Harmonic electric power quality concepts

for the electrified ships (AES)

J. Prousalidis, Lecturer, School of Naval and Marine Engineering, National Technical
(1)
University of Athens (NTUA), Greece
I.K. Hatzilau, Prof. Dr.-Ing, Hellenic Naval Academy (HNA) (2)
(3)
Cdr S. Perros, MSc Electrical Eng., Hellenic Navy

SYNOPSIS

The problem of harmonic power quality, which has increased lately on the continental grids is expected to
deteriorate on shipboard installations, too, after the advent of electric propulsion and other All Electric Ship
(AES) schemes where the harmonic pollutant power electronic devices dominate. This work aims at offering
a comparative analysis on power quality standards either dedicated for ships or general purpose ones,
underlining the importance of these standards, as well as giving some hints for possible further improvement
of them.

INTRODUCTION

During the last years there has been a deterioration to the problem of the harmonic distortion, observed in
voltage and current, in the electrical plants of modern warships. The problem is expected to deteriorate in the
future constructions due to the extensive use of devices with power electronics and the perspective of
implementing electric propulsion utilizing power pollutant converters feeding innovative A.C. motors as implied
by All Electric Ship (AES) concept. The electric system of any ship can be regarded as a non-interconnected
one, comprising a reduced number of generators and an increased number of non-linear loads of low or high
voltage, while in the case of AES, the electric power used for propulsion is significantly larger than the one used
for the service loads. These considerable amounts of electric power required have lead to the application of
system voltage in the range 1 kV to 11 kV, therefore the electrified ship installations according to naval
terminology drop in the category of “High Voltage” systems, although strictly speaking they comprise rather
“Medium Voltage” ones. Evidently having a good power quality on the electric energy system of an AES should
be the ultimate objective, considering its impact on all electrified and electronic subsystems including
automation and control ones.

Due to similarities to continental grids, it can be argued that the standards issued for ordinary electric systems
can be applied to ships and AES in particular, too. On the other hand, specific standards have been released
covering the electric installations on shipboard taking into account their particularities, e.g. IEEE-45 [1] or IEC-
60092 [2]. Similarly, referring to power quality problems, standards like IEEE-519 [3] can be applied to ships,
although specific standards dedicated to ships and warships in particular, have been issued, namely the
STANAG 1008 [4] as well as Military Standards of several Navies. Furthermore, certain marine classification
societies like Germanischer Lloyds (GL) [5] and Lloyds Register of Shipping (LRS) [6] have also introduced
specific regulations on power quality problem.

1
Dr. J. PROUSALIDIS (Electrical Engineer from NTUA/1991, PhD from NTUA/1997). Currently, he is Lecturer at the
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Department of National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), dealing with
electric energy systems and electric propulsion schemes on shipboard focusing on electric power quality problems and
analysis of transients.
2
Prof. Dr.-Ing. I.K. HATZILAU (Electrical & Mechanical Engineer from NTUA/1965, Dr. Ing. from University of
Stuttgart/1969). After few years in the industry, he joined the Academic Staff of HNA where he has been for 25 years. He is
also representative of HN in NATO AC/141(NG/6)SG/4 dealing with electric systems in warships.
3
Cdr. S. PERROS, (Engineer Officer from the HNA/1984, M.Sc in Electrical Engineering from Naval Postgraduate School
in Monterey California, USA/ 1992). After many years of service in HN warships (including Frigate MEKO HN type), he is
assigned now in HN General Staff. He is also an associate of the El. Engineering Chair of the HNA and is interested in the
naval ships electric systems and the electrical power quality problems.
In this paper, a comparative analysis and discussion is made concerning the restrictions on voltage and current
harmonic distortion implied by IEEE-519, STANAG 1008, GL, LRS and IEC-60002. Thus, it is shown GL and
LRS though being one of the few classification societies setting specific distortion limits depending on the
extended use of power electronics onboard, they refer only to voltage harmonic distortion disregarding the one
of the current. The same is valid for IEC-60002, too. On the other hand, current distortion being responsible for
several malfunctions, resonance and vibration phenomena is limited only by IEEE-519 and STANAG
1008/Edition 8. Moreover, the current quality limits of IEEE-519 seem to be more readily applicable than those
of STANAG 1008/ Edition 8, as they refer to actual instead of nominal operating points of the electric system
considered. On the other hand, STANAG 1008/ Edition 9 being currently under ratification does not directly
imply any actual constraints on current harmonic distortion. The discussion is further supported by field
measurements performed on HN MEKO class frigates [7, 8, 9], while it is stressed that the regulations referring
to AES should pay much attention towards eliminating both, voltage as well as current distortion.

BACKGROUND

The electric power generated and distributed to the loads by AC electric systems is considered of excellent
quality when it comprises sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms of a single and fixed frequency. Any
divergence from this set-up due to transient or steady-state phenomena spoils the power quality. Harmonic
power quality refers to the existence of distorted periodic voltage or current waveforms, which, can be expressed
via mathematical Fourier analysis, as the superposition of an infinite series of frequencies, the fundamental one
(the so-called power frequency) and its multiples, the high-order harmonics:

∞
v(t ) = ∑ V n 2 sin(n.ωt + θ v , n ) (1)
n =1
∞
i (t ) = ∑ I n 2 sin(n.ωt + θ i , n ) (2)
n =1

As already mentioned, harmonic distortion is mainly due to power electronic devices used to provide several
electric loads with power supply of frequency and/or voltage different from the system ones while they can vary,
e.g. as in the case of electric motors, where their speed and torque is controlled via power converters.

In contradiction to other types of power quality problems (e.g. transients, spikes, sags / swells), harmonic
distortion is a steady-state phenomenon existing on a constant time basis, which means that the stresses occurred,
though not severe, can eventually provoke an accumulative result often not easily explained. The impacts of
harmonic voltage and/or current distortion on electric energy systems cover a wide range of phenomena [10-12]:

• Extra heating losses in electric machinery and cable wiring (leading to either premature aging and de-rating
of the equipment due to overheating or to extra cooling requirements).
• Decrements in accuracy of measuring equipment, which are not designed for non-sinusoidal electric
quantity measurements.
• Excitation of resonance phenomena resulting to significant overvoltages and/or overcurrents (as the
harmonic frequencies flowing in the electric system could much the natural frequencies of series or parallel
combinations of stray capacitances and inductances of electric equipment).
• False tripping of protective switchgear (e.g. fuse blowing, or incorrect thermal relays actuation).
• Failure of equipment sensitive to harmonics.
• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) problems with sensitive electronic equipment (navigation,
communication control and automation)
• Erection of mechanical oscillations, vibrations, mechanical stresses and noise due to harmonic torque ripples
produced.

Power quality (and harmonic power quality in particular) is actually faced by many standards as voltage quality,
as voltage can be directly controlled and regulated by the power system. On the contrary, current is determined
by the various loads supplied, therefore, current quality can not be easily controlled or even monitored, while as
shown in the following, only few standards define figurative restrictions on it. However, considering that current
distortion is also reflected to voltage one, via the voltage drop on circuit impedances it can be safely argued that
much attention must paid to current quality defined by the entity of loads installed onboard or at least the major
ones, i.e. those of significant power demand with respect to electric system capacity. Referring to the latter, the
power loads supplied via the intervention of power electronic converters are responsible for current distortion
problems emerged.

Regarding appropriate indices to demonstrate the level of distortion, besides the individual voltage and current
harmonics Vn and In, see equations (1) and (2), Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) seems to be the most coherent
one, expressed as the portion of high order harmonics with reference to the fundamental component:

∑V
n=2
n
2
(3)
THDV =
V1
∑I
n=2
2
n (4)
THD I =
I1

It is worth noting that according to THD definition, both the fundamental component and the high order
harmonics should be measured simultaneously. However, should in (3) or (4), the fundamental equals an
average quantity over a specific time interval, then the index is called Total Demand Distortion (TDD).

Concerning further problems, depending on the hi-tech of the converters involved, certain harmonics, which are
supposed to be non-existent e.g. the “triplens” (integer multiples of 3) on the 6-pulse converters can still have a
fairly significant measurable value. Moreover, not-well synchronised switching of converter static switches
results in the production of the so-called “interharmonics”, i.e. non-integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency. Furthermore, it has to be stressed that in actual multi-phase systems the separate phases are loaded in
an unbalanced manner.

STANDARDS ON HARMONIC POWER QUALITY

STANAG-1008/ Edition 8

The specifications of the electrical power plants in NATO naval vessels are laid down in STANAG-1008 [4].
According to Editions 7 and 8, which hold for about fifteen years, the Total voltage Harmonic Distortion
(THDV) of a 60Hz and 400Hz network must not exceed 5%, while no harmonic should exceed 3% of the
fundamental. To achieve the above, STANAG 1008 provides design constraints for current harmonics produced
by each separate load presented in Table I. The constraints refer to the % portion of the ”rated full load
(nominal) fundamental current”, I1fL, of each load.

Table I. Current harmonic constraints by STANAG 1008 / Edition 8

Harmonic order n Acceptable level of harmonic

value in % of the ”rated full
load (nominal) fundamental
current”, I1fL
Loads < (1kVA/60Hz or 0.2kVA/400Hz and
2A/115V/400Hz)
n >1 100/n %

Loads > (1kVA/60Hz or 0.2kVA/400Hz and

2A/115V/400Hz)
2 ≤ n < 33 3%
n ≥ 34 100/n %

The validity of this constraint has been more and more under reconsideration for the last years. The NATO
AC/141(NG/6)SG/4 Group which is the custodian of STANAG 1008, considers the limitation of this STANAG
with scepticism, since theoretical estimations and measurements in the electrical plants of naval ships indicate
that STANAG 1008 current constraints appear too strict on the harmonic distortion allowed [13-17]. Moreover,
the reference term ”rated full load fundamental current”, I1fL has occasionally lead to misinterpretations as well
as difficulties to validate the STANAG constraints on shipboard. Thus, the equipment rated power is often
overestimated so that its “actual (operating) load” is lower - and much lower in some cases - than the “rated full
load (nominal)”. It is worth noting, that, in some cases, the harmonic spectrum in “actual load” could be different
from that in “rated full load”.

STANAG-1008/ Edition 9

In an attempt to resolve the aforementioned as well as other problems, Edition 9 has been introduced, being
currently under ratification. In this edition, the voltage distortion constraints still hold, whereas the current
constraints have been completely removed and substituted by (see also Table II):

“If the sum of the power of all loads which distort the current waveform connected to the supply system, Σ Pdist is
less than 1% of the short circuit power of the generation capacity, Ssc, with the largest single distorting load less
than 0.5%, normally no measures are necessary to reduce current harmonics. This limit can be further extended
to 2% of Ssc, if this load is due to the sum of only small distorting equipment, each less than 0.1% of Ssc. If any
of these limits is reached or exceeded by the distorting load, analyses to whether STANAG-1008 requirements
are still met with respect to voltage harmonics and an early co-ordination between the system design authority
and the equipment manufacturer should be undertaken”.

Table II. Current harmonic constraints by STANAG 1008 / Edition 9

Condition Action required

∑P
k
dist , k = 1%.S sc with No action

Max k ( Pdist ,k ) = 0.5%.S sc

∑P
k
dist , k = 2%.S sc with No action

Max k ( Pdist ,k ) = 0.1%.S sc

Otherwise Analysis
Pdist,k: power of devices distorting current waveforms
Ssc: short circuit power level of the supply system

Therefore, it is stressed that after this amendment, which definitely moves towards the right direction taking into
account that current distortion consequences on the system have to faced globally, no tangible limitation on
current quality is actually set. On the contrary, voltage distortion has to be investigated by performing power
quality analyses (simulations with mathematical models of the entire electric system components and/or field
measurements on it), where all alternative solutions from various manufacturers and at several operating points
must be considered, whenever a piece of equipment is to be installed or replaced.

IEEE-519

According to IEEE-519 [3,10,12], the acceptable levels of current and voltage distortion are defined at the Point
of Common Coupling (PCC), i.e. that busbar defined as the interface between the power generation and power
consumption sections. On continental grids, this definition is directly applicable to deregulated systems. In the
naval ship case, the PCC is actually the power outlet supplying each individual load. The limit values depend on
the voltage level of the electric system studied and the ratio of short circuit current over maximum load current,
the latter being the “average of maximum loads achieved on a 12-monthly basis”. This definition is much more
readily applicable to any electric installation including the shipboard ones, as explained in the following.

Furthermore, the ship electric networks drop into the category between 120 V and 69 kV, while the short circuit
current over maximum load current ratio is normally less than 20 (ship grounding systems are designed so that
short circuit currents are just few times greater than the maximum load currents [18]). Consequently, the
voltage distortion is limited to 5% while no individual voltage harmonic should exceed 3%. Concerning current
distortion, TDDI is restricted to 5%, while individual current harmonics are limited as explained in the Table III.
Both restrictions refer to average maximum load (not rated), which makes it more readily applicable on
shipboard installations as shown below.

Table III. Current harmonic constraints by IEEE-519

Harmonic Acceptable level of harmonic value

(odd)* order n in % of the maximum load current
(fundamental), I1fL, at PCC
n< 11 <4%
11≤ n<17 <2%
17≤ n<23 <1.5%
23≤ n<35 <0.6%
35≤ n <0.3%
*
if n : even the limits must be multiplied by 0,25.

Germanischer Lloyds (GL)

According to GL [5], the standards depend on whether the electric static power converters predominate onboard
or not. Thus, in the conventional electric systems where the total converter power is not significant, THDV
(including 50 high order harmonics) is limited to 5% of the fundamental. On the other hand, in the case of
systems comprising mainly power converters, THDV is limited to 8%, while the high order harmonics are limited
as shown in Table IV.

Table IV. Voltage harmonic constraints by GL

Harmonic Acceptable level of harmonic value in % of the

Order n (fundamental).
n≤ 15 ≤5%
n>15 In log-scale, straight line between points (15,5%) and (100,
1%), which can be expressed as:
(Vn/V1 %) = (n/100) log(5) / log(0.15) (see also Fig. 1)

Furthermore, it is underlined that “if in particular cases e.g. electric propulsion plant systems, the above-
mentioned limits are exceeded, the faultless function of all electric devices must be secured”, still, without
specifying any numerical limits for current distortion and its possible interaction to voltage distortion. On the
other hand, GL has studied the current distortion consequences on voltage drop on system impedances and
therefore on system voltage harmonics, proposing the application of the so-called “double reactor” [19] in major
loads like electric propulsion motors. It is noted that double reactor is actually a harmonic filter eliminating the
harmonic voltage drop by inducing a voltage drop equal to the one caused by the current distortion but of inverse
polarity.

Lloyds Register of Shipping (LRS)

According to LRS [6], THDV (including 50 high order harmonics) is limited to 8% of the fundamental, while no
harmonic component of the order 25 or higher can exceed 1.5% of the fundamental, see Table V. Thus, it is
stressed that the lower -than 25- order harmonics are not restricted but only by the THDV limitation.
Furthermore, should the system is to be of class “ES1”, then standards of STANAG 1008 should be applied
instead, while it is underlined that “if any weapons or other combat systems may degrade the quality of power
supplies, relevant details are to be advised to LR and to the prime contractor in order that the consequences may
be established”.
 Table V. Voltage harmonic constraints by LRS

Harmonic Acceptable level of harmonic value

Order n in % of the (fundamental)
25 ≤ n ≤1.5%

Finally, identically to GL standards, no specific limitation is set referring to current distortion and its possible
interaction to voltage distortion.

IEC-60092

IEC-60092 standards [2] refer to electrical installation onboard, while in particular in Vol. 101, where among
others the power system supply quality is defined, it is stated that voltage harmonic distortion THDV must not
exceed 5% while no high order harmonic can supersede 3% of the fundamental value.

Referring to current distortion, although no specific limitation is set, a particular note is made: “current
distortion due to certain loads can provoke voltage harmonic distortion via the voltage drop on system
impedances” while “both current and voltage distortion can cause several malfunctions and overheating
onboard”. Therefore several precaution measures have to be taken especially from the electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) point of view, as stressed by corresponding standards, i.e. IEC 61000 [20](for electric
power systems, in general) and IEC 60533 [21](dedicated for ship electric power systems only). Thus, while
IEC 60533 sets no numerical limitation on current distortion referring to IEC 61000 instead, the latter provides
specific numerical limit values for current harmonics depending on the load apparent power, on the system
nominal voltage, on the system short circuit capacity and operation features (single- or three-phase, balanced or
unbalanced).

DISCUSSION

In Table VI, the harmonic constraints by all the standards studied are summarised, while they are figuratively
shown in Figures 1 and 2. Thus, concerning voltage distortion all standards confine THDV below 5% or 8% with
GL and LRS being the less strict ones, while in most cases all high order harmonics are restricted by an upper
limit of 3%. Furthermore, there seems to be no clear way of estimating voltage distortion, e.g. by investigating
the current distortion caused by each separate load. Finally, it is underlined that no particular limitation is set for
the interharmonics, the non-integer multiples of the fundamental discussed above.

Table VI. Qualitative comparison among standards

STANAG 1008
GL LRS IEEE-519 IEC-60092
Edition 8 Edition 9
THDV Yes (5%) Yes (5%) Yes (8%) Yes (8%) Yes (5%) Yes (5%)
Vn Yes (3%) Yes (3%) Yes Yes (1.5%)* Yes (3%) Yes (3%)
(see Table IV)
THDI No ?*** No No Yes (5%)** ? ***
In Yes ? *** No No Yes ? ***
(see Table I) (see Table III)
* limitation valid for n≥25
** TDDI
*** non-numerical limitation

On the other hand, current distortion limits are clearly set only by STANAG 1008/Edition 8 and IEEE-519, with
the latter restricting both, each harmonic separately as well as the entire high order spectrum expressed by TDDI.
In addition, the % restrictions of high order current harmonics set by the two standards refer to different values
of the fundamental, as:
• According to STANAG 1008/Edition 8 the measured high harmonics for each load should refer to the
nominal full load current as defined by equipment manufacturers, while
• According to IEEE-519 they refer to actual average maximum load (at PCC) fundamental components. It is
further noted, IEEE-519’s restrictions depend on the odd or even nature of the current harmonic order.
 Voltage Distortion Limits

6,0%

5,0%
GL
4,0% IEEE-519 STANAG 1008
IEC-60092 d8
Vn/V1

3,0%

LRS
2,0%

1,0%

0,0%
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Harmonic Order n

Fig 1. Graphic representation of individual voltage harmonic limitations set by various standards

Current Distortion Limits

8,0%
STANAG 1008/Ed. 8 (Power <1 kVA)
7,0%

6,0%
IEEE-519 (odd)
5,0%
STANAG 1008/Ed. 8 (Power >1 kVA)
In/I1L

4,0%

3,0%

2,0%
IEEE-519 (even)
1,0%

0,0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Harmonic Order n

Fig 2. Graphic representation of current harmonic limitations set by various standards

(only STANAG 1008/Ed. 8 and IEEE-519 have current harmonic limitations. The graph is valid provided the
base reference values of the two standards coincide).
Furthermore, neither of the proposed restrictions can be easily checked as measuring instruments can actually
measure the high order harmonics with respect to their simultaneous fundamental component. However,
considering that many devices onboard are often over-dimensioned in order to meet future needs, working, thus,
often in partial load conditions, IEEE-519 appears to propose the most appropriate reference value. Still this
average maximum value of the fundamental is not easy to identify.

After the author’s proposition, at an initial approximation of applying IEEE-519, considering that for each load
the corresponding PCC is the system power outlet where it is connected, the average maximum load can be
estimated by the operation service load factors fs, which are extensively used at the electric balance of the ship
power plant [9,22-25]. Load factors fs are defined as the ratio of the actual energy required on a daily basis (or
any other plausible period) over the energy corresponding to the rated power, Prated, for the same time interval:

∑ P * ∆ti i (5)
fs = i

T * Prated
where
Pi: working load during time interval ∆ti,

T = ∑ ∆t i (6)
i
The values of fs, which are often readily available as a result of accumulated experience are often checked and
updated. In case of diversified fs values for several operation profiles, the worst cases leading to maximum
operating currents ever encountered can be considered.

Nevertheless, although the average load can be assessed via the load factors, the average fundamental current
still can not be identified as the average power factor has to be estimated, too.

Case study

During a research project investigating electric power quality in Hellenic Navy ships, several measurements on
voltage and current harmonics have been conducted onboard HN MEKO frigates [7], while the validity of load
factors often used has been verified [9]. The electric plant (Fig. 3) in these ships is served by four generators
(775KVA, 450V/60Hz, 3-phase), laid in two separate engine-rooms. The generators feed two main switchboards
supplying thirteen Load Centers (LCi, i = 1,...,13) which in turn feed all separate loads. Some indicative
measurements are presented in Tables VII-VIII, while compared with the standards studied, especially with
STANAG 1008/Edition 8 and IEEE-519.

Thus, in the first column of Table VII, the rated power and voltage as specified by their manufacturers of all the
loads considered are tabulated, while in the other columns, two sets of measurements are compared with the
corresponding constraints by all the standards studied:
• the first set comprises the maximum individual harmonic measured, i.e. its order and its value
with respect to the fundamental actual voltage (which practically coincides with the rated
value) , while,
• the second comprises the measured THDV.

It is noted that regarding STANAG 1008, no distinction between the two editions is provided as they both have
identical voltage distortion restrictions.

Furthermore, in the first column of Table VIII.a and VIII.b, the rated power and voltage as specified by their
manufacturers of all the loads considered are tabulated, while in addition:
 SC G1 G2 G3 G4 SC
T.L

LC 1 LC 3 . . . LC7 LC 8 . . . LC11 LC 13
LC 7
LC 2 LC 12

440V 440V 115V

115V
60H z 400H z 400H z
2pT 2sT 60H z

2.1 2.2 .... 2.i T2.1 . . . 24VDC C 2.1 . . C 2.i C T2.1 . . .

Fig 3. MEKO Frigate Electric Power System

Table VII. Field voltage measurement comparison with standards (voltage distortion)

Individual Voltage Harmonic Total voltage Harmonic Distortion THDV

Measurement of max
individual harmonic Limit value Limit value
Measured
Load Order of max Voltage IEEE-519, THDv
(rated power, rated Harmonic, harmonic IEC-60092, IEEE-519, IEC-60092,
voltage) n Vn STANAG 1008 GL LRS STANAG 1008 GL,LRS
No 1(38 kW, 440 V) 5 1.0% 3% 5% - 1.1% 5% 8%
No 2 (0.85 kW, 115 V) 5 1.5% 3% 5% - 1.7% 5% 8%
No 3 (100 kW, 440 V) 5 1.7% 3% 5% - 2.1% 5% 8%
No 4 (2,7 kW, 115 V) 5 1.2% 3% 5% - 1.7% 5% 8%
No 5 (90 kW, 440 V) 3 1.0% 3% 5% - 2.0% 5% 8%
No 6 (25 kW, 115 V) 5 1.0% 3% 5% - 2.0% 5% 8%

• In Table VIII.a, the order of the maximum individual current harmonic measured for each load is presented.
The corresponding measured harmonic value refers to the actual operating fundamental current I1,op,
whereas its limitations refer to different base values for the two standards, i.e. the IEEE-519 limit refers to
fundamental current of the average operating load, I1,avfL, while STANAG 1008/Ed. 8 limit refers to
fundamental current of the rated full load. Neither of the standard reference values are readily available or
can be estimated without knowing the power factor and the harmonic spectrum at the average and rated full
load respectively. However, in order to enable some commenting on the measurements performed, the
assumption that the harmonic spectrum is equal to the measured one is made. Similarly the power factor is
considered equal to 0.75. On the grounds of these assumptions, the average operating load currents (via fs),
I1,avfL, and rated full load currents, I1,fL, are tabulated.
• Similarly in Table VIII.b, where TDDI measurements can be compared only with IEEE-519 figures, the
measured THDI refers to the operating fundamental current I1,op, while it is transformed into TDDI
referring to the average operating load, I1,avfL, identically to Table VIII.a.
• The shaded cells point those measurements violating the standard limits.

Table VIII.a Field current measurement comparison with standards (current individual harmonic)

ΙΕΕΕ-519 STANAG 1008/Ed. 8

Order of Average
Load Average
max Measured Load Full Measured Harmonic Full Load Measured Harmonic
(rated power,
Harmonic, In/I1,op Factor Operating Load Harmonic Limit Current Harmonic Limit
rated voltage) Load
n fs Current In/I 1,avfL In/I 1,avfL (A) In/I 1,fL In/I 1,fL
(kW)
(A)
No 1
(38 kW, 440 V) 2 8% 0.7 27.0 42.0 2.1% 4% 60.00 1.5% 3%
No 2
(0.85 kW, 115 V) 3 72% 0.7 0.6 3.5 33.6% 4% 5.00 23.5% 33%
No 3
(100 kW, 440 V) 5 49% 0.5 50.0 80.0 39.2% 4% 160.00 19.6% 3%
No 4
(2,7 kW, 115 V) 5 48% 0.7 2.0 21.0 28.2% 4% 30.00 19.7% 3%
No 5
(90 kW, 440 V) 5 48% 0.7 63.0 105.0 7.5% 4% 150.00 5.3% 3%
No 6
(25 kW, 115 V) 5 8% 0.5 12.5 135.0 1.8% 4% 270.00 0.9% 3%

Table VIII.b Field current measurement comparison with IEEE-519 (total current harmonic distortion)

TDDI (ΙΕΕΕ-519)
Measured
Average Average Full Measured
THDI Load TDD Limit
Operating Load TDDI
(w.r.t I1,op) Factor (w.r.t
Load Load Current (w.r.t
fs I1,avfL)
(rated power, rated voltage) (kW) (A) I1,avfL)
No 1
(38 kW, 440 V) 8.0% 0.7 27.0 42.0 2.1% 5%
No 2
(0.85 kW, 115 V) 96.5% 0.7 0.6 3.5 45.0% 5%
No 3
(100 kW, 440 V) 53.4% 0.5 50.0 80.0 42.7% 5%
No 4
(2,7 kW, 115 V) 58.4% 0.7 2.0 21.0 34.3% 5%
No 5
(90 kW, 440 V) 57.0% 0.7 63.0 105.0 9.0% 5%
No 6
(25 kW, 115 V) 14.0% 0.5 12.5 135.0 3.2% 5%

From the measurements performed, the following remarks are made:

• The highest harmonics of current are in the order 2, 3 and 5 with their values being fairly large with respect
to the simultaneous fundamental current. In certain cases (shaded cells in Table VIII), restrictions appear to
be violated, referring to either the individual harmonic or the total current distortion. However it can not be
safely argued that the measured values exceed the limits of both IEEE-519 and STANAG 1008/Edition 8 as
their reference values can not but roughly estimated.
• In any case, the measured voltage distortion caused by the loads - referring to either the THDV or the
individual harmonics where the 5th component dominates - is lower than the imposed marginal values of all
standards. It is also underlined, that there is no rated voltage reference problem as the operating voltage
normally coincides its rated value.
• Still, there are noticed certain cases, where the current distortion is significant (with respect to any reference
base value considered). This rich harmonic content might not result in voltage quality problems, however, it
could lead to other problems related to e.g. overheating, resonances, false tripping and should therefore be
seriously taken into consideration.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper offers a comparative analysis on power quality standards either dedicated for ships or general purpose
ones, underlining the importance of these standards, as well as giving some hints and propositions for possible
further improvement of them especially referring to AES perspective. Harmonic power (i.e. both voltage and
current) quality is a major issue to electrified ships where power electronics dominate, therefore it has to be
taken seriously into account. Furthermore, it is shown that:
• voltage distortion limits are common in many standards, while they are not in general violated.
• current distortion is not limited by many standards, while where restricted, i.e. in STANAG 1008/Edition 8
and IEEE-519 the defined current distortion limitations can not be easily applied. However, the possibly
violated limits of current harmonics should be a warning to be acknowledged especially in future buildings
as current distortion could not only affect voltage distortion, but also provoke other adverse phenomena.
• The novel proposition of this work to exploit the well-known load factors and to consider PCC at the load
power outlet could facilitate the evaluation of current distortion on shipboard installations according to
IEEE-519, provided there were a clear way of identifying the average load fundamental current from the
corresponding power value, i.e. the average power factor and the corresponding harmonic spectrum could be
estimated, too.

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