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Model description

The following assumptions are made in the single component model:

l The gas and liquid phases have the same temperature.

l The pressure of the gas and liquid phases is the same.

l If the fluid temperature is higher than the saturation temperature, flashing, or boiling of liquid occurs.

l If the fluid temperature is lower than the saturation temperature, condensation of vapor occurs.

The inner pipe wall surface can be superheated or subcooled compared to the saturation temperature. Such
situations might lead to surface boiling or surface condensation in cases where the liquid or gas is in direct contact
with the pipe wall. The resulting, additional, mass transfer term is not explicitly included, but it can be accounted for
by an enhanced heat transfer due to surface boiling or condensation.

Two options are implemented to calculate the flashing rate at the saturation point, PT formulation and PH
formulation.

For PT formulation (the default flash model in OLGA), the difference between the saturation temperature and the
fluid temperature serves as a potential for phase mass transfer. The flashing rate is determined so that fluid
temperature approaches the saturation from the energy flow.

In PH formulation, the flashing rate is calculated so that the vapor fraction is equal to the equilibrium vapor fraction at
a given pressure and total enthalpy. The two methods give similar results when P and T is far below the critical point
of the fluid. If it is expected that the operation conditions may be close to, or above, the critical point, it is highly
recommended to use PH formulation as described in Flash Formulations.

Generation of gas and liquid properties

The equations used to calculate the H2O properties are taken from ref. 1. For CO2, the thermodynamic equations
are taken from ref. 4. The transport properties are calculated through the equations given in ref. 2. For single-
component fluids, other than H O and CO , the Soave–Redlich–Kwong (SRK) cubic equation of state (Appendix 1)
2 2
is used to calculate the saturation line and the physical properties of the vapor and liquid phases. Temperature
dependent volume translation is applied to improve the accuracy of phase density. The transport properties are
determined by the corresponding state method by Pedersen (ref. 2).

The evaluation of the fluid property equations is time consuming, and, therefore, they are only evaluated at the start
of the simulation. The properties are evaluated at a grid of pressure and temperature values that is limited by the
minimum and maximum values of pressure and temperature given in the input. An equidistant grid is used with a
minimum of 50 and maximum of 100 grid points for both pressure and temperature. During the simulation, linear
interpolation is used to evaluate the properties between grid points.

Saturation line for a single component

The saturation line is determined by solving the equal fugacity of gas and liquid from the equation of state (EOS).
Below the critical point, determined by the critical pressure, PC and the critical temperature, TC, the saturation
pressure, Psat(T), and saturation temperature, Tsat(P), at a given grid point (P,T) are determined from the saturation
line. Above the critical point, the saturation line is extrapolated with the slope of the saturation line at the critical
point.

Liquid properties for a single component

For pressures below the critical pressure liquid properties are determined by the EOS in the liquid region. In the gas
region, the liquid properties are extrapolated from the saturation point. The enthalpy equals the gas enthalpy minus

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the latent heat at the saturation temperature. The density is integrated from the vapor saturation pressure to actual
pressure using the compressibility at the saturation temperature. All the other properties are from the saturation
temperature.

For pressures above the critical pressure, liquid properties are calculated from the EOS.

Gas properties for a single component

For pressures below the critical pressure, the gas properties in the gas region are acquired from the EOS.

In the liquid region and the pressure is below the critical pressure, the gas properties are extrapolated from the
saturation line. The enthalpy equals the liquid enthalpy plus the latent heat at the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure. The density is acquired by linear interpolation between the value at critical pressure
and the saturation pressure. All other properties are taken at the saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure. For pressures above the critical pressure, gas properties are calculated based on the EOS. Using this
procedure, the gas and liquid properties are continuous across the fictitious gas-liquid (V–L) division line when the
pressure is above the critical one.

At and near the critical point, the thermal capacity and density derivatives show extreme sensitivity to temperature
and pressure changes, even to the extent where discontinuities occur. When PT-flash is specified in key
FLASHFORMULATION (keyword SINGLEOPTIONS), a buffer zone is introduced near the critical temperature, as
shown below. Within this zone, the liquid density derivative and thermal capacity are given the values calculated at a
temperature, Tlow, less than the saturation point. Similarly, for the vapor phase, the gas density derivative and the
thermal capacity are given the values calculated at a temperature, Thigh, above the saturation point.

The buffer zone is bounded by the coordinates [Tlow, Psat(Tlow)], [Tlow, Pc], [Thigh, Pc], [Thigh, Psat(Thigh)]. The buffer
zone is only applied when FLASHFORMULATION in keyword SINGLEOPTIONS is set to PT.

Saturation line for H2O

Below the critical point, (PC,TC), the saturation pressure, Psat(T), and saturation temperature, Tsat(P), at a given grid
point (P,T), are determined from the saturation line. Above the critical point, PC = 221.2 bar and T= 647.3 K, and up
to T = 676 K and P = 250 bar, a straight line is used to divide the single-phase or dense-phase region into gas and
liquid. Above 676 K and 250 bar, the boundary line between region 2 and region 3 is used as the division between
gas and liquid. The definition of the regions is found in ref. 1.

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Liquid properties for H2O

For pressures below 225 bar in region 1, the water properties equations found in ref. 1 are used for water in the
water region.

In the gas region, the properties for water are extrapolated from the saturation point – the enthalpy is based on
thermal capacity at the saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure. However, the density, is
calculated using the density derivative w.r.t. pressure at the saturation pressure corresponding to the given
temperature. All the other properties are evaluated at the saturation temperature.

For pressures above 225 bar, water properties are calculated based on equations for the different regions specified
in ref. 1.

The thermal capacity and enthalpy for water are singular near the critical point. To avoid numerical problems in
region 3, the water properties from region 1 are used instead of those for region 3 when the pressure is below
225 bar. The same procedure is used for steam (gas).

Gas properties for H2O

For pressures below 225 bar, steam property equations for region 2 are used for gas in the gas region.

In the water region, the gas properties are extrapolated from the saturation point. Enthalpy is based on thermal
capacity at the saturation temperature corresponding to the given vapor pressure and the density according to the
density derivative with respect to pressure at the saturation pressure corresponding to the given temperature. All
other properties are evaluated at the saturation temperature corresponding to the vapor pressure.

For pressures above 225 bar, vapor properties are calculated based on equations for the different regions.

Using this procedure, the vapor and water properties are continuous across the vapor-liquid (V–L) division line when
the pressure is above 225 bar.

Flashing and condensation

The driving force for the flashing of liquid or the condensation of gas is the difference between the saturation
temperatures and the fluid temperature.

The effect of local boiling on a hot wall surface, or condensation on a cold one, are not explicitly included in the
mass balance of liquid and gas, but can be accounted for through an enhanced heat transfer at the pipe wall.

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The total energy available for generating gas, or condensing it to obtain saturated conditions is:

Where mg is the specific mass of gas [kg/m3], ml is the specific mass of liquid [kg/m3], cpg is the specific heat of gas
[kJ/kgC], cpl is the specific heat of liquid [kJ/kgC], h is the heat transfer coefficient at inner wall surface [kJ/m2sC], S
is the inner surface area per unit volume of pipe [1/m] and Vis the section volume [m3].

The total mass transfer to obtain saturated conditions is:

Where hsat,g is the enthalpy of saturated gas [kJ/kg] and hsat,l is the enthalpy of saturated liquid [kJ/kg].

To reduce numerical problems, it is assumed that this mass transfer occurs over a time tψ. This yields the mass
transfer rate:

The ψv is given in [kg/m3s]. The mass transfer per time step must not be larger than the available component mass
of the diminishing phase.

References

1. Revised Release on the IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997 for the Thermodynamic Properties of Water and
Steam, The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam, Lucerne, Switzerland, August
2007.

2. K. S. Pedersen et al. Properties of Oils and Natural gases, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, 1989.

3. B.E.Poling, J.M.Prausnitz,J.P.O’Connell. The properties of gases and liquids. 5th Edition. McGRAW-HILL,
2000.

4. R. Span and W. Wagner. A New Equation of State for Carbon Dioxide Covering the Fluid Region from the
Triple-Point Temperature to 1100 K at Pressures up to 800 MPa. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 25, No. 6,
1996.

Appendix 1

The Soave–Redlich–Kwong (SRK) equation of state:

Where:

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Where R is the universal gas constant and ω is the acentric factor.

The SRK equation of state can be written on the form:

Where Z is the compressibility factor.

The solution, Z, to the above equation is found by iteration. As initial guess, the pressure is given by the Antoine
equation except for CO2 where the Wagner equation is used. Coefficients for these equations can be found in ref. 3.

The solution for Z can be adjusted by a volume tuning factor:

According to:

Where XV1 and XV2 are given through the keys VOLX(1) and VOLX(2), respectively, and Pr = P/Pc.

The ideal gas specific heat, CP, is calculated through the equation:

Where the coefficients, CPi, are given through the input by CPIC(i + 1). The ideal gas enthalpy at a given
temperature is obtained by integrating CP equation from a reference temperature. The enthalpy of the real fluid is
then found via the departure function of enthalpy.

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