EVT: Unit – 5 :1

18EPE253 Electric Vehicle Technology

Unit – 5
Fuel cell electric vehicles: Fuel cell characteristics [4.1(2)], hydrogen storage systems
[4.1.3(2)], reformers [4.1.4(2)]. Alternate sources of power: Super and ultra-capacitors [4.2(2)],
flywheels [4.3(2)].
Question.1: Explain the construction and operation of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)
fuel cell. (20)
The possible alternatives to batteries as portable energy sources are fuel cells and flywheels
and ultracapacitor. These alternate sources can be used for electric vehicles, hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs) and other applications.
1) Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is a static electrochemical device that transforms hydrogen and oxygen into direct
current electricity by means of a chemical reaction, much like a battery. It does not, however,
store energy as a battery does. The major difference between batteries and fuel cells is that the
fuel cells can produce electricity as long as fuel is supplied, while batteries supply electricity
till the stored energy is exhausted and, hence, requires frequent recharging. This major
advantage for the fuel cell system is it eliminates the problem of limited driving range. The
separate fuel-storage container can be refilled from an outside source simply and quickly, in
the same way that a petrol/diesel tank is filled at a service station.
For generation of electricity, the fuels supplied to the cell are hydrogen and oxygen. The
concept of fuel cell is the opposite of electrolysis of water, where hydrogen and oxygen are
combined to form electricity and water. The electrode on the hydrogen side is negative and is
the anode, whereas the electrode on oxygen side of the fuel cell is positive and is the cathode.
Construction
The constructional details of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell is shown in
figures 1 and 2.
The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell
consists of the membrane, the catalyst layers, the gas diffusion layers (GDL), the gaskets and
the bipolar plates.
The polymer or proton electrolyte membrane is a specially treated material (that looks
something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap of less than 20 microns) and allows only
positively charged ions to pass through it from anode side to cathode side and block the
electrons (hence the name, proton exchange membrane). Also it is impermeable to gases.

A layer of catalyst is added on both sides of the membrane for both the hydrogen oxidation
reaction (HOR) occurring at the anode and the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the cathode.
Conventional catalyst layers include nanometer-sized particles of platinum dispersed on a high-
surface-area carbon support. This platinum is mixed with an ion-conducting polymer (ionomer)
such as perfluorosulfonic-acid and sandwiched between the membrane and the GDLs. On the
anode side, the platinum catalyst enables hydrogen molecules to be split into protons and
electrons. On the cathode side, the platinum catalyst enables oxygen reduction by reacting with
the protons generated by the anode, producing water. The ionomer mixed into the catalyst
layers allows the transport of protons. Platinum helps to lower the activation energy of the
oxidation process and helps to take place in about 1-pico second.

The GDLs placed outside the catalyst layers facilitate transport of reactants (hydrogen and
oxygen) into the catalyst layer, as well as removal of product water. Each GDL is typically
composed of a sheet of carbon paper in which the carbon fibers are partially coated with
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Gases diffuse rapidly through the pores in the GDL.
Rubbery polymer gaskets provide a seal around the MEA to prevent leakage of gases, and
graphite bipolar plates (flow field plates) with channels (passages) provide an adequate amount
 EVT: Unit – 5 :2

of the reactants (hydrogen and oxygen) to the (GDL) and catalyst surface while minimizing
pressure drop.
Each individual MEA produces less than 1 V under typical operating conditions. To provide a
usable output voltage multiple MEAs are usually connected in series by stacking them on top
of each other.
− +

𝑒− 𝑒− 𝑒− 𝑒−
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝐻2 ) 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑒− 𝑒− 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡)
𝑒− 𝑒− 𝑂
𝐻+ 2
𝐻2
𝐻+
𝑈𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡) 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡

𝑀𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑒

𝐹𝑖𝑔. 1 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒

𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟

𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟

𝐹𝑖𝑔. 2 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

Working and Chemistry

The platinum catalyst catalytically separates the 𝐻2 into two 𝐻 + ions and two electrons. The
two hydrogen ions (protons) migrate through membrane towards the cathode, while the two
electrons through the load to the cathode.
On the cathode side, platinum catalytically helps the 𝑂2 (from air) ionize into two ions. The
two 𝑂+ then combines with the 𝐻 + to form water 𝐻2 𝑂, which is then released from the catalyst
surface.
The chemical reaction taking place in a fuel is as follows:
At anode: 𝐻2 → 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 −
1
At cathode: 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − + 2 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
1
Overall or cell: 𝐻2 + 2 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
 EVT: Unit – 5 :3

The flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit is what
produces electricity.∎
Salient features of Fuel cells

1) PEMFC cells operate at relatively low temperatures (below 100 degrees Celsius) and can
tailor electrical output to meet dynamic power requirements.
2)The typical voltage and current values of an individual cell range from 0.4 to 0.9 V and from
0.5 to 1.0 A/cm2 respectively. In order for fuel cells to produce high voltages, a stack is made
up by connecting a number of fuel cells in series, separated by bipolar plates.
3) The fuel cell applications ranges from small devices capable of supplying just a few watts
of electricity to power plants generating power in the megawatts range.
4) The different fuel cells are categorised according to the type of electrolyte they use. Both
advantages and disadvantages can be found with respect to temperature, size, fuel, purity,
lifetime and cost. This is because each type of fuel cell requires particular materials and fuels
that may be restricted to certain applications. The various categories of fuel cells include:
i) Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC). Also referred to Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane Fuel Cell (PEFC).
ii) Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC).
iii) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC).
iv) Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC).
v) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC).
vi) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC).
5) Apart from catalysts, catalyst supports, membranes, gas diffusion layers, bipolar plates,
sealing and gaskets, a fuel cell stack will have a fuel tank, pumps, fans and a control unit to
operate a fuel cell. Each of these components may degrade or fail to function, thus causing the
fuel cell system to degrade or fail.
6) The operating parameters that affect fuel cell performance are:
• Operating Pressure
• Operating Temperature
• Flow Rates of Reactants
• Humidity of Reactants
7) The electrochemical reaction in a fuel cell is far cleaner and more efficient than the chaotic
combustion that takes place in an internal combustion engine. When hydrogen and oxygen are
mixed in an ICE, a localized blast of energy (a spark) causes oxygen and hydrogen to collide
and release energy, most of which is wasted when the excited molecules bounce against the
sides and top of the engine rather than against the moving piston. The excited hydrogen and
oxygen molecules not only heat the engine and what surrounds it, they also react with other
molecules such as nitrogen, forming nitrogen oxides and other undesirable compounds.
8) Fuel cell systems are at least twice as energy efficient as petrol/diesel engines, while
producing little or no waste heat, pollution, or noise. The only products are waste water and
useful electricity. The reactions are simple and easily controlled. Little energy is lost through
heat.[82, Daniel Sperling Future Drive Electric Vehicles]∎
 EVT: Unit – 5 :4

2) Ultracapacitor or ultrahigh-capacitance capacitors [139 pdf page, Iqbal]

Question.2: Explain the construction and working of ultracapacitor. What are its advantages
and disadvantages? (10)
Answer:
Assignment

3) Flywheel [Page pdf 139, Iqbal]

Question.3: Explain the construction and working of flywheel. What are its advantages and
disadvantages? (20)
A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational energy.
Flywheels resist changes in rotational speed by their moment of inertia. The amount of
energy 𝑈 stored in a flywheel is
1
𝑈 = 𝐽𝜔2
2
where 𝐽 is the polar moment of inertia in 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 /𝑠 and 𝜔 is the angular velocity in 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.

Energy storage can be increased by spinning the flywheel at higher velocities without
increasing the inertia, which is directly proportional to mass. Increasing angular velocity, in
turn, increases centrifugal stress, which must not exceed failure stress with a given factor of
safety. Hence, there is a limit beyond which the tensile strength σ of the flywheel material
cannot withstand the stress resulting from the centrifugal force. The maximum stress acting on
the flywheel depends on its geometry, specific density ρ, and rotational speed. Maximum
benefit can be obtained by adopting flywheel materials that have the maximum ratio of σ / ρ as
per equation
𝜎
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑘
𝜌
where 𝑘 is a constant depending on the geometry. Therefore, the material to be used in a
flywheel must be lightweight with high tensile strength, conditions that are satisfied by
composite materials such as carbon fiber. At present, a speed of over 60,000 rpm has been
achieved in some prototype flywheels.

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝐹𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐼
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑉(𝑑𝑐)
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐹𝑖𝑔. 1𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 fl𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦).

With current technology it is difficult to directly use the mechanical energy stored in a flywheel
to propel a vehicle, due to the need for continuous variation transmission with a wide gear ratio
variation range. Therefore, flywheels can be used in HEVs with a standard IC engine as a power
 EVT: Unit – 5 :5

assist device. Alternatively, flywheels can be used to replace chemical batteries in EVs to serve
as the primary energy source or could be used in conjunction with batteries.
The commonly used approach is to couple an electric machine to the flywheel directly or
through a transmission to constitute a so called mechanical battery (Figure 1).
When the flywheel discharges its energy, the electric machine acts as a generator and converts
the mechanical energy of the flywheel into electric energy. On the other hand, when the
flywheel is charged, the electric machine acts as a motor and converts electric energy into
mechanical energy stored in the flywheel.
Advantages of flywheels
1) It has a high specific power. Theoretically, specific power of fly wheels has been shown to
be of the order of 5 to 10 kW/kg, with a specific power of 2 kW/kg being easily achievable
without exceeding safe working stresses.
2) Flywheels are not affected by temperature extremes.
3) There are no concerns with toxic chemical processing and disposal of waste materials,
making flywheels environmentally friendlier than chemical batteries.
4) Flywheel energy storage is reliable in that it possesses excellent controllability and
repeatability characteristics.
5) The state of charge in flywheels is precisely known at all times through measurement of the
rotational speed.
6) The energy conversion process to and from the flywheel approaches 98%, compared to 75
to 80% of batteries.
7) The service life of a flywheel is many times that of a battery, with little maintenance
required. The charging of flywheels is a fraction of that required by batteries and can be less
than 10 minutes for full recharge in a flywheel charging station.
8) The ability to absorb or release a high amount of power in a short period of time also aids
the regenerative braking process.
Disadvantages of Flywheel
1) Requires extra equipment to operate and contain the device. The extras are particularly
difficult in EV and HEV applications, where the extra weight and expense make a big
difference.
2) To reduce or avoid energy loss due to dynamic loss, the flywheel needs to be enclosed in a
vacuum chamber. The vacuum condition adds additional constraints on the bearings, because
liquid-lubricated bearings do not survive in vacuum. The alternative is to use magnetic
bearings, which are in a development stage.
3) The biggest extra weight in flywheels comes from the safety containment vessel, which is
required for protection from the dangerous release of sudden energy and material in the case
of a burst failure.∎

Fuel Cell Characteristics

Question.4: Taking into consideration the Gibbs free energy and Nernst equation, explain the
fuel cell characteristic of fuel cell. (10)
The fuel cell converts the Gibbs free energy of a chemical reaction into electrical energy in
the form of electrons under isothermal conditions.
The change in free energy (ΔG) is also a measure of the maximum amount of work that can be
performed during a chemical process. Consequently, the relationship between the potential of
an electrochemical cell and free energy is as follows:
∆𝐺 = −𝑛𝐹𝐸
The maximum electrical energy for a fuel cell operating at constant temperature and pressure
is given by the change in Gibbs free energy; i.e.,
𝑊𝑒𝑙 = −∆𝐺 = 𝑛𝐹𝐸
where
 EVT: Unit – 5 :6

𝑛 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. In case of hydrogen

oxygen fuel cell, the number of electrons each 𝐻2 molecule provides, i.e., 2.
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑦’𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 96412.2 𝐶/𝑚𝑜𝑙.
𝐸 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙.
The free energy change for the reaction, 𝐻2 + 0.5𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂 at standard condition of 1
atmospheric pressure and 25 𝑜 𝐶(298 𝐾) is −236𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑟 − 118 𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔.
With 𝑛 = 2, the maximum reversible potential or the standard emf the hydrogen-oxygen cell
at 1 atmospheric pressure and 25 𝑜 𝐶(298 𝐾) is 𝐸0 = 1.23 𝑉,from ∆𝐺 equation. In an ideal
case, the standard electromotive force can be measured as the open circuit voltage.
The Nernst equation, provides an expression for the reversible thermodynamic potential, also
known as the equilibrium voltage or the open-circuit electromotive force (emf), of the fuel cell.
The maximum reversible potential under actual operating conditions for the hydrogen-oxygen
fuel cell is given by the Nernst equation,
𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝐻 𝑃𝑂0.5
𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑛𝐹 𝑃𝐻2 𝑂
Where
𝑇 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛.
𝑅 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑃𝐻 , 𝑃𝑂 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐻2𝑂
= 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠.
The voltage-current output characteristic of a hydrogen-oxygen cell is illustrated in Figure.1
The higher potentials around 1 V per cell are theoretical predictions that are not achievable in
a practical cell. The linear region where cell potential is less is due to ohmic losses.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉

1.0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

1.0 2.0
2
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐴/𝑐𝑚

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑎ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛/𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

The working voltage of the cell falls with an increasing current drain. A knowledge of this
helps in designing fuel-cell-powered EVs and hybrid vehicles. The resistive components in
the cell limit the practical achievable efficiency of a fuel cell. Because cell potential is small,
several cells are stacked in series to achieve the desired voltage.∎

Hydrogen Storage [408, PEM Fuel cell, Franco Barbir] [Also refer to 323, Fuel Cell
Systems Explained Third Edition, Andrew L. Dicks] [85, Iqbal]
[Question.5: Discuss the different methods for storing hydrogen for the vehicular
applications. What are the merits and demerits of each method.] (20)
The desirabilities of on-board hydrogen storage system for vehicular applications are
lightweight, compact, safe, cost-effective storage and the ability to achieve a driving range of
 EVT: Unit – 5 :7

at least 480 kilometres. Depending upon the size of the vehicle, a driving range of 480
kilometres requires 5 to 10 kg of hydrogen.
At present, three systems for on-board hydrogen storage are available. Hydrogen can be stored
(i) as a pressurized gas in high pressure tanks (5,000 to 10,000 psi in composite cylinders).
(ii) as a liquid in cryogenic storage dewars or tanks (at -253o C).
(iii) in chemical or physical combinations with other materials, such as metal hydrides or
carbon nanotubes, chemical hydrides, glass microspheres and cryoadsorbers.
(iv) in novel hydrogen storage methods
(i) Pressurized hydrogen storage
Hydrogen can be stored in caverns, aquifers, depleted petroleum and natural gas fields, and
man-made caverns resulting from mining and other activities is likely to be technologically
and economically feasible. For example, Kiel's public utility of Kiel city, Germany, is storing
town gas with a hydrogen content of 60-65% in a gas cavern (cave) since 1971.
Hydrogen can be stored above ground in pressurized gas storage systems in various sizes and
pressure ranges, from standard pressure cylinders (200 bar) to stationary high-pressure
containers (>200 bar) or low-pressure spherical containers.
Vehicular pressurized hydrogen tanks made of ultra-light but strong new composite materials
that allow pressures in excess of 200 bars are used in prototype automobiles and buses.
However, storage of hydrogen as compressed gas results in relatively large tanks.
(ii) Liquid hydrogen storage
Production of liquid hydrogen or liquefaction is an energy-intensive process, typically
requiring amounts of energy equal to about one-third of the energy in liquefied hydrogen.
Hydrogen liquefaction and use of liquid hydrogen is usually practiced only where
achieving high storage density is absolutely essential, such as in aerospace applications.
Hydrogen liquefaction is not likely to become a viable means of storage for vehicle
applications.
(iii)Metal hydride storage
Hydrogen is compressed to a lower pressure level (a few to a few tens of atmospheres) and fed
into a container filled with metal hydrides that can absorb and release 𝐻2 as a function of the
pressure, temperature, and amount of stored hydrogen in the system. The use of metal hydrides
reduces the volumetric and pressure requirements for storage, because when fully loaded, these
metal hydrides can contain twice as many hydrogen atoms than an equivalent volume of liquid
hydrogen. The problem is that it is much heavier than the other solutions. The prospect of using
carbon-nanotube-based materials for hydrogen storage is exciting, because it could eliminate
the problem of storage weight. However, the properties of carbon nanotubes regarding their
usefulness as hydrogen storage materials is still controversial.
Another problem of Metal hydride storage is the heat produced during the storage process
(charging or absorption). Arrangements must be made to remove the heat in order to achieve
the continuity of the reaction. During the hydrogen release process (discharging or desorption),
heat must be supplied to the storage tank. Both of these, makes the process expensive.
An advantage of storing hydrogen in hydriding substances is the safety aspect. A serious
damage to a hydride tank (e.g., collision) would not pose a fire hazard because hydrogen
would remain in the metal structure.

(iv) Novel hydrogen storage methods

Several novel hydrogen storage methods that offer potential for higher energy densities
than the conventional methods listed earlier. These include hydrogen storage in activated
carbon at cryogenic temperatures and elevated pressures, storage in carbon nanotubes,
storage in glass microspheres, or storage in polyhidride chemical complexes. Although some
of these methods which are under investigation are promising, none has been demonstrated to
date on a level that would guarantee acceptable practicality, cost, or safety.∎
 EVT: Unit – 5 :8

Note:
A cryogenic storage dewar (named after James Dewar, a Scottish chemist and physicist.) is a
specialised type of vacuum flask used for storing cryogens (such as liquid nitrogen or liquid
helium), whose boiling points are much lower than room temperature.
Cryogenics is defined as the scientific study of materials and their behavior at extremely low
temperatures. The word comes from the Greek cryo, which means cold, and genic, which
means producing.
The cryogenic temperature range has been defined as from −150 o C (−238 ° F) to absolute zero
(−273 °C or −460 °F), the temperature at which molecular motion comes as close as
theoretically possible to ceasing completely. Cryogenic temperatures are usually described in
the absolute or Kelvin scale, in which absolute zero is written as 0 K, without a degree sign.
Conversion from the Celsius to the Kelvin scale can be done by adding 273 to the Celsius
scale. ∎

Reformer [Iqbal, Page 87] [275, PEM Fuel cell, Franco Barbir]
[Question.6: What is a reformer? Is it required for a fuel cell vehicle? Substantiate the
answer with reasons.] (10)

Though, hydrogen is a preferred fuel for PEM fuel cells, it is rarely used because of
bulkiness or weight of its storage, even in small quantities required by those small
devices. Hydrogen may be stored in room temperature metal hydride storage tanks. Some
chemical hydrides offer higher energy density, however, they must be equipped with suitable
reactors where hydrogen is released in controlled chemical reaction. Most portable fuel cells
use methanol, ethanol, or gasoline as a fuel and reforming it on-board into hydrogen for the
fuel cell.
The reformer is the fuel processor that breaks down a hydrocarbon, such as methanol, into
hydrogen and other by-products. Alternately, a reformer converts a hydrocarbon fuel to
hydrogen fuel. The advantage of this approach is the ease of handling of hydrocarbon fuel
compared to hydrogen gas. Steam reforming is the most widespread process for the generation
of hydrogen-rich synthesis gas from light carbohydrates.
Methanol is the most promising fuel for reformers, because it reforms fairly easily into
hydrogen and is liquid at room temperature. It is reformed in the steam reformer using a catalyst
of the transition metal oxide type at a steam-to-carbon molar ratio of 1.3:1 or higher and 250°C.
The overall process reaction
𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 3𝐻3 + 𝐶𝑂2

The primary advantage of a vehicle with a reformer is that it does not need a pressurized gas
tank to store hydrogen fuel; instead methanol is stored as a liquid. Methanol reformers are
being considered as a component of a hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicle. A prototype car, the
NECAR 5 was introduced by Daimler - Chrysler in the year 2000. ∎

Types of fuel cell

[Question.7: Discuss the different types of fuel cell along with their merits and demerits.] (20)
[pdf page 130, Iqbal]
The six major types of fuel cells are as follows
1) Alkaline fuel cell.
2) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
3) Direct methanol fuel cell.
4) Phosphoric acid fuel cell.
5) Molten carbonate fuel cell.
6) Solid oxide fuel cell.
1) Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
 EVT: Unit – 5 :9

In an alkaline fuel cell (AFC), an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used as
the electrolyte. The performance of the alkaline electrolyte is as good as the acid electrolytes,
while being significantly less corrosive toward the electrodes. Alkaline fuel cells have been in
actual use for a long time, delivering electrical efficiencies of up to 60%. They require pure
hydrogen as fuel and operate at low temperatures (at 80°C); therefore, they are suitable for
vehicle applications. Residual heat can be used for heating, but the cell temperature is not
sufficiently high to generate steam that can be used for cogeneration.AFC applications include
military and space, and it is the technology that has been used by NASA for more than 25 years.
Advantages:
(1) Cathode reaction is faster in the alkaline electrolyte, resulting in high performance.
(2) Operation at low temperature.
(3) Delivers power for quick start – up.
Disadvantage: requirement for pure hydrogen, requiring expensive CO2 removal from fuel
and air streams.

2) Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells use solid electrolytes and operate at low
temperatures (around 80°C). Nafion is an example of solid polymer electrolyte. The electrical
efficiency of PEM fuel cells is lower than that of the alkaline cells (about 40%). However, a
rugged and simple construction makes these types of fuel cells suitable for vehicle applications.
The advantage of PEM cells is that they can tolerate impurity in the fuel, as compared to pure
hydrogen which is needed in alkaline fuel cells. These are used in electric utilities, portable
power, and transportation.
Advantages:
1) Solid electrolyte reduces corrosion.
2) Operates at low temperatures.
3) Delivers power for quick start-up.
Disadvantages:
1) Requires expensive catalysts
2) High sensitivity to fuel impurities.

3) Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), are powered by reformed on-board stored pure methanol.
It operates in the range of 90 to 120°C. The electrical efficiency of DMFC is quite low at about
30%. This type of fuel cell is still in the design stages, because the search for a good
electrocatalyst to reform the methanol efficiently and to reduce oxygen in the presence of
methanol is ongoing. DMFCs are often used to provide power for portable fuel cell applications
such as cell phones or laptop computers.
Advantage:
1) Ease of transport of methanol.
Disadvantage:
1) Efficiency is quite low.

4) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are the oldest type with an origin that extends back to the
creation of the fuel cell concept. The electrolyte used is phosphoric acid, and the cell operating
temperature is about 200°C, which makes some cogeneration possible. The electrical efficiency
of this cell is reasonable at about 40%. These types of fuel cells are considered too bulky for
transportation applications, while higher efficiency designs exist for stationary applications.
Advantage:
1) It can use impure hydrogen as fuel.
2) Suitable for combined heat and power (CHP)
 EVT: Unit – 5 :10

Disadvantages:
1) Requires expensive platinum catalyst.
2) Has low current and power.
3) Large size and weight.
4) Long start-up time.

5) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

Molten carbonate fuel cells (liquid solution of lithium, sodium, and/or potassium carbonates
soaked in a matrix), operate at 600°C to 1000° C and require 𝐶𝑂 or 𝐶𝑂2 on the cathode side
and hydrogen on the anode. The cells use carbonate as the electrolyte. The electrical efficiency
of these fuel cells is high at about 50%, but the excess heat can be used for cogeneration for
improved efficiency. The high temperatures required make these fuel cells not particularly
suitable for vehicular applications, but they can be used for stationary power generation/
electric utilities.
Advantage:
1) High efficiency
2) Fuel flexibility
3) Suitable for combined heat and power (CHP)
4) Ability to use a variety of catalysts.
Disadvantages:
1) High temperature enhances corrosion and breakdown of cell components.
2) Low power density
3) Long start –up time.
6) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
An SOFC employs a solid zirconium oxide to which a small amount of yttria is added. It
operates at 600-1000° C. This fuel cell has high electrical efficiency of 50 to 60%, and residual
heat can also be used for cogeneration. Although not a good choice for vehicle applications,
but they can be used for stationary power generation/ electric utilities.
Advantages:
1) High efficiency.
2) Fuel flexibility.
3) Solid electrode.
4) Suitable for CHP.
Disadvantages:
1) High temperature enhances corrosion and breakdown of cell components.
2) Low power density.
3) Long start –up time.∎