LEAST KNOWN PHILOSOPHERS

Too often professional philosophers remain safely within the canonical offerings when discussing ideas,
leaving lesser known writers to fade from the discourse. Today, I would like to reintroduce a few of these
more obscure figures from the history of thought:

Mediocrates: A classical Greek rhetorician generally not considered wise enough to actually be a sophist. He
was most famous for his semi-anthropic epistemological principle: "Man is the measure of a few things."

Marcus Nottrelius: A Roman skeptic whose arguments were so incredibly successful that, even today, no one
believes he existed.

Heinrich Rottmann Puffenschtuff: A 19th century German romantic ethical nihilist who, being deeply
influenced by the anti-rationalist undertones in Mozart's The Magic Flute, was led to argue that "one ought
not do a little, as one cannot do enough."

Hermann Neutiks: A German philosopher of the early 20th century who contended with a raised eyebrow
that everything appears meaningless unless it is all read at one time in its entirety in the original Greek. His
writings were roundly dismissed, except by those who claimed with a raised eyebrow that they were deeply
meaningful if read at one time in their entirety in the original Greek.

J.J.C. "Jean Paul" Smartre: A mid-20th century thinker who tried to bridge the analytic/continental divide
by combining Heiddeger's notion of being with Carnap's analysis of time only to arrive at the idea of "der
Neonsein" in which one experiences an alternating blinking in and out of existence.

Thales
Original Artwork: Engraving by Ambrose Tardieu (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

The first philosopher of the western canon, Thales is best remembered for his metaphysics which
argued that everything originated from water and that water somehow constituted all other
elements. He left no writings, and most of what we know of him is given to us by Aristotle, who
may have misinterpreted his viewpoints.

Thales also devoted time to astronomy and was the first person to predict a solar eclipse
accurately. He was a noted mathematician and is said to have measured the height of the great
pyramid using the length of its shadow. He was credited with discovering magnetism in the west
and used it as the basis of his theory of Panpsychism. To top it off, he invented futures contracts
to strike it rich in the olive oil business.

While many of his inspirations and sources were mythic, Thales is said to have moved beyond
myth and towards naturalistic explanations of the world. This entitles him to the title of the first
philosopher. Isaac Asimov was so impressed with his prediction of an eclipse as to declare the
event “The birth of science."

Pythagoras

(Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician, philosopher, and mystic. He is best known for
the similarly named theorem, for which we have no proof that he was the author. He did most of
his work in southern Italy and wrote nothing down. Leaving us, again, with the notes and stories
of others to go on.
Pythagoras was a sage who founded a small religion of devoted followers. The eating of beans
and plucking of garland was banned, among many other things. He preached a doctrine of
reincarnation and was well known for his ideas on what happened to us after death. His school
praised the contemplative life and the members studied mathematics and esoteric knowledge.

While he probably didn't prove the theorem that bears his name, he is said to have known “the
truth of the theorem" and made an enormous sacrifice to the gods in honor of the discovery. His
mystical approach to numbers also lead him to discover the relationships between harmonic
notes in music and attempt to describe the world regarding math; an activity science carries on to
this day.

His influence is difficult to overstate. Plato borrowed several Pythagorean concepts in his
metaphysics, and many Pythagoreans were respected thinkers for some time after his death.

Heraclitus
(Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

A philosopher active around 500 BCE on what is now the Turkish mainland, he was unlike many
other philosophers on this list (and many from the Greek era). He wrote a book; fragments of
which were quoted by later thinkers. This gives us a direct path to his thoughts.

Like many other pre-Socratics, he developed a cosmology. His cosmos has no beginning or end
and is fundamentally made of fire. This fire can transform to become water, earth, and air. It is
always in flux but keeps the elements in proportion. This constant change was the way of
everything and was needed to keep the world stable. After all, if a river did not flow it would
hardly be a river.

Going off of this, he argued that change was good and it was best to recognize that conflict and
strife needn't be avoided like most people think.

Plato alleged that Heraclitus denied the possibility of knowledge, as the world would change too
fast to allow for lasting accurate information about it. However, Heraclitus did support the idea
that attaining wisdom was possible, if difficult. He thought little of his fellow philosophers,
saying they knew a great many things of little value.

He also had a rather odd way of going about philosophy. As he felt that wisdom should be
earned, he wrote obscurely, so much so that his book was challenging to read, and ancient
authors dubbed him The Riddler.

Parmenides
Original Artwork: From Hartmann Schedel - Liber Chronicorum Mundi, Nuremberg Chronicle
(Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

A philosopher who lived on the southwest coast of Italy, he was one of the most influential pre-
Socratic thinkers. In stark contrast to Heraclitus, Parmenides argued that change was an illusion
based on our faulty image of reality. He explained that nothing could be created or destroyed and
everything was really “one being." That is, all substances are part of the same larger whole.

As he thought that it was impossible to conceive of “nothingness" he also argued that empty
space was an impossibility. This lead him to declare motion to be impossible, as any movement
would require empty space to move into.
Parmenides' work greatly influenced the philosophers after him, who tried to reconcile his
arguments with the world as it seemed to be. Plato would later use him as a significant
inspiration in building his cosmology. Plato would also steal his idea that reason alone had
access to truth.

Zeno of Elea
Not to be confused with Zeno of Citium, this Zeno was a pioneer of the reductio ad
absurdum  argument, and Aristotle credited him with co-inventing the dialectic method of
philosophy. He is best remembered for his paradoxes. Although only nine of the dozens he wrote
survive, they are as famous as they are troublesome.

His best-known paradox suggests that movement is impossible. He asks us to imagine a runner
on a track. He notes that before the runner can run the whole length, they must first run the first
half, then a quarter, then an eighth, and so on. However, as you can't finish an infinite number of
steps in a finite time, he argues that the runner cannot reach the end of the track and movement is
impossible. A video introduction to the problem can be viewed here.

Several potential solutions have been put forth to his paradoxes and debate continues to this day.
The potential answers to his paradoxes have influenced discussions about time, space, and how
we perceive reality.

Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes Searching for an Honest Man by Johann Tischbein

One of the strangest philosophers ever to live. Diogenes was the epitome of the classical
philosopher as a man who practiced what they taught. Diogenes founded the Cynical school of
philosophy, a school dedicated to simple living and virtue.

Advocating a simple, disciplined, self-sufficient life, Diogenes lived in a large jar and owned
nothing but a cloak and staff. He begged for food and avoided luxuries like the plague. He is said
to have written a few (lost) essays but is better known for using actions to educate. He would
walk down the street backward in an attempt to make people question why they walked forwards
and begged from statues to show that he was not concerned with rejection. When he was
presented with Zeno's paradox demonstrating that movement was impossible, he is said to have
stood up and walked away.
A famous story relates that Alexander the Great visited him in his pot before setting out to
conquer the world. When Alexander asked what the cynic might want from the King of Greece,
Diogenes asked him to get out of his sunlight. His teachings would ultimately inspire the Stoic
school of philosophy long after the Cynics had vanished.

Zeno of Citium
The founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, Zeno was heavily influenced by the Cynics.
Initially a wealthy merchant, he became interested in philosophy during a trip to Athens and
grew to be a highly regarded teacher. He wrote many books and essays, though none survive
beyond the stray quotation elsewhere.

Stoicism is a philosophy dedicated to helping its students live the good life. The ancient Stoics
believed the universe had a rational, perhaps divine, structure to it and held that while the laws of
physics dictated what happened externally, we were still free to choose how we would react to it.
They argued that a rational man should strive to live virtuously, and devoted a great deal of time
to the question of ethics.

Zeno's philosophy went on to inspire countless others, from Emperor Marcus Aurelius to Cubs
coach Joe Maddon and continues to be a source of inspiration for many people today.

25

Aristotle

Source: biography.com

A student of Plato in Ancient Greece, Aristotle contributed to numerous areas

including metaphysics, logic, poetry, linguistics, and government. He is one of
the most well-known philosophers in history.

24

Immanuel Kant

Source: iep.utm.edu, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Born in Germany, Kant is well known for his ideas about perception. He
argued that we cannot know what the world is really like (noumenal world).
We can only know what we perceive the world to be like (phenomenal world).
Basically, we can’t know whether or not everything is just one big Matrix.

23

Plato

Source: iep.utm.edu

As you have already seen, Plato was Aristotle’s teacher, and he is famous for
starting the Academy in Athens. This was the first institution of higher learning
in the Western world.

22

Confucius

Source: biography.com

A Chinese philosopher who lived about 500 BC, he focused on relationships

and how the family was important and necessary to society.

His views shaped later Chinese thought and led to what is now called
Confucianism.

21

David Hume

Source: plato.stanford.edu, Image: wikimedia commons (public domain)

A Scottish philosopher, Hume was a strong skeptic and empiricist.

He claimed that our beliefs don’t come from our reason but rather from our
feelings and ideas of how the world should be. In fact, Kant (#24) got many of
his ideas from Hume.
 20

Rene Descartes

Source: biography.com, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Considered the “Father of Modern Philosophy,” Descartes is famous for his

statement, “I think, therefore I am.”

19

Socrates

Source: history.com

You’ve already met Socrates’ most famous student, Plato, but Socrates
himself was a very well known philosopher.

He is famous for the Socratic Method in which a series of questions are asked
in order to lead the listener to a conclusion.

18

Niccolo Machiavelli

Source: biography.com, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Living during the Italian Renaissance, Machiavelli is famous for his

contributions to political philosophy. His book “The Prince” explains to rulers
how they can stay in power at all costs.

This book shocked people because before that time, everyone thought rulers
were (or should be) virtuous. He claimed that, “Might makes right,” and “It is
better to be feared than loved.”

17
John Locke

Source: biography.com

An English physician, Locke is famous for believing that all knowledge comes
from our senses. His ideas influenced later philosophers like Hume and Kant.

He is also well known for using very simple words in his writings. When asked
how we can know that external objects really exist at all, Locke said to simply
stick your hand in a fire.

16

Diogenes of Sinope

Source: iep.utm.edu, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

An Ancient Greek philosopher, Diogenes is known for claiming that Aristotle

had perverted the teachings of Plato.

Diogenes believed that Athens had become corrupt with vanity and wanted to
bring back virtuous living.

He would even walk through the streets of Athens while holding a lamp

and saying that he was “looking for an honest man.”

15

Thomas Aquinas

Source: biography.com, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Having combined Greek thought with Christian theology, the Italian

philosopher and theologian Aquinas is known as the most famous philosopher
of Europe’s Middle Ages.

14
Laozi

Source: iep.utm.edu

A Chinese philosopher from the 6th century BC, Laozi founded Daoism
(sometimes seen spelled Taoism).

This belief system focuses on the “Dao” (sometimes, Tao, which means “the
Way”). Basically, it involves “action through inaction.”

In some ways, this was the opposite of Confucius’s very active philosophies.
Laozi’s ideas, however, went on to influence Confucianism, Buddhism, and
other areas of Chinese society.

13

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Source: iep.utm.edu, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Along with Descartes, Leibniz is a well-known Idealist thinker. His training as

an engineer led him to believe that the mind could not be a machine (even a
very complicated one).

Instead, he believed that the entire world (including the mind) was made of
immaterial forces that he called, Monads.

12

Baruch Spinoza

Source: plato.stanford.edu, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Spinoza was a Jewish philosopher born in Amsterdam during the 1600s. He is

famous for intellectualizing many parts of the Judeo-Christian belief system.
For example, he argued that the miracles were not supernatural. Many of
these beliefs got him in trouble with the authorities.

11

Voltaire

Source: biography.com, Image: https://it.wikipedia.org (public domain)

A French philosopher of the Enlightenment period, Voltaire drew attention to

human suffering, criticized organized religion, and advocated for the use of
reason.

10

Thomas Hobbes

Source: iep.utm.edu, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

An English philosopher, Hobbes lived during a civil war. This caused him to
argue that people must obey authority at all costs as long as it provides peace
(because nothing is worse than war).

Augustine of Hippo

Source: britannica.com, Image: https://en.wikipedia.org (public domain)

An African philosopher born in present-day Algeria, Saint Augustine is famous

for his work “Confessions” where he explains how became a Christian.

His most notable positions include just war and bridging the divide between
free will and predestination.

8
Al-Ghazali

Source: plato.stanford.edu, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

An Islamic philosopher born in Persia, Al-Ghazali is famous for rejecting many

of Aristotle’s positions (like the world being eternal instead of created). He is
also known for popularizing Sufism, or Islamic mysticism.

Siddhartha Gautama Buddha

Source: biography.com, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org/ (public domain)

Possibly the most famous Indian philosopher, Buddha concluded that all
human suffering is caused by the desire for permanence in a world where
nothing is permanent.

Baron de Montesquieu

Source: britannica.com, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

A French philosopher, Montesquieu’s contributions to political philosophy

greatly influenced the constitutions of the United States and many other
nations.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Source: iep.utm.edu, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Born in Switzerland, Rousseau is famous for his argument that people were
more free in their natural state (basically anarchy) than within society.
Rousseau actually became well known for winning a competition.

He answered the question, “Has science and art made humans more or less
moral?” His answer, that it has made humans less moral, surprised people.

He argued that advancements in science only created more inequality and

gave the government more power.

George Berkeley

Source: iep.utm.edu, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Berkeley was an Irish philosopher who is well known for arguing that the
material world may not exist. He suggested that it may just be a bunch of
ideas in God’s mind.

Ayn Rand

Source: aynrand.org, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Born in Russia but having moved to the US, Ayn Rand was a strong advocate
of reason and laissez-faire capitalism.

It meant he believed in form of capitalism in which the government doesn’t

interfere. Her ideas have strongly shaped modern libertarianism and
conservatism.

Simone de Beauvoir
 Source: biography.com, Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org (public domain)

Although she never considered herself a philosopher, Beauvoir was a French

author who strongly influenced feminism and existentialism.

Sun Tzu

Source: classics.mit.edu

Born in China sometime around 500 BC, Sun Tzu was a military general and
philosopher who is famous for writing “The Art Of War.” His ideas continue to
influence modern business, politics, and warfare.
If you enjoyed this post, check out 25 Profound Greek Philosopher Quotes
You’ll Want To Hear.