% Lost Production

4
Significance
Health & Safety

• Leaks caused by corrosion • Mechanical failure caused

Can release by corrosion
hydrocarbons/other
Can cause process
chemicals upsets
• risk of injury from fire, • risk of injury from
explosion operating outside
• risk of exposure to normal envelope
hazardous materials
Can occur

Can cause equipment catastrophically
malfunction • risk of injury
• risk of injury to
personnel

Significance
Environmental Impact

• Pollution of environment from corrosion leaks

• Depletion of non-renewable resources

5
Corrosion of Metals

 Occurs all the time

 Attacks many structures in a plant
 Shortens useful life of plant equipment
 Increases maintenance requirements
 Creates safety and environmental problems
 Increases production downtime

Costs you money!!!

Why and How Corrosion

Occurs

6
Why and How?
What is meant by “Corrosion”?

Definition

• NACE International has defined “CORROSION” as:-

“… the deterioration of a substance (usually a metal) or

its properties because of a reaction with its
environment

Definition of Corrosion

Corrosion is a reaction between

Material
and
Surrounding environment

under formation of corrosion products

7
Corrosion

CORROSION

Of coatings & linings

Of metals

Of polymers,
ceramics, etc ...

“... Is probably the commonest electrochemical phenomenon

encountered in day-to-day life ...”
or : ... METALLURGY IN REVERSE ...

Why and How?

• All corrosion processes are chemical reactions

• Chemical reactions only occur spontaneously if there

is a net decrease in the energy of the system as a
result

∆G must be negative

8
Why and How?

• Metals of importance in engineering generally exist in

their “natural” state as compounds e.g. iron oxide

• Refining of metals consumes energy - “stored” in the

pure metal

• Refined metals are generally unstable and tend to

revert to a lower energy state, as a chemical
compound, by reacting with their environment, i.e.
they CORRODE

Production and Degradation

of Steel

Reaction between the material and

the surrounding environment takes place
Plates, pipes,
profiles, etc.
g W
y ate
e rg urin r
t
En fac Ox /hu
u yg mi
an en dit
M y

Raw material
Iron ore Rust

The presence of water / humidity and Oxygen

is a pre-requisite for corrosion of steel

9
Corrosion Thermodynamic Cycle

Iron
Oxides, Ore thermodynamically stable
oxides
+
Mining &
Extraction

Corrosion
Corrosion Steel
Mining & Extraction
+
Corrosion

Equipment fabrication,
thermodynamically unstable Iron
oxides

Corrosion of Metals

Wet Dry

Occurs in wet Occurs in dry

environments environments @

high or elevated temp. low cryogenic temp.

10
 Wet / Aqueous Corrosion of Metals

Occurs in water – containing environments

Occurs at ambient temperatures
Environment
Water ( fresh or sea water )
Soil ( wetted )
Atmospheric air ( humid )

High Temperature Corrosion

Direct chemical reaction between metal and environment
Occurs at high temperatures > 200 oC ; e.g.

Oxidation: reaction of iron with O2

Carburization: reaction of iron with CO2

Sulphidation: reaction of iron with S or H2S

11
How Fast Will A Metal Corrode?

A general answer can not be given.

In most cases the corrosion speed depend on:
• Type of material
• Type of electrolyte / surrounding environment
• Service conditions
• Contaminants aggravating the conditions
• Corrosion protection

In some cases there are threshold limits:

• Below a certain limit there is no corrosion
• Above a certain limit rapid corrosion will develop

Some materials Corrode

Faster Than Others

The corrosion speed depends on:

• Electrochemical potential (Noble / base metal)
• Formation of protective oxide films on the surface of the
base material
• Conductivity of electrolyte
• Presence of aggressive ions
• Service conditions

12
Corrosion Speed differ When
Exposed to the Same Environment

In a strong alkaline environment Aluminium and Zinc

will corrode rapidly, while steel will be passive`

Aluminium Zinc Steel

Protective
Iron oxide

pH > 10

Corrosion has a different rates

Sea Water Fresh Water

Start The Video

13
Why and How?
How Do Corrosion Reactions Occur?

• Oilfield corrosion is almost entirely electrochemical in

nature

• This means that an electrochemical cell is in

operation

flow of electrical current (electrons) Occur in

chemical reaction conjunction

Pre-requisites For Corrosion

A galvanic cell consists of:

• A Cathode: The noble metal / alloy (or part of
metal)

• An Anode: The less noble metal / alloy

• An electrical connection between the two metals.

Conducting electrical current (by electrons)

• An electrolyte: Conducting electrical current (by

ions)

14
Why and How?
Electrochemical Cell
• MUST have 5 components

anode  cathode

electrolyte (ionic conductor)

metallic conductor

cathode reactant (electron acceptor)

e-

Anode Cathode

Why and How?

Electrochemical Cell

• In practice microscopic cells can be generated where 3 of the cell

components are provided by a single piece of metal

Water (electrolyte)

Water (electrolyte)
Metal loss
(corrosion)

Cathode
Anode
Metal

Electron Flow (metallic conduction)

• In practice cells are often microscopic, they move location and

often overlap one another

15
Electrochemical Corrosion

Start The Video

Corrosion Process
Due to the electrochemical nature of corrosion, there shall be electron
transfer

Electron transfer requires presence of anode sites and cathode sites on

the metal surface

Due to potential difference ( ∆V ) between anodes and cathodes

electrons migrate from anodes to cathodes

Electrons liberated at anodes should be consumed at cathodes

16
Anodic Reaction

Aerated Water
O2
O2 O2 O2 O2

O2

O2 O2

O2 O2
O2 O2

- Cathode - + Anode + - Cathode -

e- - Fe2+ e-- e- - -
ee-
e e2+ e Fe2+ Fe2+
Fe2+ Fe
2+
e-eFe
- e-
2+
2+- Fee-
ee-2+-
Fe
e- -Fe2+ Fee
e e-

Fe  Fe2+
2+ + 2 e-

Cathodic Reaction

• Hydrogen evolution (acids):

2 H++ + 2 e--  H22

• Oxygen reduction (acids):

O22 + 4H++ + 4 e--  2 H22O

• Oxygen reduction (neutral or base):

O22 + 2 H22O + 4 e--  4 OH--

Note: More than one oxidation and more than one

reduction reaction can occur during
corrosion

17
Cathodic Reaction

• At the cathode, reduction of oxygen would

occur:
O22 + 2H22O + 4e--  4(OH)--
• Reduction is defined as the acceptance of
electrons by an oxidizer.
• In this case, oxygen accepts the electrons
lost by the iron.

Corrosion Electrochemical Cell

O2 Aerated Water
O2
O2 O2
O2
O2 O2 O2

O2 O2
O2
O2

δ+ Hδ
Hδ+

H
HHδ+

δ+
δ+ δ+ δ+δ+ δ+
H

HHδ+
Hδ+
H

δ+ H Hδ+ δ+
δ+
δ+ δ+ +
δ+
δ+ δ+ HH H
δ+

δδ++

δ+ HH H δ+ δ+ Hδ+ Hδ+ HHδ+δ+Hδ+ HHδ+δ+ Hδ+ H

Hδ+
H Hδ+
H
δ+

δ+

Hδ+
H δ+
δ+δ+
HH Hδ+ Hδ+ Hδ+ H H
HHδ+H HH δ+δ+ δ+δ+
HHH δ- δ- O
δ-Hδ- --O -δ- δ- --O- -- δ- - OH -- - - δ-- - δ- -- δ- OH- δ+-
OH-O - δ- δ- --- δ H δ+
OOH
OH
OOH
δ- Oδ-
OH δ-
OH
O - - OH
22 2O OO OH
δ-OH
δ- OO22OH
2 OO
OH O
OO2δ-OH O2OHOδ- O2OH
OO2OH
OH
2O O Oδ-O OOH OO2 OH O2OH
2 O2 O Oδ-
OOH
OH O222-
+ Anode + H O O 2 O
O

O
O
Oδ-

2O
O

OO O
O

Oδδ++
Hδ-
Hδ+
HH

H
H

22
δ--

22 2
δ

2 2
δ-

δ-
δ+

δ+
δ+
δ+

e- - Fe2+ -
e - e-
- -
ee-
e Fe2+
- Cathode - Fe2+
e-e-
e2+ e Fe2+
Fe2+ Fe
e- -
2+- Fe2+
- Cathode -
e- Fe 2+ Fee- e
e- Fee2+
e-
e-

2Fe0  2Fe2+ + 4e- (anodic)

O2 + 2H2O + 4e-  4(OH)- (cathodic)

18
Oxidation of Dissolved Iron

• Ferrous ions (Fe2+) are oxidized to less soluble Ferric

Ions (Fe3+) in the presence of oxygen

4Fe2+  4Fe3+ + 4e-

O2 + 2H2O + 4e-  4(OH)-
-----------------------------------------------
4Fe2+ + O2 + 2H2O  4Fe3+ + 4(OH)-

Precipitates:
Fe3+ + 3OH  Fe(OH)3 Ferric Hydroxide

Oxidation of Dissolved Iron

OH- O2
Fe3+
OH- OH- O2
OH- O2
O2 Fe3+
OH- O2 O2
Fe3+ OH-
OH-
OH-
OH- OH-
Fe3+ Aerated Water O2
OH-
Fe3+
O2 OH- OH- - 3+ OH- O2
OH- Fe
OH
OH- OH- OH- OH-
O2 Fe3+ OH-
Fe3+ Fe3+ OH-
OH- O2
OH- OH- Fe
OH
3+ -
O2 OH- OH-
O2 OH-
O2 O2
OH-
O2 O2
O2 O2

O2
O2
O2
O2
O2 O2
O2
O2
O2
O2
δ+ Hδ+ δ+ O2
HHδ+
Hδ+ HHδ+δ+ Hδ+ HH δ+ δ+
H

δ+δ+
H

δ+δ+δ+H δ+δ+δ+δ+ δ+ δ+ δ+ δ+ δ+ δ+
H

Hδ+ Hδ+ Hδ+H H Hδ+ δ+Hδ+ H H

δ+

δ+ H δ+ δ+ δ+δ+ δ+
δ+

δ+HH δ+ HH H HHδ+ H δ+ δ+ H Hδ+ H H HH H

Hδ+ Hδ+HH
δ+

δ+δ+
HHδ+ Hδ+ Hδ+ δ+
Hδ-
H δ+ δ+ δ+
δ-OH - H -O H-2H - δ- -Hδ-
H
- - δ-δ- H - H -H OH
O222O δ--OH
- δ- -- - - -- -δ-- - - δ-
OOH
δ-δ- O
δ- OH OH OH OH - δ-δ-
- - δ-- -
2OH OOH OHOH OH
OH δ- - - δ-
OO OO
O O
OO2O δ-
OO δ-δ-
δ-
O OH
δ-δ-
22O2 O
OH
O OOH
2 22 2 OH
OOH OO
2 2O
OHO OO 2O
δ-
2OOH2OH
O
OH
O OH
O2OH - δ-
OO22OO OH
2O
OH
δ- OH
2 OO2
OH
O

2O2O 2O
O

O O O O O OO 22OO O
Oδ+

H
H

δ-
δ-

δ-

δ+
δ+

- -
ee - 2+ e-- e- - 2+ e- - Fe --
3+ ee
Fe
eFe 3+
3+ e2+ Fe2+
e-Fe Fe2+
3+Fe Fe
Fe2+ Fe3+ e Fe
Fe3+ Fe
Fe2+ 3+e
-
- - Fe
Fe e
2+
3+-
ee Fe e- e
2+
Fe 3+
2+ -
Fe
Fee3+
e-e-

19
Why and How?
How Fast Will Corrosion Occur?

• Factors which can influence corrosion rates

temperature

pressure

velocity

pH

dissolved solids

Why and How?

Effect of Temperature

• Generally as T ↑, corrosion rate ↑

• But not always

as T ↑ solubility of corrosive gases ↓

as T ↑ protective scales may form

• Chemical reaction rates usually increase with

increasing temperature and corrosion is a chemical
reaction.

20
Why and How?
Effect of Temperature

Operating temperature has a great influence on

corrosion control

• Operating temperature can be as high as 65oC to

100oC

• For every increase of 10oC the corrosion rate nearly

doubles

Why and How?

Effect of Pressure

• Main effect is on solubility of corrosive gases

• As P ↑ more gas goes into solution so corrosion rate ↑

21
Why and How?
Effect of Velocity

• Complex
• Usually as V ↑, corrosion rate ↑

improved mass transfer

protective film of corrosion product removed

erosion corrosion at very high velocity
• But sometimes as V ↓ corrosion rate ↑

suspended solids deposit on surfaces - “under deposit”
corrosion

bacteria prefer “stagnant” conditions to colonise
surfaces

Why and How?

Effect of pH

Corrosion
Rate

4 9 12 14
pH

22
Why and How?
Effect of Dissolved Solids (Salts)

• Complex

• Usually as Concentration ↑ corrosion rate ↑

increased conductivity of electrolyte

increased flow of current in basic electrochemical cell

• BUT sometimes as Concentration ↑ corrosion rate ↓

solubility and diffusivity of dissolved gases ↓

precipitation of protective scales

Effect of Dissolved Gases

Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen Sulfide

23
Dissolved Gases

Why and How?

• The solutes which cause most oilfield corrosion:

Carbon dioxide (“sweet”)

Hydrogen sulphide (“sour”) - may be of bacterial origin

Oxygen (not normally present)

24
Dissolved Gases

■ Due to Oxygen OR Acidity in Water

1. Oxygen Causes Pitting Corrosion Arising From:
- Direct contact with the atmosphere
- Storage Tanks Vents
- Shafts or Suction side of Pumps

2. Acidity Caused by residual acid Gases (CO2 & H2S) and give General attack classified as:
- Sweet Corrosion (CO2)
- Sour Corrosion (H2S)

■ Brines are more conductive than fresh water (High Conductivity means More
Corrosion)

Why and How?

• Oilfield corrosion can be divided into external

and internal (process side). The principles
involved are the same for both but emphasis here
will tend to be on the internal (process side)
corrosion issues

25
1. Oxygen
Electrochemical Attack

Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
• This process is called oxidation (electron donation)
and always occurs at the anode
To maintain the charge balance another reaction must occur:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-
• This is reduction (electron gain) and occurs at the
cathode

Oxygen Corrosion Characteristics

• Forms of Attack

Uniform - With red rust deposit

Pits - Smooth bottoms
Smooth sides
Sloped edges
Width much greater than pit depth

• Corrosion Products

Iron oxides FeO(OH), geothite

Fe2O3, hematite

Fe3O4, magnetite

FeO(OH), ferrous hydroxide

26
Oxygen Corrosion Characteristics

• Corrosion Reactions

2Fe + 3H2O Fe2O3 + 6H+

3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 8H+

Fe + 2H2O FeO(OH) + 3H+

• Unique Forms of Corrosion

Oxygen concentration cells

Tubercles

Oxygen Corrosion Characteristics

• Treatment

Drilling — Oxygen scavengers

Producing wells— Corrosion inhibitors; elimination

of oxygen sources, oxygen scavengers

Flowlines — Corrosion inhibitors; elimination of

oxygen sources, oxygen scavengers

27
How does oxygen impact corrosion?

 Any time there is a difference in the oxygen content of water in two

areas of a system, attack will take place preferentially in the area
exposed to the lowest oxygen concentration (An oxygen concentration
cell).

 Therefore even solids, scale, corrosion by-product which may

cause areas of low oxygen concentration, can cause pitting.

 Dissolved O2 can cause severe corrosion at concentrations of 40

ppb (parts per billion); most operations try to limit the oxygen
content to 20-30 ppb in water sources.

 Morphology - Oxygen corrosion has a pitting effect on metal. These

pits start small, very deep, with sharp, ice-pick hole-like bottoms –
accelerate rapidly.

Concentration Cell Corrosion

• Concentration-
Concentration -cell corrosion occurs because of
Concentration-cell
differences in the environment surrounding the
metal.
• This form of corrosion commonly occurs in
localized areas where small volumes of stagnant
solution exist.
• Normal mechanical construction can create
crevices at sharp corners, spot welds, joints,
fasteners, flanged fittings, couplings, threaded
joints, etc…
etc…

28
Oxygen Concentration Cell
O2 O2
O2
Aerated Water
O2
O2
O2 O2
O2
O2
O2 O2
O2
O2

O2
H

Hδ+
H

δ+
HHδ+
δ+

δ+

δ+

δ+ δ+ Hδ+
δ+ Hδ+ δ+δ+
HH Hδ+ Hδ+
HHδ+ -
δ- -- - OH
OH
OH
OH -- -
δ-
OO22OHO2-O
2 O
OHδ- - OH
O
OO2δ-OH O2OHOδ-
OOδ +
O
OHδ

OO
H

H
H
δ--
δ-

δ-

2 2
δ+
δ

δ+
+

e- - 2+ e-
eFe Fe e-2+
e-- Fe2+
e
-
e - 2+
eFe

Oxygen Cell: The metal surface exposed to water with

lower dissolved oxygen will become the anode (oxidizes
and dissolves), while the surface exposed to higher
dissolved oxygen levels will become the cathode.

Oxygen Corrosion

Appearance:
Large, shallow pitting.
O2 contamination due to air drawn in.
Fatigue cracks may initiate if enough metal removed

29
 Oxygen Corrosion

Appearance:
Corrosive by-products are a reddish brown rust
O2 Corrosion in a flow line.

Oxygen Corrosion

30
How does oxygen impact corrosion?

• Of the three dissolved gases, oxygen is by far the

most aggressive of the group.

• If either or both of the other two gases are dissolved

in the water, it drastically increases their corrosivity.

How does oxygen impact corrosion?

• Oxygen is an extremely corrosive gas in produced

brines, even more corrosive than CO2.
• Oxygen corrosion usually results in iron oxide
corrosion by-products, usually hematite, goethite,
and magnetite.
• Oxygen is the most corrosive gas in the presence of
water.

Although the maximum dissolved oxygen in the
water is only 8 ppm,
ppm, dissolved CO2 can increase to
800 ppm and dissolved H2S to 400 ppm.
ppm.

31
How does oxygen impact corrosion?

Electrochemical Corrosion Cell under Acidic

Conditions

Fe - 2e- Fe2+ 2H+ + 2e- H2

ELECTROLYTE H2
2+
Fe icorr
H+ H+

icorr Cathodic Area

Anodic Area 2 e- (Reduction)
(Oxidation)
METAL

32
2. Carbon Dioxide

The Carbon Dioxide cathodic reaction is

associated with hydrogen ions:-

H2O + CO2 H2CO3

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

2H+ + 2e- H2

Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Characteristics

“Sweet Corrosion”

• Forms of Attack

Uniform - FeCO3 film

Pits - Round to oval shape
Sharp edges
Round bottoms
Smooth sides and bottoms

• Corrosion Products

Iron carbonate (FeCO3), siderite

Iron oxide (Fe3O4), magnetite

Color - tan, green, brown to black

33
Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Characteristics
“Sweet Corrosion”

• Corrosion Reactions

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

H2CO3 + Fe FeCO3 + 2H+ + 2e-

3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 8H+ + 8e-

• Unique Forms of Corrosion

Wormhole attack

Ringworm corrosion

Heat-affected corrosion

Mesa attack

Rain drop

Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Characteristics

“Sweet Corrosion”

• Treatment

Drilling — pH control with caustic soda

Producing wells— Corrosion inhibitors

Flowlines — Continuous corrosion inhibitor injection

34
CO2 Corrosion - Prediction

The partial pressure of CO2 can be used as a yardstick/

measure/index to predict corrosion

Above 30 psi : Indicates Corrosion

7 to 30 psi : May Indicate Corrosion

Less than 7 psi : Non-corrosive

CO2 Corrosion

Appearance:
Round-bottomed pitting with sharp sides

35
 CO2 Corrosion

Uniform Corrosion with

Numerous Pits

CO2 Uniform Corrosion in Tubing

CO2 Pitting Corrosion

CO2 Corrosion

In the wormhole attack, individual CO2 pits are interconnected and

form a wormhole appearance, with segments very similar to the
segmentation pattern on a worm.

Wormhole Attack

Wormhole Effect -
Cluster of Large Pits

36
 CO2 Corrosion

Another form of corrosion observed in the oilfield is named

ringworm corrosion

Ringworm Corrosion

CO2 Corrosion

Another form of CO2 corrosion is called mesa attack.

Mesa attack usually occurs where areas of metal that have a good
protective coating exist and where other areas have no protective
coating.

In addition, mesa attack occurs in flowing environments

Mesa corrosion can be controlled with inhibitor films to get greater
protection on those surfaces where corrosion has occurred.

Mesa Attack on Tubing

37
 CO2 Corrosion

Another form of CO2 corrosion is the raindrop attack, which occurs in

gas condensate wells, which do not produce a large amount of
water.

In these wells, a zone where water droplets or water of condensation
will drop out. This phenomenon is labeled raindrop attack

very deep pits occur with tails.

Raindrop Attack on
Tubing

3. Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen Sulphide acts as a corrosion

rate accelerator

Fe2+ + H2S FeS + 2H+

38
Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion
Characteristics “Sour Corrosion”

Forms of Attack •
Uniform - FeS film

Pits - Conical shaped

Pit bottoms sharp
Edges etched and slightly sloped
Sides etched

Corrosion Products •
Black, blue-black iron sulfide

Fe1-xS pyrite, greigite, mackinwaite

Kansite, iron oxide (Fe3O4), magnetite, sulfur (S)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

Characteristics “Sour Corrosion”

Corrosion Reactions •
H2S(g) + Fe + H2O Fe1-x S (Prec.) +2H+

Fe 1-x S + O2 Fe3O4 + SO2

Unique Forms of Corrosion •

Sulfide stress cracking

Hydrogen blistering

Hydrogen embrittlement

Stepwise cracking

39
Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion
Characteristics “Sour Corrosion”

Treatment •
Drilling — High pH, Zn treatments

Producing wells— Corrosion inhibitors

Flowlines — Corrosion inhibitors, hydrogen sulfide

scavengers

H2S Corrosion

Appearance:
Small, steep-sloping pits
May contain fatigue cracks
H embrittlement also possible

40
 H2S Corrosion

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in produced brines generates hydrogen ions

and HS ions. The hydrogen ions, being acidic, attack steel.

H2S corrosion is typified by pitting, which takes the form of shallow
round depressions with etched bottoms

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Corrosion

H2S Corrosion

Sulfide stress cracking occurs when H2S corrosion is accelerated by

stresses

Sulfide Stress Cracking

41
Manifestations

• Classification

Uniform

Pitting

Crevice (under deposit)

Galvanic
• Includes selective leaching

Intergranular

Erosion corrosion
• Includes:-

cavitation

Microbiologically Influenced (MIC)

Environmental Cracking
• Stress corrosion cracking
• Hydrogen damage
• Corrosion fatigue

Manifestations

According to the National Physical Laboratory – UK:

30% of equipment failures are due to uniform corrosion

70% of equipment failures are due to localized corrosion

42
Most Frequently Occurring
Types of Corrosion

On carbon steel
• Uniform corrosion
• Uneven corrosion (deep pits)
• Galvanic corrosion
• Stress corrosion cracking

Most Frequently Occurring

Types of Corrosion

Stainless steels Titanium

• Crevice corrosion • Hydrogen embrittlement
• Pitting corrosion • Fatigue
• Stress corrosion cracking

Aluminium Copper based alloys

• Pitting corrosion • Erosion corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion

43
Costs involved in Material Selection
and Corrosion Protection

1. MATERIAL COSTS 2. INSTALLATION

Material itself

Pre-fabrication
3. CORROSION PROTECTION

Dimensions
REQUIRED

Components

Availability

Volume 4. THERMAL INSULATION
REQUIRED

5. EXTENT OF MAINTENANCE

6. DESIGN LIFE

Manifestations
General (Uniform) Corrosion

• Most common form of corrosion

• Electrochemical reactions proceed uniformly over the
entire exposed surface over a large area
• Represents the greatest destruction of metal on a
tonnage basis
• Life of equipment can be accurately estimated from
corrosion tests

44
Manifestations

Uniform/General Corrosion

In general corrosion there is no distinction between the

anode and the cathode sites
i.e. the whole metal surface is acting as anode and cathode

Therefore, the metal loss is equally and uniformly

distributed all over the surface, i.e. corrosion proceeds
horizontally along the metal surface

Manifestations
General (Uniform) Corrosion

Aerated Water
O2
O2 O2 O2 O2

O2

O2 O2

O2 O2
O2 O2

+- Cathode
Anode-
+- -+Cathode
Anode +- e- - Fe2+
- Cathode
e-
- +Fe e-
+e- Anode 2+
e- - Fe2+ -
e- e e- -
Fe2+ e- - Fe2+ -
e - e- - - e -
e2+- e-Fe2+ e
ee-
e e2+ e-Fe2+ e e Fe2+ Fe2+ Fe
Fe2+Fe - e2+ e Fe2+
Fe2+ Fe e-eFe
2+
e-
2+
e-eFe
-
2+
2+-
e-
2+
Fee e-eFe
2+
e-
2+
- 2+- Fee-
Fee-
Fee
- - 2+- Fee-
Fee e
e e -

Fe  Fe2+
2+ + 2 e-

45
Manifestations
General (Uniform) Corrosion

Manifestations

General Corrosion

Uniform corrosion of an
internal carbon steel pipe

46
Manifestations
General (Uniform) Corrosion

Uniform corrosion is dealt with most effectively by

• Proper selection of materials
• Application of protective coatings
• Addition of inhibitors
• Cathodic protection

Manifestations

Localized Corrosion
In localized corrosion there is clear distinction
-‫اف‬
between the anode and the cathode sites

The anode sites are being very small compared with the
large cathode
Therefore, the metal loss is concentrated in local areas, i.e.
corrosion proceeds downwards perpendicular to the metal
surface

Penetration

47
Manifestations
Pitting/Crevice Attack

Pitting Corrosion

Crevice Corrosion

Manifestations
Pitting Corrosion

• More destructive than uniform attack - due to

prediction difficulties
• Alloys that rely on passive films are particularly
susceptible e.g. 13 Cr stainless pits rapidly in
presence of chlorides and oxygen
• Can be isolated or clustered giving appearance of
uniform attack
• Slower rate if more pits
• Changes in velocity can be both beneficial/useful and
detrimental/damaging

48
Manifestations
Pitting Corrosion

• Pitting corrosion rates can be 10-50 times the general

corrosion rate. Hence, holes in the metal can appear
within times much shorter than the system’s design
life.

• Pitting corrosion occurs when the corrosion reaction

takes place in localized areas, leaving much of the
surface relatively corrosion free.

Manifestations

Pitting Corrosion on Stainless Steel

Salts with Water

aggressive ions Pitting corrosion

Oxide film

Stainless steel

49
Manifestations

Pitting Corrosion

Occurs with metals having oxide (Passive) film

i.e. the metal is in the zone of Passivity, e.g. stainless
steels, due to local film breakdown
Chloride ions (Cl-) have damaging effect on oxide
film of stainless steels

Manifestations

Pitting Corrosion

What is the role of chloride ions in localized

corrosion; pitting?
Help in breaking down the passive oxide film, specially at
weak point
Allow a very low pH to be achieved inside the pit, due to the
formation of HCl

Metal chlorides are very soluble

50
 Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl
-
-
Cl-
Cl- Cl Cl -
Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl
-
Cl-
Cl- O2
O2 -
- ClCl- Cl
- Cl- Cl-
Cl- Cl- Cl
- Cl-
Cl- Cl Cl-
OH-
OH-

H+ + HCl
MCl + H2O = MOH
H+ OH - e-
e-
H+ H+ OH- M+
M+
O2 + 2H2OH + 4e -> 4(OH-) +
-H+ H+
H+ e-
e- H+ OH- M+
M+ OH- e-
H+
e-
- M+ Pitting Corrosion
M+ OH

Manifestations

Pitting Corrosion

51
Manifestations

Pitting Corrosion

Pitting may lead to pipe perforation

Factors Affecting Pitting

• Solutions
solutions containing chloride or chlorine-containing ions: sea water
hypochlorites have strong pitting tendencies; oxidising metal ions with
chlorides are extremely aggressive pitters: Cupric (CuCl2) and ferric (FeCl3)
chlorides
• Flow
Pitting is associated with stagnant conditions. Increasing flow velocity
decreases pitting attack.
• Alloys
As a class, stainless steels are more susceptible to pitting corrosion than are
any other group of metals or alloys.
Solution-quenched austenitic SS exhibit better pitting resistance.
Surface finish affects pitting resistance. Polished surfaces are more resistant
than etched or ground surfaces.
Cr, Ni, Mo and N as alloying elements increase pitting resistance of SS.

Type 316 SS is more resistant to pitting than type 304 due to the addition of
2%Mo.
Type 304 is considered unsuitable for applications in seawater whereas type 316 is
sometimes recommended. Ti has excellent resistance to pitting, owing to its
protective film being inert to Cl- and H+.

52
 Manifestations

Crevice Corrosion

 Accelerated corrosion in a
narrow crevice between two
parts of a component,
...one of which is made from a
metal ...

Manifestations
Crevice (Under Deposit) Corrosion

• Occurs in constricted areas where free access of the

surrounding environment is restricted
• Crevice corrosion caused by metal-to-metal or metal
to non-metal surfaces, e.g. gaskets, couplings and
joints
• Under deposit corrosion - crevice formed from
discontinuous deposit, can be inert (e.g. sand) or
electrochemically active (e.g. FeS)

53
 How Corrosion Occurs

Deposit Cathode
H+ + 2e H2
Anode

Fe2+ - 2e Fe2+
Metal

Manifestations

Crevice Corrosion

 Form of rapid, localized corrosion

- Example : stagnant water under a deposit

 Mechanism similar to pitting

 Occurs much faster than general corrosion

54
Manifestations

Crevice corrosion under gasket

Manifestations

Pitting corrosion on
free surface

Crevice corrosion
under washers

55
Crevice Corrosion Occurs Under Paint Spillage or
Plates

Crevice corrosion occurs in narrow gaps

where the oxygen concentration is lower than
on the freely exposed part of the material

Seawater
Ingress of seawater
Paint
Plate

Stainless Steel

Corroded areas

Manifestations

Minimising Crevice Corrosion

• use welded butt joints instead of riveted or bolted joints
• seal crevices: continuous welding/soldering
• regular and thorough cleaning or complete draining to remove deposits or
avoid stagnation
• filter or screen flow to remove solids in suspension
• use non-absorbent gaskets, such as Teflon, whenever possible.
• use crevice corrosion resistant alloys

Maximum crevice corrosion resistance is achieved in alloys of

• a narrow active-passive transition
• a small critical current density
• an extended passive region

Titanium and high nickel alloys are examples of such materials.

Type 430 stainless steel has a large critical current density, a wide active-passive
transition and a limited passive region. It is extremely susceptible to crevice
corrosion. Stainless steels as a family are very poor in resisting crevice corrosion.

56
Manifestations

Pitting and Crevice Corrosion

Pitting occurs in regions of break-down of Crevice corrosion: Usually

passive films; due to differential oxygen
corroding species such as Cl- can concentration
concentrate in the pits and make pits self (washers, bolts, nuts)
propagating

Manifestations
Galvanic Corrosion

• A potential difference usually exists between two

dissimilar metals
• Corrosion of less resistant metal is increased and
more resistant metal is reduced
• Less resistant metal is anodic and more resistant
metal is cathodic
• To predict corrosion can use galvanic series
• Particular problem with threaded connections
between dissimilar metals

57
Manifestations

Galvanic/Bimetallic Corrosion

Occurs when two dissimilar metals are in direct electric

contact

Dissimilar metals have different reactivities since they

have different positions in the Electrochemical Series

Manifestations

Galvanic/Bimetallic Corrosion

Pre-requisites: Important parameters:

• Water (Electrolyte) • Anode - Cathode area ratio.
• Two metals with different potentials • Electrolyte resistivity (Conductivity)
• Electrical contacts between the metals • Difference in galvanic potential
of the metals

Fe ++

Cathode Anode
Stainless steel e- Steel

58
 Galvanic Corrosion

O2 Aerated Water
O2
O2 O2
O2
O2 O2 O2

O2 O2
O2
O2

+ Anode + δ+ Hδ
Hδ+

H
HHδ+
δ+
δ+ δ+ δ+δ+ δ+
H

HHδ+
Hδ+

H
δ+ H Hδ+ δ+
δ+
δ+ δ+ +
δ+
δ+ δ+ HH H
δ+

δδ++
δ+ HH H δ+ δ+ Hδ+ Hδ+ HHδ+δ+Hδ+ HHδ+δ+ Hδ+ H
Hδ+
H Hδ+
H

δ+

δ+
Hδ+
H δ+
δ+δ+
HH Hδ+ Hδ+ Hδ+ H H
HHδ+ δ+δ+

Zinc
δ+δ+
H HH H HHH - OH-- δ- - δ- - - -- δ- OH- δ+- δ- δ- O
δ- --O -δ- δ- --O - - δ-- - δ-
OH-O - δ- δ- --- δ H δ+
OOH
OH
δ-OH
δ- Oδ-
OH δ-
OH
O - - OH
22 2O OO OH
δ-OH
δ- OO222 OO OHO OO2OH
OH O2OHOδ- O2OH
OO2OH
OH
2O O Oδ-O O2OH OO2 OHH O
O2OH
O 2 O2 O Oδ-
OOH
OH
2 O O222-
O

O O

O
Oδ-
2O
O

OO O

Oδδ++
Hδ-
Hδ+
HH

H
H
22
δ--

2 2
δ

2 2

δ-

δ-
δ+

δ+
δ+
δ+

-
e - Zn2+
e-- - -
- Cathode - e e2+ ee-Zn2+ ee-
Zn2+
e-e-
Zn2+Zn
Zn2+
e-
2+- Zn2+
- Cathode -
- Zn2+
Zne - e-
e - Zne2+-
e e
Steel e- Steel

Zn0  Zn2+ + 2e- (anodic - zinc)

½ O2 + H2O + 2e-  2(OH)- (cathodic - steel)

Manifestations
Galvanic Series in Seawater
NOBLE Platinum
Gold
Graphite
Stainless Steel (passive)
Nickel
Monel
Bronze
Copper
Brasses
Tin
Lead
Stainless Steel (active)
Mild Steel
Aluminium
Zinc
Magnesium
ACTIVE

59
Manifestations

Galvanic//Bimetallic Corrosion

Due to the potential difference

between dissimilar metals:

The less noble metal is more Active

and acts as Anode ; i.e. it dissolves

The more noble metal acts as

Cathode ; i.e. it remains
intact/undamaged

Manifestations
Galvanic Attack

N o b le
B a s e M e ta l
M e ta l

60
Manifestations
Factors Affecting the Rate of Galvanic Corrosion

• The degree of potential difference between the two

metals
• Distance effect - greatest near the junction
• Area effect - better to have large anode, small cathode
• Corrosiveness of the environment

Manifestations

Uncoupled Dissimilar Metals

Anodic rxn : Zn = Zn2+ + 2e- Fe = Fe2+ + 2e-

Cathodic rxn: 2H+ + 2e- = H2 2H+ + 2e- = H2
Zn strip Fe strip

Both metals corrode but

@ different rates

H2 gas More active metal ( Zn )

bubbles being FASTER

Dil. HCl soln

61
Manifestations

Coupled Dissimilar Metals

e e
V

Anodic rxn: Zn = Zn2+ + 2e- Cathodic rxn: 2H+ + 2e- = H2

More active Less active

metal is eaten metal remains
away rapidly, intact with H2
gas evolution
i.e. corrodes

Dil. HCl soln.

Manifestations

Galvanic Corrosion
Carbon steel Inconel ring

Cu

Al

62
Manifestations

Galvanic/Bimetallic Corrosion
The severity of the attack depends on:
• Conductivity of the electrolyte
• Anode - Cathode area ratio

Electrolyte with good conductivity

Wide corrosion attack
Anode Cathode Anode

Electrolyte with low conductivity

Anode Cathode Anode Attack close to cathode

Unpreferable area ratio

Cathode Anode Cathode Small anode will corrode rapidly

Manifestations

Surface area effect in galvanic corrosion

Small cathode Large anode combination is Acceptable


Stainless
Steel Rivet
Carbon Steel
SS CS

63
Manifestations

Surface area effect in galvanic corrosion

Small anode Large cathode combination is NOT Acceptable

X Carbon
Steel Revit
Stainless Steel
CS SS

Manifestations
Galvanic Corrosion In A Pipe System

Here the flange will be

“attacked” from both sides

Sacrificial spool:
• Less noble material
than CuNi
• Will corrode instead of
the expensive flange

64
Manifestations
Surface area effect in galvanic corrosion

Which is better ???

Brass bolt in a steel structure Steel bolt in a brass structure

Small brass cathode will Small steel anode will

cause small increase in
corrosion of steel
structure. Bolt will be
protected from corrosion
by coupling to steel
suffer large increase in
corrosion due to
coupling with brass
structure.

Manifestations
Example of Galvanic Corrosion: Steel with Mill Scale

Outdoor exposure
• The mill scale cracks
• Corrosion will develop on the steel
Mill scale is more noble than steel

Mill scale Corrosion

Steel Steel

65
Manifestations
Welds may Corrode Rapidly If Not The Correct Weld
Material is Used

Corrosion attack on weld

Filler is less noble than the steel
Electrolyte

Cathode Anode Cathode

NOTE
The weld material (filler) must always
be more noble than the base material

Manifestations

Galvanic Corrosion

SS

Carbon Steel Bolt

66
Manifestations

Galvanic Corrosion Prevention Techniques

• selecting metals of similar electrode potentials to minimise the
driving force of the process
• protection against moisture condensation to eliminate the chance of
forming an electrolyte
• insulation between dissimilar metals to avoid electrical connection
• coating for electrical insulation or isolation of metal from electrolyte
• installing a third metal which is anodic to both metals
• designing for easy replacement of the anode metal or thicker section
for longer service life

Beneficial Applications of Galvanic Corrosion

• Cathodic protection, sacrificial anode protection
Galvanised steels: Zn coating is anodic to steel, act as a sacrificial
metal

Manifestations
Intergranular Corrosion

• Localised attack of grain boundaries with

relatively little corrosion of the grains

• Caused by more reactive grain boundaries

67
 Manifestations
Inter granular Corrosion (IGC)

Cr23C6

Concentration of
Cr decreases near
the precipitates

Grain boundaries will be depleted in Cr and will corrode

Manifestations
Inter granular Corrosion (IGC)

• Localized attack at and adjacent to grain boundaries,

boundaries with relatively little corrosion of the
grains.
• The alloy, sensitive to IGC, disintegrates and/or loses its strength when exposed to
environments.

Causes of intergranular corrosion

A. Segregation of impurities at the grain boundary ex) Fe in Al alloys.
B. Enrichment of one of the alloying elements or depletion of one of these elements in the grain
boundary areas.

Intergranular Corrosion of stainless steels (12% Cr)

and nickel based alloys

Exposed temperature : 425 oC to 815 oC

Sensitization

This results from the preferential attack of Cr- depleted

zone due to precipitation of Cr23C6 at grain boundary.

68
Manifestations
Intergranular Attack - Weld Decay

Manifestations

Control of IGC
1) Metallurgical measures:
a) Solution annealing : heating the alloy to 1050 C where all Cr-carbides are
dissolved, followed by rapid cooling.

b) Low-
Low-carbon alloy modifications:
modifications: lower the carbon content to below 0.03% for
austenitic stainless steels(304L, 316L) or to below 50ppm for ferritic stainless steels.

c) Stabilization treatment: add strong carbide former(Ti, Nb) in melt:Types 347 and 321
stainless steels.

2) Environmental measures:
lower acidity and less oxidizing conditions will generally reduce the susceptibility to IGC.

69
Manifestations

Flow effects

 Flow can
– increase transport of oxygen to the metal surface (may
help to passivate)
– increase the rate of dissolution of corrosion product films
– mechanically remove oxides

Manifestations
Velocity Phenomena

Erosion Cavitation
Bubbles
Flow

70
Manifestations
Velocity Effect

• Velocity of the flow is sufficient to remove weakly adherent

corrosion products from metal’s surface
• Breakaway velocity determined by alloy and environment
system
50

Film Free Surface

40
Corrosion Rate

30

20

Protective
10
film on Film Breakdown
Surface
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Velocity

Manifestations

Erosion-Corrosion

 Corrosion accelerated by impact by solid particles

o These may remove metal, or they may just remove
oxide and allow metal to corrode more quickly

71
 Erosion-Corrosion Process

O2
Aerated Water
O2
O2 O2

O2
O2
O2
O2

O2
O2 O2
O2

Passive Film

Base Metal

Manifestations
Erosion - Corrosion

• High velocity - film removal and corrosion

Suspended solids assist

Areas of turbulence susceptible
• section changes, elbows, etc.
• Damage follows flow direction
• Corrosion inhibitors can reduce damage

72
Manifestations
Erosion - Corrosion : Condenser Tube Wall

Water Flow

Corrosion Film Impingement/Pits

Metal Tube Wall

Manifestations

Erosion-
Erosion-Corrosion

Erosion corrosion on a “plane” surface

Cross section From above

Flow direction

Sharp corners creates turbulence, leading to erosion corrosion

73
 Manifestations

CORROSION FAILURE ANALYSIS EROSION CORROSION

Example: The pipe shown below is leaking due to erosion corrosion. A) Indicate the
most probable locations for leaks. B) This is one example of a way to redesign the pipe
to eliminate or minimize erosion corrosion.

Manifestations

CORROSION FAILURE ANALYSIS EROSION CORROSION

Metal loss occurs with disrupted flow.

Horseshoe shaped pits.
“U” oriented with fluid flow.
Caused by rapid flow.
Caused by rapid flow of corrosion fluid.

74
Manifestations

PREVENTION OF EROSION CORROSION

Remove solids if present.

Lower flow rates and volumes.
Minimize number of bends and T’s.
Eliminate pump cavitations
Utilize corrosion resistant alloys
Apply coatings: concrete or plastics.
Apply film persistent corrosion inhibitors.

Manifestations
Cavitation

• Also occurs during fluid flow

• Rapid changes in pressure

Formation and collapse of gas bubbles

Repeated action wears away metal

Example : pump impellers
• Often design problem, but can inhibit

75
 Pump Cavitation

Pumps – Mechanism of Cavitation

1. Formation of bubbles inside the liquid

2. Growth of bubbles
3. Collapse of bubbles
i.e., Stepwise process

Cavitation

76
Pumps – Mechanism of Cavitation

Manifestations
Bacteria in Oilfield Systems

• Section of pipe indicating bacterial growth

Pipe
Planktonic
wall
bacteria

Sessile
Biofilm bacteria

77
 Bacterial Corrosion

Certain types encountered:

Sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) cause most

problems

– Exist in anaerobic conditions

– Metabolise by reducing inorganic sulphate to sulphide
2- 2-
– 4H2 + SO4 S + 4H2O

– FeS deposits associated with black bacterial slimes

– Pitting problems

Manifestations
Sulphate Reducing Bacteria

FeS

Fe2+ 8H
-
SO42- + 8H H2S + 2H2O + 2OH

SRB
CATHODE
ANODE

Pipe Wall

78
 Bacterial Corrosion
SRB

PLAN SIDE

Appearance:
Shallow pits within pits

Bacterial Corrosion
SRB

79
Manifestations
Environmental Cracking

• Environmental cracking is the brittle failure of an

otherwise ductile material as a result of the combined
action of corrosion and tensile stress

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)
(and Hydrogen Blistering)

Corrosion Fatigue

Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME)

Manifestations
Stress Corrosion Cracking

• Stress Corrosion Cracking is the brittle failure in an

otherwise ductile metal from combined action of
tensile stress and specific corrosive environment
• Carbon steel : caustic
• Stainless steel : chlorides
• Copper alloys : ammonia

80
Manifestations
Stress Corrosion Cracking

 Specific to certain alloy/environments

- Examples: high strength steels in presence of sulfide

- Austenitic stainless steel with chloride/high T

 Sulfide stress cracking

- High strength steels (Y.S.>90,000 psi; Rc>22)

- Can take place after days or years

Manifestations

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Caused by the simultaneous effects of tensile stress and

a specific corrosive environment.

Tensile Stress

Susceptible Corrosive
Alloy Environment

81
Manifestations

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Stresses may be due to:
applied loads ( static / dynamic )

residual stresses from the

manufacturing process, or
Residual stresses due to
rolling & welding
combination of both

Residual stresses due to rolling,

welding & bending

Manifestations

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Agar gel containing: Phenolphthalein &
HexaCyanoIron Fe(CN)6-

At
AtCathodes
Cathodes::
PhPh -
PhPh++OH
OH-
Iron nails

Pink
PinkColor
Color

At
AtAnodes
Anodes::
H.C.I. 2+
H.C.I.++Fe
Fe2+

Prussian
PrussianBlue
Blue Sites of Stress
Sites of stress
= Anodic Sites

82
Manifestations
Hydrogen Blistering

• Hydrogen blistering results from the penetration of atomic

hydrogen into a metal
• More prevalent in softer metals, the harder metals usually
suffer from hydrogen embrittlement
• Blistering is the local deformation and in extreme cases
complete destruction
+ +
of vessel wall
H H
Electrolyte
H H
H H2 H
H H

H H H H2 H
Void
H H2 H
Air

Manifestations

Hydrogen Damage
Hydrogen Blistering

Grain Boundaries

83
Manifestations

Hydrogen Blistering

Cross-section of a carbon steel plate

showing a large hydrogen blister Hydrogen blistering of
a carbon steel plate

Manifestations
Hydrogen Induced Cracking

• Hydrogen embrittlement results from the penetration

of atomic hydrogen into a metal
• Embrittlement results in a loss of ductility and tensile
strength
• Potentially more damaging than Hydrogen Blistering

84
Manifestations

Hydrogen Embrittlement

Manifestations
Sulphide SCC

• Sulphide is a poison to the reaction of the formation

of molecular hydrogen from its atomic form
• Greater concentration of atomic hydrogen on the
metal surface
• Therefore accelerates Hydrogen Blistering or
Embrittlement

85
Manifestations
Sulfide Stress Corr. Cracking (SSCC)

 H2S reacts with water and produce hydrogen Ions (atomic

hydrogen)

 H2S prevents recombination of the atomic hydrogen to molecular

hydrogen

 The atomic hydrogen diffuse into the metal and cause cracking
(brittle fracture)

Manifestations
SSCC Mechanism

86
Corrosion Failure Analysis Hydrogen
Sulfide Corrosion

 Causes cone shaped pits

 Pits have gently sloped edges

 Iron sulfide is a by-product

 Can cause sulfide stress cracks

 Can cause hydrogen embitterment

Prevention of Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

 Eliminate hydrogen sulfide source

 Scavenge the hydrogen sulfide

 Utilize corrosion resistant alloys or coatings

 Utilize film persistent corrosion inhibitors: oil soluble

or water soluble

87
Manifestations
Corrosion Fatigue

Corrosion Fatigue is a combined effect of an aggressive

environment and dynamic loads on a structure

Load

Fatigue only No failure

above line

Corrosion fatigue

No. of dynamic cycles

Manifestations

• Where will corrosion occur?

• Almost anywhere where liquid water is present either
continuously or intermittently

GAS
PROCESSING
PRODUCTION

WATER
DISPOSAL
OR
DEHYDRATION FLOOD

88
Manifestations

How fast will corrosion take place?

• Very difficult to predict accurately

systems constantly changing

mechanism complex and not well understood

Manifestations

How fast will corrosion take place?

• Prediction of CO2 Corrosion

DeWaard - Milliams relationship (1975)
log(C.R.) = 5.8 - 1710 + 0.67 log (PCO2)
273+t

Since revised to account for:-
• corrosion product films
• pH
• systems pressure
• effect of methanol or glycol
• effect of crude oil
• effect of velocity

89
Manifestation
How Fast will Corrosion Take Place

• Prediction of H2S Corrosion

no simple models

• Estimated corrosion rates in oil wells

Blank Rate = 1/25 [ (CO2 + 1/2 H2S) + (HCO3- + 1/2 H2S) ]

10

Where all concentrations are in ppm and where O2 = 0 ppm

90