Trafficking: A Global Phenomenon With An Exploration of India Through Maps

TURKMENISTAN
CHINA
AFGHANISTAN
PAKISTAN
New Delhi NEPAL

BHUTAN
BANGLADESH
Kolkata
MYANMAR VIET NAM
LAOS
Mumbai
THAILAND
Bangalore Chennai
CAMBODIA
SRI LANKA
MALDIVES
MALAYSIA
INDONESIA
Trafficking
A global phenomenon with an
exploration of India through maps
August 2011
Trafficking – India August 2011
Contents
Executive summary..................................1 6 Next steps............................................42

6.1 Developing an SMS mapping platform............. 42
1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon........2
6.2 Identifying additional opportunities for action.. 43
1.1 International legal framework.............................. 2
1.2 Trafficking and the private sector ....................... 3 Appendix................................................44
1.3 Overcoming data gaps.......................................... 9
Endnotes.................................................47
2 Trafficking in India.............................10
2.1 National legal framework.................................. 11
Maps
2.2 The drivers of girl trafficking ............................ 12
Map 1: Trafficking Index��7
2.3 The trafficking process....................................... 16
2.4 Purpose of trafficking......................................... 20 Map 2: Night-time Light Poverty Index��13
Map 3: Trafficking sources and

3 Addressing trafficking in India............26 destination hotspots��18
3.1 Framework for anti-trafficking strategies.......... 26
Map 4: Key interstate trafficking flows��19
3.2 Stakeholder groups working to
combat trafficking.............................................. 27 Map 5: Forced and Involuntary Labour Index��24
Map 6: Administrative regions��44

4 Opportunities for action......................30
Map 7: Infrastructure and economic zones��45
4.1 Using SMS technology for change.................... 30
4.2 How SMS can be used to address trafficking.... 33 Map 8: Labour Rights and Protection Index��46
4.3 Mapping trafficking in India.............................. 36
Cover image from Map 3: Trafficking sources
and destination hotspots
5 Girl trafficking: a life story.................37
Authors: Alyson Warhurst; Cressie Strachan; Zahed Yousuf, Siobhan Tuohy-Smith
GIS: Chris Emberson; Nick Tait
Design: Martin Millard; Anna Fisher; Joe Baker
Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Nike Foundation for funding exploratory research, conducted by Maplecroft, with the aim
of designing a project for an interactive mapping platform, using SMS systems, to prevent the trafficking of girls in India.
Further acknowledgements: Apne Aap; Equations; FrontlineSMS; Incentivated; International Organisation of Migration (IOM);
Microsoft; Plan International; Survivors Connect; Ushahidi.
Further information: If you are interested in this project and would like to find our more information please contact us as info@maplecroft.com.
i © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

Executive summary
Despite its illegality, human trafficking is a multibillion dollar This report provides specific analysis of trafficking in India
global business. Human trafficking is contrary to international where it is known that the trafficking of girls is a widespread
law and international human rights law, and often constitutes a problem. According to the US Department of State, India is a
violation of national laws. Nonetheless, approximately 2.4m men, source, destination, and transit country for girls being trafficked for
women and children are internationally and domestically trafficked the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labour.
for the purposes of: commercial sexual exploitation; forced labour; This is reflected in Maplecroft’s Trafficking Index 2011 which ranks
domestic servitude and the removal of organs at any given point India as “extreme risk” for trafficking; seventh out of 196 countries
in time (ILO, 2009). According to a report published by the United (where 1 is the lowest ranking country).The Indian government
Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) in 2009, it is one of the notes that approximately 60% of the victims of trafficking are girls
fastest growing criminal activities in the world. under 18 years of age.
Businesses should be aware of the legal, moral and Included within this analysis is the mapping of reported
reputational risks that will arise from complicity, either direct incidences of trafficking across India, including information
or indirect, in human trafficking activities. Direct involvement on sources, transit routes and destination hotspots. This
in trafficking includes the recruitment, transport, harbouring, or contributes to an understanding of where trafficked victims are
receipt of a person for the purpose of exploitation. There is also likely to be seen and where suspicions may be aroused by
the potential for companies to be unwittingly implicated in human civilians that come into contact with them (such as bus drivers,
trafficking if their premises, products or services are used by train inspectors, petrol station attendants among others).
traffickers for the purpose of trafficking, such as smuggling of
victims via cross-border logistics routes. Businesses may also be This report also suggests potential opportunities for action
indirectly linked to trafficking through the actions of their suppliers for businesses and NGOs to improve the quantitative data
or business partners, including sub-contractors, labour brokers or available and work together to mitigate the risks of trafficking
private employment agencies. and proactively contribute to the prevention of girl trafficking.
For example, as part of the overall goal to prevent girl trafficking,
Whilst the risks are known, accurate statistics on the the Nike Foundation funded this exploratory research, conducted
number of persons involved in trafficking are difficult to by Maplecroft, with the aim of designing a project for an interactive
obtain due to the inconspicuous nature of the crime. The mapping platform, using SMS systems, to prevent the trafficking
United Nations Office Drugs and Crime (UNODC) note that the of girls in India. This system would be a “living” trafficking
lack of quantitative data available hinders the ’understanding detection tool that can be utilised by citizens, employees, NGO
regarding the scope and development of the crime of human workers, law enforcement officials among others to identify and
trafficking around the world’. With this in mind, this report report incidences of trafficking as they happen. As a result there
seeks to deepen our understanding of trafficking and the would be richer, more update to data available so anti-trafficking
risks it poses to businesses by bringing together existing policies and programmes could be targeted at areas where they
information on trafficking, as well as suggesting how this could have the most impact. The findings of this exploratory
data and information can be improved to inform prevention research are presented in this report including the next steps
strategies in the future. required to implement the anti-trafficking SMS platform.
© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 1

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

Trafficking in persons is a multibillion dollar global trade and However, in order to deepen our understanding of trafficking
the third largest illicit activity following the international trade and what can be done to prevent such activities, more
in arms and drugs. The International Labour Organisation information about trafficking is needed and the data gaps
(ILO) estimates that annual profits generated from the global must be addressed. The last section of this chapter explores
trafficking in persons are as high as US$32bn1. Every year how, building upon the work of Girls Discovered (an interactive
thousands of men, women and children are trafficked through web platform of national and sub-national maps and data on
coercion, deceit or force for the purposes of forced labour, adolescent girls developed by Maplecroft, in partnership with Nike
commercial sexual exploitation and organ trading. Foundation and UN Foundation6), critical gaps in trafficking data
can be addressed by conducting research and compiling data
The 2010 US Department of State’s Trafficking in Persons Report which highlights the vulnerability of girls at a national level.
estimates that the global prevalence rate for trafficking is 1.8
persons per 1,000 inhabitants. The ILO estimates that there are at
least 2.4m trafficked persons at any given point in time2.
1.1 International legal framework
According to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Global
Report on Trafficking in Persons 2009, the most commonly
reported purpose of human trafficking is for sexual exploitation
UN Protocol
(79%); followed by forced labour (18%); and a combination of both
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
and organ donation (3%). Nonetheless, many types of trafficking
Persons, especially Women and Children, Supplementing the
remain underreported as victims of such human rights violations
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised
are “invisible”3.
Crime (“Palermo Protocols”) (2000)
Young women comprise the largest proportion of trafficking
victims. According to the UNODC (2009), between 80 – 84% of ILO Conventions
all trafficked persons are women. The majority of these victims are
between 18 and 24 years of age, but an estimated 1.2m children ILO Forced Labour Convention No. 29
(under the age of 18) are also trafficked annually4.
ILO Abolition of Forced Labour Convention No. 105
Businesses should be aware of the legal, moral and
reputational risks that will arise from complicity, either direct ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention No. 182
or indirect, in human trafficking activities. For example,
in September 2010, the US’s Equal Employment Opportunity Human trafficking is contrary to international law and
Commission (EEOC) filed a lawsuit against the US owned labour international human rights law, and often also constitutes a
contracting firm, Global Horizons Manpower, for trafficking over violation of national laws. According to the ILO’s international
200 Thai male workers to eight different farms in Washington standards, trafficking violates the most basic rights of any person
state and Hawaii. The EEOC alleges that the accused company including the freedom from coercion at work; the freedom to set
engaged in practices of ’insidious’ discrimination and harassment up associations and bargain collectively; and the freedom from
when it trafficked the workers and that this was tantamount to discrimination at work. Trafficking of children has been defined by
‘modern-day enslavement’5. the ILO as one of the worst forms of child labour.
This chapter explores the risk human trafficking poses to business A UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
and presents a range of opportunities that the private sector can Persons took effect in December 2003 and UNODC believes that ‘it
engage with in order to help prevent such activities. This chapter has inspired widespread legislative response’ at the national level.
also considers the benefits to business of engaging with anti- There are currently 117 signatories and 146 parties to the protocol.
trafficking policies and programmes.
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) also stipulates
that it’s 193 state parties (140 signatories) are obliged to protect
children against all forms of exploitation and take measures to
prevent the abduction, sale and trafficking in children.
2 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

The UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Businesses also have the means to contribute to the
against Women (CEDAW) prohibits discrimination against women in eradication of human trafficking. For example, business can
all aspects of life. It’s 186 state parties (98 signatories) are obliged adopt and implement corporate policies with commitments that
to suppress all forms of trafficking in women. respect human rights, labour rights and protections and anti-
corruption. The UN Global Compact is a strategic policy initiative
The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, adopted in for companies that are committed to aligning their operations with
1998, defines trafficking in persons as ‘enslavement’ within the ten universally accepted principles in the areas of human rights,
category of crimes against humanity. labour, environment and anticorruption9.
Despite the global prevalence of trafficking activities, there Implementing internal anti-trafficking policies and
are significantly few convictions of traffickers and their programmes help to enhance stakeholder relationships and
accomplices. There were only 4,166 successful trafficking contribute to an improved business environment, as well
prosecutions in 2009. Of these, only 335 were related to forced as minimising the risk of complicity in trafficking activities.
labour. In 2009, UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) noted Adopting an internationally recognised policy framework,
that only two out of every five countries, from a total of 155, had such as the UN Global Compact Principles, demonstrates a
recorded a trafficking conviction. commitment to upholding high standards of human rights and
labour protections.
As the ILO notes, most victims of trafficking are not identified
and consequently ‘never receive justice for the damage
inflicted upon them’7. 1.2.1 Understanding the risk to businesses
Companies can be affected by human trafficking in a number
of ways10:
1.2 Trafficking and the ■■ Engagement with trafficked victims. Companies can be
private sector directly linked to trafficking through the recruitment, transport,
harbouring, or receipt of a person for the purpose of exploitation
Trafficking activities pose a pertinent risk to business
■■ Engagement with traffickers and their activities.
operating in all countries. Whilst developing countries are
Companies may be implicated in human trafficking if their
recognised as the principal suppliers of trafficking victims,
premises, products or services are used by traffickers for
developed countries are often the recipients of these trafficked
the purpose of trafficking e.g. in the transport, tourism or
victims. Trafficking operations range from the highly complex to
hospitality sectors
small cottage industries with networks extending from the local
to the global and throughout a range of economic sectors. The ■■ Complicity with trafficking activities along the supply
ILO notes that traffickers respond to the bottleneck of cheap chain. Business can be indirectly linked to trafficking through
and easily disposable labour in many developed and developing the actions of their suppliers or business partners, including
countries. This is especially the case in industries that are labour sub-contractors, labour brokers or private employment
intensive and that rely on temporary work, such as agriculture, agencies. In this way, companies can be implicitly implicated
domestic work and construction. in trafficking if they source goods or use services that are
produced or provided by trafficking victims.
As the UN’s Private Sector Survey on Human Trafficking
Whilst the link with trafficking activities may not be intended
indicates, the connection between human trafficking and
or even known, a clear violation of human rights has
business has yet to be sufficiently recognised by most
occurred if exploitation is involved, including forced labour,
companies8. However, unmonitored business activity has
forms of sexual exploitation, or if deception, threats or the
the potential to aid human trafficking. Further, companies
use of force have been used.
that are complicit in human trafficking along their supply
chains are at risk of violating international standards and laws,
tarnishing their reputation, and ruining stakeholder relationships
(see section 1.2.1: Understanding the risk to business for more
details on how companies can be affected and potentially
complicit in trafficking activities).

Legal risks Business, directly involved or indirectly complicit through

their supply chain in trafficking, also risk violating national
According to the NGO Business and Human Rights, historically civil and/or criminal legal requirements. This may result in
certain companies have maintained that human rights standards custodial sentences, fines and/or civil claims. Sanctions related
are only applicable to governments, not the private sector11. to trafficking are particularly grave in situations where a company
These companies claimed that their sole obligation was to respect has knowingly assisted or benefited from trafficking (see ‘Case
national laws, even where those laws failed to meet international study: US company charged with trafficking’).
human rights standards.
Reputational risks
However, a 2002 report by the International Council on Human
Rights Policy, ‘Beyond Voluntarism: Human rights and the Even if a company does not face legal sanctions, it may
developing international legal obligations of companies’12, states face serious reputational consequences if it is somehow
that ‘there is a clear basis in international law for extending implicated in human trafficking. Even if unfounded, these
international legal obligations to companies in relation to claims may have equal – or even greater – potential to harm the
human rights.’ interests of the company via reputational damage.
Human trafficking is contrary to international law and Consequences can include brand contamination due to the
international human rights law, and often constitutes a psychological or emotional association of the company with
violation of national laws. The “Palermo Protocols” distinguish what can be considered a particularly exploitative and distasteful
between trafficking in children (under 18 years of age) and adults. practice that generally involves vulnerable people. This can be
In the case of children, the recruitment and movement of a child particularly damaging when the issue is taken up by activist
for exploitation by a third party is considered human trafficking groups who are often adept at using media and consumer
even if it does not involve illicit means. pressure on companies they are seeking to influence.
Countries, such as India, that have ratified the Protocol In addition to the illegality of trafficking and its abuse of human
to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, rights, the tarnishing of corporate image through complicity, actual
especially Women and Children (one of the UN’s Palermo or alleged, can result in:
Protocols) are required to make human trafficking a crime.
This means that the practice is punishable as a criminal ■■ Reduced consumer demand for a company’s products
offence and that companies found to be involved in
■■ Loss of share price due to concerns over brand erosion and
trafficking could face prosecution. Human trafficking is also a
lower sales, as well as divestment by ethical investors
violation of international human rights law.
■■ Workforce disaffection, including low morale, reduced ability to
Therefore companies need to be proactive in order to avoid attract and retain talent, and poor motivation
complicity in human trafficking and ensure that they are
■■ Strategic restrictions as a result of dissociation from industry
compliant with the law. Any legal actions are likely to affect
associations, government censure and a reduced ability to
staff morale, the ability to attract and retain talent, operational
forge and maintain profitable commercial partnerships
efficiency, cash flow and management focus. They are also likely
to require potentially costly remedial actions.

Case study
A spokesman for Global Horizons said that the workers were
US company charged with trafficking paid “more money than they ever were in ‘Thailand’ and
‘were not living in squalor or bad conditions’.
In September 2010, the US’s Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) accused US owned labour contracting The CEO of Global Horizons Manpower, Mordechai Orian,
firm, Global Horizons Manpower, of trafficking Thai surrendered to the federal authorities and three other US
agricultural workers and subjecting them to forced labour in employees were arrested. Orian faces a maximum sentence
eight US farms (six in Hawaii and two in Washington). The of 70 years imprisonment if he is found guilty human
EEOC has filed a multi-million dollar lawsuit against Global trafficking. Two Thailand-based recruiters were also charged
Horizons Manpower, which is currently pending13. in an indictment.
US prosecutors allege that Global Horizons Manpower This case exposes the fact that the agricultural industry,
promised over 200 Thai workers lucrative jobs in the US even in the US where labour protection laws are good,
between 2003 and 2007. The Thai workers were assigned to is a prominent destination industry for trafficked workers,
work at six farms in Hawaii (Captain Cook Coffee Company, largely due to the demand for cheap labour. This can
Del Monte Fresh Produce, Kauai Coffee Company, Kelena expose companies further down the supply chain, such a
Farms, MacFarms of Hawaii, and Maui Pineapple Farms) food producers and retailers, to accusations of complicity,
and two farms in Washington (Green Acre Farms and Valley complicated by the fact that food products can be sourced
Fruit Orchards). The EEOC alleges that Global Horizons from a multitude of suppliers.
ignored abuses against the workers and participated in the
mistreatment, intimidation, harassment, and unequal pay of
the Thai workers. In addition, upon arrival the Thai workers
had their passports confiscated upon arrival and were
allegedly threatened with deportation if they complained.
The EEOC claim that the Thai workers were subjected to

human rights and labour violations such as: violence; poor
working conditions; inadequate pay and nutrition and rat-
infested housing by their employer.
Notes

Human Rights and Business Dilemmas Forum

Human Trafficking
“How does a company ensure there is no association with Suggestions for responsible businesses:
human trafficking in its operations or supply chains when
these extend into areas where trafficking is common in terms 1. Anti-human trafficking management system.
of the procurement of people, their transportation or their use
If operating in a high risk sector or region, a company should
as labour?”
consider implementing specific policies to prevent and respond
to human trafficking violations in line with international standards
Trafficking is not a straightforward human rights challenge for
and best practice. These should specifically address the different
companies to address. The sectors in which companies are likely
forms in which trafficking can manifest itself, including forced
to come across this issue directly - such as transportation, tourism
labour, bonded labour, forced child labour and debt bondage
and hospitality - are relatively limited.
amongst migrant workers.
In part, this is due to the fact that the majority of human trafficking
2. Implement supply chain and contractor controls
relates to sex work. Nonetheless, companies may come into
indirect contact with human trafficking via their supply chains, It might be recommended that a company ensure that the terms
where it is often associated with child and/or forced labour - as of human trafficking policy are reflected in contracts with suppliers
well as unscrupulous labour providers. and subcontractors in the form of legal conditions, or through its
Supplier Code of Conduct. These stipulations would ideally be
The dilemma for business is how to address human trafficking supported by a meaningful system to check that business partners
responsibly - and respect international conventions and national laws are not contravening company policy.
relating to human trafficking - given the often illegal and hidden nature
of the issue. While business can take relatively clear steps to ensure 3. Implement employee training programmes
its own workforce is free of trafficked persons, this is much harder
It may be advisable that a company work with third-party
when managing suppliers - particularly when they are a second or
specialists (NGOs, international organisations and consultants)
third tier supplier in remote areas with relatively weak regulation.
to educate management and staff regarding the identification and
prevention of human trafficking.
Even where human trafficking is successfully identified,
remediation will not always be straightforward given the
4. Awareness raising campaigns
vulnerability of victims, the circumstances that resulted in them
being trafficked in the first place, and the alternatives that To responsibly address human trafficking, a company might
trafficking victims face following ‘liberation’. implement or support awareness raising campaigns to
relevant stakeholders
As a result, companies need to take a multi-faceted approach,
often in cooperation with expert government, NGO and UN 5. Sectoral standards and initiatives
bodies, in order to ensure they are able to navigate these
Where appropriate and feasible, work with peer companies
challenges responsibly and effectively.
and external specialists to develop sector-specific
certification standards
6. Multilateral partnerships
A company may choose to develop and/or join multilateral
partnerships with public bodies, peer companies, unions, NGOs
and other interested stakeholders to address human trafficking.
Further information on the human trafficking dilemma faced by business, with analysis from expert stakeholders, can be found on the
Human Rights and Business Dilemmas Forum. http://human-rights.unglobalcompact.org/dilemmas/human-trafficking/

Map 1: Trafficking Index map
Extreme
0 - 1.25
Tajikistan
>1.25 - 2.5
Russia High
>2.5 - 3.75
Ukraine >3.75 - 5
North Korea Medium
Kuwait China
Nepal >5 - 6.25
Qatar >6.25 - 7.5
India Laos
Cambodia Low
Guatemala Pakistan Viet Nam >7.5 - 8.75
Philippines >8.75 - 10
Sierra Leone
No data
Indonesia
Somalia Myanmar
DR Congo
Twenty highest risk countries – Trafficking Index
Country Score Country Score Country Score Country Score

China 0.02 Pakistan 0.67 Russia 1.10 Nepal 1.28
DR Congo 0.03 India 0.95 Viet Nam 1.10 Laos 1.30
Guatemala 0.17 Qatar 0.97 Cambodia 1.13 Philippines 1.40
North Korea 0.50 Myanmar 1.00 Indonesia 1.22 Ukraine 1.52
Somalia 0.53 Sierra Leone 1.07 Tajikistan 1.25 Kuwait 1.57
1.2.2 Mapping the risk to businesses No individual company can therefore conclude that it is safe
from the risk of complicity in such violations, whether by
Map 1: Maplecroft’s Trafficking Index highlights the relative nature of the sector in which it operates or the context in which
risk of exposure to trafficking across 196 countries based it is established. For example, a UNODC study on trafficking in
on the prevalence of trafficking, as well as government Europe found that trafficking victims were involuntarily employed
complicity and/or inaction. The map shows that the risk is in the following sectors in France: construction (35%), garment
highest in the regions of South East Asia, Eastern and Western industry (19%), agriculture (18%), hotels and catering (15%),
Africa and Central America with these regions categorised as commerce (5%), services (3%) and others (5%).
‘extreme risk’. China tops the index, 1st out of 196 countries,
with the highest risk of exposure to trafficking. Comparatively, Maplecroft’s Trafficking Index analysis takes into account the
however, North America and Western Europe are at medium extent of internal as well as international trafficking. Countries
risk to trafficking activities. Notably the Trafficking Index map that are predominantly destination points for victims of trafficking
demonstrates that trafficking activities pose a pertinent risk are identified as posing a greater risk to business due to the
to businesses operating in all countries. increased likelihood of victims becoming involved in value chains,
particularly those that are trafficked for the purposes of forced
labour. This index also assesses whether and to what extent local
officials, police or immigration officials are complicit in trafficking.
A third component is whether the government makes significant
efforts to combat trafficking, and whether comprehensive
investigations and stringent penalties act as a deterrent.

Whilst trafficking poses a risk to all companies, in its ‘Combating ■■ Enhance stakeholder relationships. Anti-human trafficking
Forced Labour: A Handbook for Employers and Businesses’, the policies and practices help enhance relationships with local
ILO identifies the following sectors in which human trafficking has communities, government, non-governmental organizations,
been identified as a significant problem14: consumers and other stakeholders. A proactive stance by
business demonstrates to the local and wider community the
■■ Agriculture and horticulture company’s ethical commitment. The pooling of expertise from
multilateral stakeholders will lead to a high degree of legitimacy
■■ Construction
and can potentially magnify the impact and publicity of an anti-
■■ Garments and textiles (under sweatshop conditions) trafficking programme.
■■ Hospitality and catering ■■ Protect global supply chains. Globalisation and the
interconnectedness of countries and firms have raised
■■ Mining and logging
human trafficking as a significant issue within global supply
■■ Food processing and packaging chains. This not only increases the risk of complicity in human
trafficking but provides business with an opportunity to
■■ Transportation
contribute to the prevention of human trafficking by promoting
■■ Domestic service and other care and cleaning work the adoption of responsible corporate practices through the
supply chain, thus reducing opportunities for trafficking in high
■■ Sex industry and prostitution
risk countries.
1.2.3 The benefits of business engaging Case study

with anti-trafficking strategies
Tourism and the Code
Human trafficking is not only illegal and can cause reputational The Code of Conduct for the Protection of Children from
damage, it is also morally unacceptable. There are several Sexual Exploitation in Travel and Tourism (The Code) is a
benefits identified below that arise when business take a proactive tourist industry driven initiative for responsible tourism in
role in preventing human trafficking collaboration with ECPAT International, funded by UNICEF
and supported by the World Trade Organisation (WTO)15.
■■ Ensure compliance with international standards and
national law. Human trafficking is contrary to international law The Code represents a positive step for businesses in the
and constitutes a violation of national law in most countries tourism sector in engaging with anti-trafficking policies.
around the world. Activities, such as forced labour, which are Nonetheless, its current reach across countries affected by
closely associated with trafficking defy international labour trafficking is still limited. For example, the US Department
standards and regularly involve corruption. Therefore proactive of State notes that India is a source, destination and
action to avoid complicity in human trafficking will help ensure transit country for trafficking in persons for the purpose of
that the company is in compliance with the law. commercial sexual exploitation. Notably, however, there is
■■ Manage risk and reputation. To be successful, companies must currently only one Indian organisation that has signed the
manage risk in an environment where risk is not static and can code, EQUATIONS. Nonetheless, there are numerous tour
emerge through the actions of the company itself, its suppliers operators, travel agencies, and hotel groups that operate
and other actors. Allegations of trafficking present legal risks in India and have signed the code. For example Kuoni;
as well as serious threats to brand and company reputation. TUI StarTour; Thomas Cook; Accor Hotels; and Carlson
Responsible business practices can help to mitigate the risk of Companies Inc. have all signed. Notable members of the
reputational damage by engaging with anti-trafficking strategies. airline industry have also committed themselves to the code
including British Airways, Delta Airlines and Air France.
■■ Promote codes of conduct and Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR). Preventive action and the elimination Suppliers of tourism services adopting the code commit
of human trafficking is becoming a key element of corporate themselves to implement the following six criteria:
social responsibility (CSR) policies. Businesses – particularly
those that supply consumer markets and have significant 1. To establish an ethical policy regarding commercial sexual
brand value – face new and growing expectations that exploitation of children
production will uphold a high standard of social and human
rights criteria

2. To train the personnel in the country of origin and 1.3.1 Girls Discovered

travel destinations
In 2008, Girls Count: A Global Investment and Action Agenda, a
3. To introduce a clause in contracts with suppliers, stating report published by organisations including the Centre for Global
a common repudiation of commercial sexual exploitation Development, the Population Council and the International Centre
of children for Research on Women, laid out the case for investing in girls and
outlined actions that policymakers, donors, the private sector, and
4. To provide information to travellers by means of development professionals can and should take to improve the
catalogues, brochures, in-flight films, ticket-slips, home prospects for girls’ wellbeing in the developing world. The original
pages, etc report laid the foundation for a series of new publications and
initiatives aimed at improving the situation of girls around the world.
5. To provide information to local ‘key persons’ at the destinations
As part of that effort, Maplecroft, in partnership with the Nike
6. To report annually
Foundation and UN Foundation, developed Girls Discovered:
Global Maps of Adolescent Girls, an interactive website of maps
and data on adolescent girls (see www.girlsdiscovered.org).
1.3 Overcoming data gaps
Maplecroft created a set of sample scorecards on India (at
Despite the availability of some data, highlighting the risks national and sub-national levels) to assist investors to target
that trafficking poses to businesses operating throughout all their investment to girls. These scorecards use data and maps
countries, significant data gaps remain. from Girls Discovered, and a unique Girls Vulnerability Index,
developed by Maplecroft, to inform readers of where their
These data gaps can be categorised into three major areas which investments can make the greatest difference to girls’ lives.
need to be addressed in order to decrease the vulnerability of girls
to trafficking: One of the aims of the Girls Discovered Action Guide is to
address the critical gaps in research and compile data on
■■ There is a lack of awareness amongst vulnerable groups about a variety of indicators which highlight the vulnerability of
how to mitigate the threat of trafficking girls at a national level. Notably the data on trafficking was
significantly lacking.
■■ There is a lack of real time data and maps on the movement
of trafficked girls, which could be used as a vital tool to assist
However, trafficking violates a girl’s right to grow up in a
law enforcement agencies in the prevention of trafficking and in
family environment and exposes her to a range of human
turn the timely prosecution of traffickers
rights violations, including violence and sexual abuse.
■■ There is a lack of readily available information for victims According to Girls Discovered, the protection of girls requires
on support groups that can offer an alternative route out additional attention as the welfare of adolescent girls is crucial in
of exploitation. determining economic and social outcomes for countries today,
and in the future. This is particularly the case in societies and
Building upon the work of Girls Discovered (see below), critical
communities such as India, where girls are at a higher risk of
gaps in trafficking data can be addressed by conducting research
female rights violations often because much of the maltreatment
and compiling data which highlights the vulnerability of girls at a
suffered by girls is socially regarded as the ‘normal/accepted’ way
national level.
to treat a girl in the home or community. For example in India,
54% of women aged 15–49 years old consider a husband to be
justified in hitting/beating his wife for at least one of the following
reasons: burning the food; arguing with him; going out without
telling him; neglecting the children or refusing sexual relations. 16
The remaining chapters of this report specifically explore

the trafficking of girls in India in order to begin to fill the
data gaps. This will broaden the understanding of the risks
to businesses and identify opportunities for action for
stakeholders to prevent trafficking.

2 Trafficking in India
Trafficking
The Trafficking Index measures the risk of exposure to trafficking
based on the prevalence of trafficking, as well as government
complicity and/or inaction.
2011 2010 Regional average

0.95 (extreme) 0.43 (extreme) 3.08
0 = highest risk, 10 = lowest risk
India – Rank 7 (of 196 countries, where 1 is worst)

Risk comparisons – Relative position of India compared with selected countries
Middle East
Rank Selected countries of reference energy producers Selected emerging economies
5 Somalia 6 Pakistan 17 Laos 58 Moldova 1 China 18 Philippines
6 Pakistan 9 Myanmar 18 Philippines 86 Iraq 6 Pakistan 34 Mexico
7 India 16 Nepal 26 Kazakhstan 100 Azerbaijan 11 Russia 37 Turkey
8 Qatar 25 Bangladesh 47 Malaysia 118 Singapore 11 Viet Nam 38 Brazil
9 Myanmar 31 Sri Lanka 50 Afghanistan 179 Maldives 14 Indonesia 53 Nigeria
Red indicates higher risk, green indicates lower risk
The trafficking of girls is a widespread problem in India. Calculations of girls being trafficked are generally made with
According to Maplecroft’s Trafficking Index 2011, India is classified reference to commercial sexual exploitation (CES). In India,
as an “extreme risk” country for trafficking, ranking seventh the stigma attached to prostitution and the clandestine nature
out of 196 countries (where 1 is the lowest ranking country). of operations makes it especially difficult to arrive at authentic
Comparatively, India ranks higher than neighbouring Nepal (16th) numbers19. To give a sense of the total magnitude of the trafficking
and Bangladesh (25th) but lower than Pakistan (6th). Notably, problem, data estimates of adult and child sex workers in India are
however, all of these countries are deemed “extreme risk”. quoted together by organisations. All minors in commercial sex work
are generally classified as cases of trafficking.
According to the US Department of State’s 2010 Trafficking in
Persons Report, India is a source, destination, and transit country Official statistics estimate that the population of women and
for girls being trafficked for the purposes of commercial sexual children being sexually exploited in India is between 70,000
exploitation and forced labour17. and 100,000 (although some NGOs have estimated the figure
to be over 3 million). Of these, 30% are approximately 20
However, accurate statistics on trafficking in India are years of age. Nearly 15% began sex work when they were
difficult to collect due to the inconspicuous nature of the below 15 years and 25% entered between 15 and 18 years20.
crime. Some figures pertaining to trafficking have been collated
over the previous two decades and these are unlikely to have Women and girls are particularly vulnerable to trafficking
changed due to the weak enforcement of anti-trafficking laws. in India. According to NCRB21 data, in 1999 there were 9,368
According to UNICEF, it is estimated that 200,000 people are cases of trafficked women and children in India. The incidence of
trafficked in India every year. Currently 10% of human trafficking trafficking has steadily increased since 1997, with an increase of
in India is international, while almost 90% is interstate18. Nearly 7.7% noted between 1998 and 1999 alone. On 12 August 2002,
40,000 children are abducted every year of which 11,000 remain an article published in the Statesman claimed that roughly 2
untraced, according to a 2004 report by the National Human million children are abused and forced into prostitution every year
Rights Commission of India (NHRC). in India.

NGO End Children’s Prostitution in Asian Tourism roughly The Indian Penal Code, 1860 contains more than 20
estimates that there are currently 2 million prostitutes in India, provisions that are relevant to trafficking and imposes
20% of who are minors. An independent study conducted in 1992 criminal penalties for offences such as kidnapping,
estimates that at any one time, 20,000 girls are being transported abduction, buying or selling a person for slavery/labour,
from one part of the country to another22. In 2011, however, an buying or selling a minor for prostitution and importing/
Indian NGO estimates that this figure has risen to 60,000. procuring a minor girl and rape.
India is home to the highest number of child labourers in The Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act
the world. A 2001 census points to the increase in the number (sometimes known as the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act,
of child labourers in the country from 11.28 million in 1991 to ITPA) criminalises trafficking in persons throughout the country,
12.59 million in 200123. Reports from M V Foundation reveal that specifically in relation to trafficking for the purposes of prostitution.
nearly 400,000 children, mostly girls between 7 and 14 years of On 13 May 2011, India ratified the UN Convention against
age, toil for 14-16 hours a day in cottonseed production across Organised Crime, known as the Palermo Protocol (see section
the country24. Child labourers are frequently trafficked and 1.1: International legal framework for more information).
exploited, working long hours for little or no pay in appalling
conditions. Each state government has legislative power and policies for
combating other forms of trafficking, although policy status
This chapter will explore trafficking in India in order to map and implementation varies. According to the US Department of
subnational data and present a deeper understanding of the State, state-level authorities, who under the Indian Constitution
drivers, process and purpose of trafficking in India. This will have the primary responsibility for law enforcement, are limited
enable an understanding of how to address trafficking and how to in their ability to effectively confront interstate and transnational
take action to prevent such activities. trafficking crimes. This is principally due to a lack of adequate
personnel and financial resources.
The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 102 prohibits all

2.1 National legal framework bonded labour or other forms of forced labour. Anyone using
bonded labour is punishable with up to three years imprisonment
and a fine of up to INR2,000 (approximately US$44) (sections 16
ILO Conventions & 18). Out of the fine, if recovered, payment will be made to be
bonded labourer at the rate of INR5 (US$0.11) for each day for
Forced Labour Convention (No.29)
which bonded labour was performed (s19).
Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (No. 105)
The Act also confers District Magistrates, or any officer specified
by them, with the duty to inquire whether any bonded labour
National Acts system or any form of forced labour is being enforced within the
limits of the Magistrates’ jurisdiction. If any person is found to be
Constitution of India (2007) enforcing a system of forced or bonded labour the Magistrate is
bound to take necessary action to eradicate it (section 12).
The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act (No. 19 of 1976)
In February 2009, the state government of Delhi announced
The Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act that it intends to form a high level committee to draft
(No.104 of 1956) guidelines on the prevention of the crime of trafficking for
forced labour and child labour in the capital.
The Constitution of India prohibits trafficking of human
beings and forced labour. Article 23 (1) states that the ‘traffic
in human beings... and other similar forms of forced labour are
prohibited and any contravention of this provision shall be an
offence punishable in accordance with law’.

2.2 The drivers of girl trafficking Rural areas of India are particularly prone to poverty and it
is within these poor, rural areas that the risk of trafficking is
According to a study by the Inter American Commission of
greatest. India’s economic growth has been concentrated almost
Women ‘sex trafficking is driven by a demand for women’s
exclusively in urban centres, while rural areas remain largely
and children’s bodies in the sex industry, fuelled by a
mired in severe poverty. Approximately 70% of India’s population
supply of women denied equal rights and opportunities for
lives in rural communities cut off from the nation’s economic
education and economic advancement and perpetuated by
boom.27 Rural Indians generally depend upon agriculture for a
traffickers who are able to exploit human misfortune with
livelihood. A law requiring farmers to sell produce through state-
near impunity’ 25.
run markets encourages bureaucracy, waste and high consumer
prices, disadvantaging poor farmers. According to the World Bank,
The drivers of trafficking are closely related to the vulnerability of
India’s large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivity-
girls as a push factor and the opportunities offered by traffickers
enhancing investment. In rural areas, therefore, farmers are often
as a pull factor.
vulnerable to traffickers’ false offers of employment opportunities
for their wives and daughters in order to bolster their income.
2.2.1 Vulnerability – a push factor Map 2: The night-time light poverty index map illustrates the
The root causes of trafficking of girls are multiple and prevalence of extreme poverty across India. The map shows
complex. However, some of the more frequently cited are: that number of people living in extreme poverty is lower in and
around urban areas such as New Delhi, Hyderabad and Mumbai.
■■ poverty
Additionally India continues to face many labour-related
■■ lack of employment opportunities
problems. This increases the vulnerability of the female
■■ low social status of the girl child population, particularly the female workforce, and increases
the risk of trafficking.
■■ a general lack of education and awareness
■■ inadequate legislation in India The Indian workforce is highly conscious that it is not feeling
the benefits of the national economic growth. According to the
■■ weak law enforcement authorities
National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector,
■■ cultural traditions almost 77% of people live on less than INR20 (US$0.44) per day.
People in this group also have little opportunity for improving their
It is often difficult to distinguish between the cause and the
employment status, mainly due to lack of education.
purpose of trafficking. For example, prostitution can sometimes
be sanctioned by religion. Nonetheless, the structural causes of
India’s restrictive labour regulations constrain the growth
trafficking (as cited above) exacerbate a girl’s vulnerability and
of the formal manufacturing sector, with the majority of the
increase the risk of trafficking as an economic opportunity.
workforce in the unorganised/informal sector. This is due to
the fact that the laws are numerous and confusing. Rather than
In India, despite sustained economic growth and progress
adopting one clear national labour code, there are laws regulating
in human development, the country continues to face many
factories of certain sizes, unorganised workers, child labourers
poverty problems. This exacerbates the vulnerability of the
and bonded labour.
female population and increases the risk of trafficking. Since
1997, India has had an average growth rate of more than 7%.
Labour demand and policies also influence vulnerability
India achieved 6.8% GDP growth in 2009, increasing to 10.4%
in a global market; women and girls are increasingly hired
in 2010 (est.).26 The IMF forecast GDP growth of 8.2% in 2011
as service providers, which put them at even greater risk to
indicating that the market is recovering well from the downturn.
trafficking for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation and
However, according to a 2005 estimate, 42% of Indians are living
domestic labourers28.
on less than $1.25 a day – the World Bank’s poverty threshold.
Persistent poverty is blamed on the fact that the rise in GDP has
Alongside this the quickening pace of urbanisation and
not seen a corresponding rise in wages and per capita income.
heightened mobility resulting from the development of road, rail
and air links have facilitated trafficking activities and networks.

Map
Map 2:
2: Night-time LightPoverty
Night-time Light PovertyIndex
Index
Estimated population count in poverty *
Extreme !
\ National capital
\ Other major cities and towns
AFGHANISTAN
Administrative boundary
Srinagar Low *Night-time Light Poverty Index adjusted using a

calibration derived from the WDI estimate for the
number of people living on 2 US dollars or less per day
Data source Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN);
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA);
World Bank - World Development Indicators. The methodology is adapted from Elvidge et al.
(2009), Computers and Geosciences 35, 1652-1660
PAKISTAN 0 200 400 800
km
CHINA
New Delhi NEPAL
BHUTAN
Kanpur
BANGLADESH Imphal
Ahmadabad
Kolkata
MYANMAR
Nagpur
Mumbai
Hyderabad
Bangalore Chennai
SRI LANKA

According to a 2004 National Human Rights Commission Overall, traffickers present false economic opportunities
(NHRC) report29, there are also a number of international to vulnerable victims and their families. Attractive offers of
structural factors which influence the levels of trafficking such as employment, marriage and security by traffickers lure victims
industrialisation, globalisation and the global economic crises. into being trafficked. In India, recent news stories have shown
A culture of consumerism, materialism, commoditisation of a trend of traffickers using marriage bureaus and placement and
individuals and commercialisation of sex distorts family needs tutorial agencies as a front for attracting people.
and individual desires30.
2.2.3 Demand for trafficked girls

Trigger events
A 2004 survey conducted by the National Human Rights
There are often trigger events which lead to a high-risk
Commission (NHRC) researched the various features of
period for trafficking activities in a particular area. These
demand for trafficked victims33. The survey indicated that
events include:
certain seasons require more trafficking for the purposes of
commercial sexual exploitation and forced labour (see section
■■ Natural disasters – cyclones, earthquake, drought
2.4: Purpose of trafficking for more information on commercial
■■ Negative life events – death of family member, pregnancy sexual exploitation and forced labour).
before marriage, loss of job
For example, according to the NHRC, seasonally demand
Environmental calamities and disruptions can separate girls
is higher during winter than in the summer because there
from their parents and support network and lead to a loss
are surplus funds accumulated by the neo-rich class of farmers
in livelihoods. Girls in this situation are at a heightened risk of
after harvesting.
being trafficked under the false promises of brighter futures, new
support networks and alternative livelihood opportunities.
In addition the demand for trafficked girls is especially high
during festivals and vacations. While 19.4% of the NHRC’s
Other events, such as marriages and festivals, increase the
survey respondents stated that the influx of tourists leads to an
exposure of young people to migrants returning from trafficking
increase in demand, 20.5% of the respondents said that the
demand area, which may further increase the probability of
demand goes up when police officials are withdrawn from their
trafficking new recruits via already established networks.
routine tasks and are assigned duties elsewhere in connection
with law and order, especially during festival times.
Sometimes traffickers choose particular times/seasons for
recruitment. They take advantage of difficult periods, either
before the harvesting season or during a drought, when many Sustaining demand: corruption and law
locals look elsewhere for income to survive31. enforcement officials
According to the NHRC, in order to identify the potential supply of The lack of awareness of trafficking and prostitution laws
girls, traffickers often keep themselves informed about severely also sustains the demand for trafficked girls. According to
impoverished areas or those which have suffered climatic, NHRC’s 2004 survey, 88.4% of respondents were not aware of
economic or political disasters32. any law against trafficking. Similarly, 79.7% said that they had no
knowledge about any law prohibiting child sexual abuse and child
commercial sexual exploitation.
2.2.2 Perceived opportunities –
pull factors Weak law enforcement undermines efforts to prosecute
traffickers. With regards to law enforcement, 49.9% of the
Traffickers will employ a range of the tactics or strategies survivors of trafficking in NHRC’s survey stated they did not know
to kidnap or recruit vulnerable girls. These range from the if any action was taken against the people that had trafficked
extremely violent (drugging, kidnapping and abduction) to them, 40.3% categorically said that the traffickers had never been
persuasion, material inducements, befriending and deception. arrested. Only a very small minority, 9.8%, maintained that the
police had arrested the traffickers.

In the absence of any intervention by the law enforcement In November 2009, a team from the National Commission for
agencies, brothel owners continue to exploit trafficked Women exposed a large trafficking ring in Uttar Pradesh, through
victims with impunity. Owners of brothels were asked by the which traffickers sent women from areas along the border of
NHRC about the number of raids that had been carried out on Nepal to the Middle East, with the collusion of corrupt police
their brothels in 2001. The average number of raids conducted officials. The US Department of State says that there were no
in a year per state comes to 16. Over a third of the survey’s prosecutions under this case. Under the Indian constitution, states
respondents (34.5%) stated that the police had not conducted any have the primary responsibility for law enforcement, and state
raids on their brothels during the past year. level authorities are limited in their abilities to effectively confront
interstate and transnational trafficking crimes.
Despite being central to the national anti-trafficking strategy,
UNODC notes that the police do not prioritise trafficking
and are often unaware of the seriousness of the crime. This Case study
is also noted by the NHRC’s survey. When asked about law
enforcement by the NHRC, a third of the brothel owners stated Police involvement in trafficking
that the police conduct raids to rescue minor girls or to prevent
commercial sexual exploitation, but 19.3% said that raids are On 19 December 2010, a Haryana police sub-inspector,
conducted only when there is stoppage of regular payments by Nirmal Singh, was arrested at Indira Ghandi International
the brothels. Airport for his alleged involvement trafficking activities. The
media reported that for approximately two years Singh sold
Corrupt law enforcement officers facilitate the movement of illegal visas and passports, thereby assisting cross-border
trafficked victims and protect brothels in exchange for money trafficking activities.
that exploit trafficked victims and protect traffickers, brothel
keepers and pimps from arrest. According to the NHRC’s
survey, among the one-third of brothel owners who tried to avoid 2.2.4 Cyclical trafficking patterns
arrests, 53.4% said that they do so by bribing law enforcement
A cyclical pattern of trafficking can arise when trafficking
officials; and 29% admitted that if they get advance information
victims become traffickers. The 2001 NHRC survey questioned
about raids, they hide the girls, either on the brothel premises or
survivors of trafficking and noted that 8.2% of the respondents
sometimes even outside.
attempted to procure more girls to be trafficked into the
commercial sex industry.
According to the US Department of State’s 2010 Trafficking
in Persons Report, the engagement of public officials in
Weak law enforcement and poor preventive trafficking
trafficking is a “major problem”34. The report notes that
measures sustain trafficking activities. The victims are often
this is an issue that is largely unaddressed by central and
afraid of reprisals from their traffickers, even after rescue, and are
state governments.
susceptible to re-trafficking. The NHRC’s 2001 survey shows that
39.3% of the survivor respondents said that the fear of rejection
The US Department of State notes that some brothel owners
by the family and society deterred them from going back home
are politically affiliated. For example, an Indian NGO indicated
after rescue.
that in six to seven recent cases, lawyers representing pimps,
brothel managers, and corrupt police officers successfully
One third of the respondents claimed that they wanted to
petitioned for the release of child sex trafficking victims from
continue in the same ‘trade’ (prostitution) and 80.9% of this group
shelters. The girls were subsequently re-trafficked, and their debts
explained that this was due to a lack of other livelihood options. A
owed to traffickers increased due to the petitioners’ fees. India
further 5.3% of this group of respondents stated that social stigma
reported no convictions or sentences of government officials for
prevented them from going back to the community and 13.8%
trafficking-related offenses during 2009 and 2010.
said that they were unqualified for any other job.

2.3 The trafficking process Trafficking networks can vary in size and complexity. In India
there are many trafficking operations which are sophisticated
and either national or global in scale (facilitated by modern
At the centre of all trafficking activities are the victims who
technology). However, there are also smaller trafficking networks
are “highly profitable, low risk, expendable, reusable and
which are akin to a localised cottage industry.
re-sellable commodities”35. This trade in human beings
as chattels and treatment of their bodies as commodities
becomes possible because of the intricate link between body
and money.
2.3.1 Identifying trafficking routes
Trafficking patterns and routes are often highly complex
According to the 2004 National Human Rights Commission but the general movement of trafficked people is from less
(NHRC) report on trafficking36, girls are reportedly recruited developed areas to more developed regions. Routes are
predominantly at places like cinema halls, bus stops, railway usually divided into sources, transit and destination points; some
stations, airports, streets and their homes. Other places reports also mention collection and dispersal points.
mentioned are cafes, restaurants, beauty contests and beauty
parlours, state and national highways, quarry and construction In the Indian context, Nepal and Bangladesh are the two main
work sites, and areas where locals are displaced without proper international suppliers of trafficked victims. There have been news
rehabilitation may also be sites for potential victims. reports that after the disintegration of USSR, girls from Russia and
other CIS countries, like Uzbekistan, were trafficked into India38.
The 2004 NHRC report notes that traffickers are usually
young men and middle-aged women who are significantly
older than the young girls they recruit. They are predominantly
Trafficking within India
natives and agents who travel back and forth from home The vast majority of trafficking within India is domestic and
countries/regions to receiving regions and maintain links with the interstate. According to the US Department of State, only 10% of
villages to which the victims belong. India’s trafficking in persons is international, with approximately
3% arriving from Nepal and 2% from Bangladesh. The remaining
Many traffickers are older women, who are either former 90% of trafficking in persons is domestic and interstate.
prostitutes or are themselves in forced prostitution, trying to
escape abuse and bondage by providing a substitute. This The 2004 NHRC report highlights a number of studies which
leads to a process of cyclical trafficking (see previous section identify geographical belts of exploitation; for example,
2.2.4: Cyclical trafficking patterns for more information). the region between Agra, Jaipur and Delhi. This area has
been highlighted as a trafficking “hotspot” in Map 3: Trafficking
Traffickers generally use public transport to avoid suspicion sources and destination hotspots. There are numerous
or detection37. The mode of transport used for taking the trafficking hotspots and source points in the Eastern region of
trafficked persons from one transit point to another was also India. This region is also identified as an area of extreme poverty
examined by the NHRC in 2004. More than 75% of the survivors in Map 2: Night-time light poverty index, where girls are more
said they were made to travel by train or bus/truck/jeep. Only a vulnerable to trafficking.
few were transported via autorickshaws or cars.
According to the NHRC, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka,
Trafficking involves a range of players ‘along the road Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
from acquisition to exploitation’. People can be trafficked via Kerala and Maharashtra are the main states from where
organised international networks, through local trafficking rings trafficked persons are sourced (for intra-state trafficking source
or by occasional traffickers. Thus, traffickers do not operate on districts see Table 1: Intrastate trafficking source districts).
their own; they establish a network and also develop linkages with The report suggests that the maximum percentage of interviewed
other exploiters, like brothel keepers, pimps, law enforcement women and children have been trafficked from the states of
officials etc. In the case of cross border trafficking operations Andhra Pradesh (25.9 %), Karnataka (15 %), West Bengal
there are also supporting personnel, debt collectors, transporters (12.5 %) and Tamil Nadu (12.3 %). In most states, intra-state
as well as agents who arrange the travel documentation. trafficking is a common phenomenon.

Table 1: Intrastate trafficking source districts Table 2: Intrastate trafficking demand areas
(NHRC, 2004) (NHRC, 2004)
State Source districts State Demand areas

Tamil Nadu Dindugal, Madurai, Trichy and Chengelpet Tamil Nadu Tindivanam, Dindugal, Madurai and Salem
Kerala Trivandrum and Thrissur Goa Goa
Vijayawada, Rajahmundry, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad and Guntur
Hindupur, Kakinada, Vishakapatnam,
Andhra Pradesh Rajasthan Bhagalpur, Alwar, Jaipur and Jodhpur
Pedapuram, Telengana, East Godavari,
West Godavari and Guntur
Bihar Gaya and Patna
Rajasthan Dholpur, Bharatpur, Alwar and Tonk
Karnataka Bangalore and Mangalore
Gaya, Muzaffarpur, Patna, Kishanganj,
Bihar
Katihar, Purnia, Araria and Madhubani Maharashtra Pune, Mumbai and Thane
Karnataka Bangalore, Gulburga and Raichur Uttar Pradesh Agra, Lucknow, Banaras and Gorakhpur
Maharashtra Solapur Pondicherry Pondicherry
Uttar Pradesh Maharajganj
Murshidabad and Parganasin When interviewed by the NHRC in 2004, the majority of the
West Bengal
West Bengal traffickers (58.1%) stated that the supply of girls was linked
to demand patterns. In addition, around 6% stated that they
The demand for trafficked women and girls is increasing in the cities supply women and girls to those areas where they can remain
for all forms and purposes of trafficking. Major cities like Delhi, anonymous, and 15% of the traffickers said that they supply to
Mumbai Calcutta, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Goa and Chennai are areas where law enforcement is poor.
recognised as source, destination and transit points.
Survivors of trafficking were asked in the NHRC’s survey about
Delhi and Mumbai are also the main transit points for the places where they were kept or detained both in the beginning
international trafficking. Tripura has emerged as a ‘safe and end route to the final destinations. Approximately 37.2 %
passage’, according to the government, for those who are stated that they were put up at small-time brothels; 27.5 % of the
involved in the child trafficking business from Bangladesh to West girls were detained in the traffickers’ houses; and 14.6 % of them
Asia, especially Dubai. were accommodated in wayside hotels or motels41.
Also various individual sellers, market centres and interstate Map 3: Trafficking sources and destination hotspots uses
movement for prostitution was found to be high between Maplecroft’s Trafficking Index to map hotspots of trafficking
Mumbai and Karnataka39. Women from Karnataka constitute across India based on reported incidences. These hotspot areas
46% of the prostitutes in Mumbai. Interstate trafficking of women correlate to key source and destination trafficking locations
and girls constitutes 72% of all trafficking cases in Bangalore. In identified by the Indian government. This map illustrates a national
Hyderabad, 94% of all prostitutes in Hyderabad are from within overview of the current trafficking situation in India but also
Andhra Pradesh40. demonstrates significant gaps in the data. This is a fundamental
challenge which this exploratory research seeks to address by
It is important to note that the demand areas include not identifying opportunities for action including SMS systems.
only cities but also smaller towns. According to the NHRC
2004 survey, the key intrastate demand areas mentioned by the Map 4: Key interstate trafficking flows shows the major
traffickers are outlined in Table 2: Intrastate trafficking demand trafficking routes within India, according to the number of people
areas. The traffickers also noted locations outside India including; trafficked to and from each state.
Bangkok, Kenya, South Africa, Bahrain, Dubai and Muscat.

2 Trafficking inKYRGYZSTAN
India
Map
Map 3:
3: Trafficking sourcesand
Trafficking sources anddestination
destinationhotspots
hotspots
TAJIKISTAN
Density of trafficking incidents Trafficking route locations
c
: Destination
Low High
c
: Source
AFGHANISTAN
\ National capital
PAKISTAN
Data source National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), 2004
0 200 400 800

CHINA km
c
:
\ New Delhi
NEPAL
c
:
BHUTAN
c
:c
: c
:
c
: c
\
:
c Lucknow c
: :
c
: c: Guwahati
c
:
c
: c
: c
:
:c
:Patnac
c
:
c
: \ c:
c
:
c
: BANGLADESH
c: :
c
c
:
c:
\ Kolkata
MYANMAR
c
:
Adilabad c
\
: LAOS
c
:
Mumbai c
:
\
c
:
c
: c:
c
:
c
: c
:
::c
ccc:
:
c
:
c
\
:
c
: Guntur
c:
c
:
c
:
c
:
c
:
\ Chennai
c
: \
Bangalore C
c
:
c
:
c
:
c
:
c
:
Cochin \ c
:
c
:
SRI LANKA

Map
Map 4:
4: Key
Key interstate traffickingflows
interstate trafficking flows
Interstate trafficking routes by the number of people trafficked
High \ National capital

Medium \ Other major cities and towns
Low Administrative boundary
AFGHANISTAN Data source
National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), 2004
0 200 400 800

km
CHINA
PAKISTAN
New Delhi
NEPAL
Lucknow BHUTAN
Jaipur
Patna
BANGLADESH
Calcutta
MYANMAR
LAO
Mumbai
Hyderbad
Panaji
THAILAN
Bangalore
Chennai
SRI LANKA

Trafficking from Bangladesh and Nepal In 3% of these cases the victims were girls below 10 years, in
25% the victims were girls aged 11-15 years and in 72% the
It is widely recognised that there are illegal entries by victims were girls aged 16-18 years.
traffickers through legitimate border posts. India has 20
official checkpoints manned by the Border Security Force (BSF)
with Bangladesh. Being few and widely dispersed, they are Table 3: Cases of kidnapping and abduction of
ineffective in maintaining strict vigilance over movements across
children that qualify as forms of trafficking
the border. Traffickers often bribe border officials in exchange
for their protection from prosecution. A well-organised bribe
system also helps people to cross over the flat terrain between Purpose of trafficking No. of cases
India and Bangladesh42.
Marriage 1593
Once trafficked girls enter India from Bangladesh they are often
Illicit intercourse 414
kept in West Bengal and Orissa. After being ‘sorted and graded’,
they may be sold to pimps or sent to the Middle East, Kolkata, Prostitution 101
Bashirghat, Delhi, Mumbai or Agra.
Unlawful activity 92
Nepal and India have 14 legal entry points along their shared Begging 20
border. Due to a cross-border treaty between Nepal and India
there is no immigration control required for Nepalese travelling or Slavery 16
migrating to India, and hence no records are maintained. Adoption 15
According to the NHRC 2001 report, cross-border trafficking For sale 13

from Nepal and Bangladesh to India is almost entirely one-
Selling body parts 1
way traffic, with no instances of reverse trafficking to these
countries having been noticed. Total 2265
2.4.1 Commercial Sexual Exploitation

2.4 Purpose of trafficking
Whilst girls are trafficked for a variety of reasons, trafficking
Once trafficked girls are brought to their destinations, they may for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation is the
be ‘sold’ or ‘transferred’ to other traffickers, brothels, independent most commonly recorded reason in India. The different forms
clients, companies etc. The girls are frequently subjected of commercial sexual exploitation are prostitution, pornography,
to and face continual threats of physical abuse, including cybersex and sex tourism.
torture, and they may be murdered if they do not cooperate
with their traffickers43. The relationship between the processes of sexual
exploitation and trafficking is often a matter of confusion
Once the girls are sold they are kept in debt bondage because and contention. In India, prostitution itself (the exchange of
money is withheld by their traffickers as payback for the purchase sexual services for money) is legal for adults over the age of 18
price. The girls have little money for sustenance and most years. However, related activities, which are linked to trafficking
survivors of trafficking report living off the tips they received for activities, such as soliciting sex in a public place, kerb crawling,
sexual services. This leads to total dependence on traffickers for keeping a brothel, pimping and pandering are illegal.
money, food, clothes and other necessities. Even after they are
rescued, trafficked women fear reprisals by traffickers to According to the International Development Law
whom they are indebted. Organisation (IDLO) there is inadequate understanding of
the manifestations and complexities of commercial sexual
Although there is a dearth of comprehensive and precise data on exploitation of children. For example, responses and policies
the subject, information gathered from the records of the National developed against commercial sexual exploitation target girl
Crime Records Bureau (NRCB) in one year give an indication of children and women together. However, children particularly, girls
the age group and purposes for which girls are being trafficked require specific protection through measures that are addressed
(see Table 3: Cases of kidnapping and abduction of children in the International Convention on the Rights of a Child (CRC)45.
that qualify as forms of trafficking44).

Just as accurate trafficking statistics are difficult to obtain,

there are also discrepancies between prostitution statistics.
Case study
In India, the most quoted figures to depict the magnitude of Young girls trafficked for the ‘flesh trade’
prostitution are from the Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB)
survey of six metropolitan cities conducted in 199046. According Local NGO, Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA) reported
to the study, the total combined population of prostitutes in that on 8 March 2011, seven girls were rescued from
all of the six cities is between 70,000 and 100,00047. Another being trafficked for the purpose of commercial sexual
independent report estimates the number of prostitutes to be exploitation, also known as the ‘flesh trade’. The girls
900,00048. However, according to the 1992 estimates of the Indian were rescued by local police in the Mandsaur district of
Association for the Rescue of Fallen Women, there are 8 million Madhya Pradesh following a complaint filed by BBA.
brothel workers in India and another 7.5 million call girls.
According to BBA, the girls were aged between six months
The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) recorded that in to nine years old and they were all kidnapped from Indore,
2008, 3,133 human trafficking cases were registered compared Aukareshwar and Khargon. They were sold for between
to 4067 in 2007 (latest available data). A Centre for Development Rs20, 000 (US$443) to Rs60, 000 (US$1,329) to traffickers
and Population Activities (CEDPA) report states that in 1997, for the purpose of flesh trade. The children have been sent
approximately 200 girls and women in India entered prostitution to “Apna Ghar” shelter home under the direction of the Child
on a daily basis49 and 80 % were coerced into it (SOS 2001)50. Welfare Committee (CWC). However, the authorities believe
that there are approximately 15 – 20 other children in this
According to Indian NGO Shakti Vahini’s Trafficking in India group who were trafficked into the “flesh trade”.
Report 2004 children, especially girls, are at greater risk of
being trafficked for the purpose of prostitution than adults. During the rescue operation, 14 traffickers were arrested and
Children are preferred as they are more likely to go along with cases have filed against them under sections 365, 366, 372,
practices which older prostitutes may refuse. 34,120 B of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and under section 5
of the Immoral Trafficking Prevention Act, 1956.
There are also myths about child prostitutes that contribute
to their demand. For instance, it is believed that sexually According to BBA, this crackdown ‘proves’ that young children,
transmitted diseases, including HIV infection, can be cured and as small as 6 months old, are trafficked for the purpose of
virility can be increased by having sex with younger girls. commercial sexual exploitation in India. The NGO claims that it
regularly files complaints with the police on the issue of missing
Younger girls are preferable to pimps and brothel children trafficked for the purpose of flesh trade.
owners because they can put in more years of work as
prostitutes; with high economic gains to be generated from Notably, BBA indicates that it analyses trafficking data to
their exploitation51. ascertain the scale and scope of trafficking activities in
India. Their data indicates that child trafficking for the purpose
A 2001 NHRC survey showed that 50.7% of the police officials of commercial sexual exploitation is prevalent in Mandsaur.
were of the opinion that the highest demand for clients is for
‘young and good-looking girls’. Among them, the highest Sex Tourism
preference is for virgin girls. According to some of the
interviewed police officials in the survey, many of the clients are The growth of the tourism industry has contributed to the
also particular about body shape and demand girls/women with increase in the sexual exploitation of girls, which often
good figures. assumes intolerable forms. Sex tourism, or tourism for purposes
of sex, has found its way into the mainstream tourism market52.
The benefit of anonymity of a customer offered by a host

country reduces inhibitions and contributes to the growth of
India’s sex industry in tourist hotspots such as Goa.

South Asian countries are preferred because of the weak 2.4.2 Forced Labour
enforcement of prostitution laws. Sex tourism involves travel
agencies, tour operators, hotels and others in the tourism industry; According to the Department of Women and Child
some companies even openly ‘advertise availability of child Development, trafficking for the purpose of forced labour
prostitutes’. The commercial sexual exploitation of children ‘differs is the most under-reported crime in India. If data were to be
based on the type of tourism that exists53’. systematically collected in this regard, children trafficked for
forced labour would far outnumber those trafficked for commercial
Sex tourism is reportedly prevalent in the states of sexual exploitation.
Rajasthan, Goa (a major destination) and Kerala, while
Mumbai is believed to be the ‘biggest centre for paedophiliac Maplecroft’s Forced and Involuntary Labour Index (see table
commerce in India54. below and Map 5) identifies India as one of the worst countries in
the world when it comes to forced labour. The index assesses the
A 2003 ECPAT study on tourism-related commercial sexual risk of complicity in the use of forced labour due to its prevalence
exploitation of children on the eastern coast of India found that out and type, and its perpetrators. Government efforts to combat it
of a sample of 150 children, 60% had come to the tourist area on are also taken into account. India is ranked joint first out of 196
the promise of a better job. It also found that 40% of the children countries (where 1 is the lowest ranking country) and categorised
interviewed mentioned ‘force’ as the means used to acquire their as ‘extreme risk’. India’s ranking is similar to other countries in the
services. For example, moneylenders often force parents to sell region including Pakistan, China and Myanmar. Comparatively,
their children to repay debts55. however, the risk of forced and involuntary labour is slightly lower,
though still “high” in neighbouring Bangladesh and Nepal.
ECPAT’s study also states that ‘hotels have contacts with adult
sex workers, pimps and other middlemen rickshaw pullers, van Trafficking for forced labour or economic exploitation takes
pullers, petty traders. These people make contact with street various forms. Girls from Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
children and bring them to tourist lodges and hotels as per the Jharkhand, Bihar and West Bengal are regularly being trafficked
demand placed by customers’56. into cities through middlemen who are part of placement agencies
that put these girls to work as domestic servants.
Case study Child labour, and particularly bonded child labour, is a

widespread problem in India. Bonded labour is a form of
Sex tourism and the child exploitation, where the child is sold to a money lender like
Commonwealth Games a commodity for a certain period of time. The Bonded Labour
System (Abolition) Act 1976 outlaws this practice and stipulates
During the lead up to the Commonwealth Games that that all those who are paid less than the stipulated minimum
were held in Delhi in October 2010, the media and NGO wages fall within the category of bonded labourers.
reported an increase in child trafficking linked to the
impending event. According to the Indian Child Welfare However, due to social acceptance, ineffective state and
Committee (CWC) girl children were targeted for trafficking federal government enforcement of existing laws and
to the brothels in Delhi’s red light district, the Garstin Bastion poverty, the bonded labour system prevails throughout
Road (GB Road). The CWC noted that traffickers were the country.
increasing their activities in order to meet the expected
sex tourism demand during the Games. Bonded child labourers in India are often trafficked. Parents
pledge them like chattels to pay off their debts. The initial loan
Police Officer Surinder Jeet Kaur, from a local Delhi police for bondage can be quite small. However, the borrowing family
station, said that there was a “spurt in [trafficking] cases” is often illiterate and therefore unable to understand the interest
in the month prior to the Games. He noted that the victims calculations of the loan-givers. Written agreements are viewed as
were often falsely promised work in Delhi during the Games unnecessary and interest rates can be exorbitantly high.
by labour placement agencies in rural villages in Orissa and
West Bengal. However, these victims were then sold to pimps Distinguishing between bonded labourers and ordinary child
and trafficked into commercial sexual exploitation. labourers, however, is difficult. Estimates of the number of
child labourers vary. UNICEF reports that 12% (around 27 m) of
5-14 year olds work, while the government’s 2004 national survey
estimated the number of working children in the age group of 5-14
at 16.4m. This marks a significant rise from 11.28m in 1991.

Forced or Involuntary Labour

The Forced or Involuntary Labour Index measures the risk of
complicity in the use of forced labour due to its prevalence and type,
and its perpetrators. Government efforts to combat it are also taken
into account.
2011 2010 Regional average

0.00 (extreme) 0.00 (extreme) 2.96
0 = highest risk, 10 = lowest risk
India – Rank 1 (of 196 countries, where 1 is worst)

Risk comparisons – Relative position of India compared with selected countries
Selected neighbouring
Rank countries TIP Tier 2WL selected countries Selected emerging economies
1 Myanmar 1 Myanmar 20 Malaysia 80 Laos 1 China 31 Russia
1 China 8 Pakistan 44 Kazakhstan 85 Azerbaijan 8 Pakistan 33 Nigeria
1 India 41 Bangladesh 50 Afghanistan 108 Moldova 15 Indonesia 52 Viet Nam
6 Eritrea 44 Nepal 58 Philippines 147 Maldives 16 Mexico 58 Philippines
7 Chad 54 Sri Lanka 66 Iraq 175 Singapore 28 Brazil 105 Turkey
Red indicates higher risk, green indicates lower risk
Nevertheless, some NGOs estimate that the number of child

labourers is closer to 60m while Human Rights Watch comes to
Case study
a figure closer to 115m (an assumption based on the fact that Child trafficking for forced labour
around 100m 5-14 year olds were not attending school in 2000).
On 10 May 2011, local NGO Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA)
According to the Indian government, the largest number of reported that 20 child labourers were rescued from a sari
working children can be found in the state of Uttar Pradesh, making unit and roadside restaurant (dhaba) in the Garhi
followed by Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Bihar. The Indian Gaon area in Delhi. The children were between the ages of
government also notes that the following industries are most at eight and 14 years old and had been trafficked from Bihar
risk of forced labour in India: and West Bengal. The child labourers were forced to work
under poor conditions for more than 10-12 hours a day for
■■ Transport no wages and minimal food. They were made to live and
■■ Tourism and catering sleep within the confines of a single room. The children were
also subject to routine physical abuse. During the rescue
■■ Garment operation six employers were arrested and eight sari factories
■■ Jewellery were closed for further inspection.
■■ Pyrotechnics Trafficking children for the purpose of forced labour is

■■ Agriculture and food prevalent in the sari industry in Delhi. BBA conducted
a survey in 2003 which revealed that there were 5000 to
7000 sari embroidery units operating in Delhi, and each unit
employed approximately between 25 to 30 children. BBA
claims that most of the children working in these embroidery
units were frequently trafficked and working in conditions of
servitude or bonded labour earning from between nothing to
300 rupees (approximately $6.58) per month.

Map
Map 5:
5: Forced
Forced and
and Involuntary LabourIndex
Involuntary Labour Index
GEORGIA UZBEKISTAN KYRGYZSTAN
TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN
CHINA
AFGHANISTAN
IRAN
PAKISTAN
KUWAIT
New Delhi NEPAL
BHUTAN
BANGLADESH
UAE
INDIA
Kolkata
HONG K
OMAN MYANMAR LAOS

Mumbai
YEMEN
THAILAND
Bangalore Chennai CAMBODIA
SOMALIA
SRI LANKA
Forced and Involuntary

Labour Index, 2011
Extreme
High
Medium
Low
!
\ National capital
!
MAURITIUS
Data source
Maplecroft, 2011
0 250 500 1,000

km
MADAGASCAR

BBA notes that embroidery work is carried out in the Indian Foreigners intending to marry young Indian girls engage
sari factories in Delhi for export for the international fashion middlemen to locate suitable brides. Hyderabad is identified
industry. Clothes and handicrafts made in India, for example, in NHRC’s report as a popular area for such activity. Agents of
are exported all over the world. For example, On 21 November the Arab nationals scout the city for pretty girls from vulnerable
2010, the Observer published an article claiming that British families. After the marriage takes place, the girl is made to
owned fashion company Monsoon’s own internal audits found leave her house without giving the parents time to check the
that the company employs child labourers and pays workers antecedents of the groom and the credibility of the agents.
below the minimum wage in their Indian factories. Monsoon
presents itself as a pioneer in ethical trading and claims that it According to the NHRC, sometimes a newly married girl will not
is ‘working hard stamp out such abuses’. accompany her husband to his country of origin. After some time, the
Arab national leaves the girl and she is left at the mercy of the brokers.
On 27 September 2010, local newspaper, India Today, The brokers frequently sell the girls to the brothels of Mumbai and Pune.
released a report of child labour and trafficking in Gujarat. As the parents of the victims are often unaware of the law and
The story reported that one mother from Barna village in their rights, they seldom come to the police to lodge complaints.
Udaipur sold her 14 year old daughter to the Met (a labour
agent from her community). The Met trafficked and sold her In a study conducted by the NGO Prajwala in Hyderabad, many
daughter to another man working in the BT cotton fields, such cases of trafficking of girls for fake marriages were observed.
which are owned by the US company, Monsanto. ‘The fee charged by Chinese agents for smuggling and trafficking persons
to premium destinations such as the USA, ranges from US$30,000-
Whilst employed in the cotton fields, the trafficked girl was 50,000, which may imply lifetime slavery or bondage for repayment’57.
subjected to physical and sexual abuse. In addition, she was
exposed to pesticides and eventually returned to the village
with no pay. Monsanto has publicly claimed that whilst it is
aware of the problem of child labour in the BT cotton fields,
Case study
it is addressing these issues through community targeted Widespread acceptance of trafficking
projects such as education.
“The Sumangali Scheme”58
Two prominent Rajasthan and Gujarat-based labour rights
NGOs, Dakshini Rajasthan Mazdoor Union (DRMU) and A US based NGO Verité released a report in June 2010 which
Prayas Centre for Labour Research and Action (PCLRA), documented the trafficking of adolescent girls into indentured
have claimed that BT cottonseed production in Gujarat is servitude in apparel manufacturing in Tirupur, Southern India under
now almost totally based on child labour. A DRMU project a system known locally as the “Sumangali Scheme.” Under this
officer, Sudhir Katiyar, claims that at least 216,600 children programme, girls aged from 14 to 17 years are recruited to work
under 18 years were employed in Gujarat’s cotton farms in away from their home for three years, in return for a lump-sum
2009, including 91,200 children below 14 years and 125,400 payment of around US$750 at the end of a three-year contract.
children in the 15 – 18 age group.
According to Verité, Sumangali girls commonly work from
12 to 24-hour shifts, are frequently exposed to hazardous
2.4.3 Trafficking for Marriage chemicals and other occupational hazards and kept largely
isolated from their families and the outside world. So called
Women and girls are also trafficked for the purpose of forced “brokers” recruit girls into the system using deception and
marriage. A 2001 NHRC report highlights that minor girls are obfuscation about job conditions, living conditions and salary.
sometimes sent to Arab countries after they are forcibly married to Verité notes that the system of brokerage is remarkably
Arab nationals. informal, with brokers oftentimes recruiting girls as a part-time
job while working full-time as factory workers themselves.
Brokers and agents are frequently involved in these
operations. They try to convince the parents to give up their Widespread acceptance reduces the Verité says that
daughters in marriage by luring them with handsome offers of Sumangali scheme is well-known in the Tirupur region and
money and hopes of bright lives for their children. the practice continues unabated. Poverty, indebtedness,
alcoholism, lack of employment opportunities for mature
adult workers, and cultural attitudes toward the girl child are
all factors that combine to create a situation in which such
extreme exploitation goes largely unchecked.

3 Addressing trafficking in India

There are many anti-trafficking NGOs operating throughout India These measures are being implemented within the framework
in an attempt to prevent trafficking. However, as the UNODC established in the international Trafficking Protocol, now known as
notes, a holistic approach is required to effectively prevent the “3P” approach, which focuses on; the prevention of the crime;
trafficking. This is due to the complexity of the trafficking process the prosecution of offenders; and the protection of victims61.
in which illegal and legal activities are often intricately linked as
explored in the previous chapter. In 2001, a NHRC survey asked survivors of trafficking in India
to suggest ways in which they could help society in eliminating
Despite the prevalence of stakeholders addressing trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation of women and
trafficking throughout India, there is still a need for a greater children. The suggestions provided included:
harmonization of national legislation, resource mobilization
and effective programme implementation. Multi-stakeholder ■■ empowering children
engagement with these issues is imperative to increase the
■■ generating awareness among victims
effectiveness of anti-trafficking strategies. As businesses are at
risk of trafficking at all stages of operation, supply and distribution ■■ assisting police and NGOs by providing them with information
it is in their interest to actively engage with stakeholders that are about traffickers and trafficked persons
currently addressing trafficking.
In order to outline the key issues of addressing girl trafficking in
India, these local suggestions should be considered in conjunction
This chapter identifies several anti-trafficking NGOs that
with the more general 3P approach.
are currently working throughout India and are actively
promoting corporate-NGO relationships as a fundamental
aspect of preventing trafficking. Such relationships facilitate
collaboration of expertise, resources and present alternative
3.1.1 Prevention
economic opportunities for survivors of trafficking. In order to prevent human trafficking raising awareness is
vital. In India, for example, victims of trafficking are often unaware
This chapter also explores how stakeholders have structured of anti-trafficking legislation and their rights. Raising awareness
anti-trafficking strategies, policies and programmes around involves informing local communities and girls in trafficking source
a “3P” approach; prevention, prosecution; protection. This areas about the illegality of trafficking and female rights. By
approach endeavours to capture some of the complexities of providing better information, which is easily understandable in the
trafficking processes. local language and context, girls become empowered.
Raising awareness of trafficking also undermines the deceptive

techniques, such as false employment promises, conducted by
3.1 Framework for anti- traffickers to lure their victims. Reducing the vulnerability of girls is
trafficking strategies a key component of preventing trafficking in India.
Prevention also includes improving and enforcing the

According to an UNGIFT report in 2008, since the adoption of the
laws on human trafficking and international cooperation in
international Trafficking Protocol in 2000 to Prevent, Suppress and
bringing perpetrators to justice. In order to ensure prevention,
Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children59,
action is required by all relevant stakeholders across various
the international community has witnessed an explosion
sectors of society, such as government officials, the media
of popular and political interest in combating trafficking in
and private companies. Such action includes implementing
human beings60.
trafficking awareness-raising campaigns and adhering to anti-
trafficking legislation.
This has been reflected in an influx of funds for anti-trafficking
programmes; widespread awareness-raising campaigns; the
Responsible businesses should ensure that codes of
enactment of anti-trafficking legislation around the world; law
practice are established within the workplace that prohibit all
enforcement-centred training and the rapid proliferation of victim
forms of trafficking, forced labour and exploitation.
support services.

An international NGO, End Human Trafficking Now, emphasises Businesses could implement anti-trafficking strategies such as
that it is “equally important” to address the factors that increase employee training programmes that demonstrate how traffickers
vulnerability of trafficking and exploitation. This includes and their victims can be identified in the workplace. In addition,
addressing socioeconomic conditions and cultural practices reporting mechanisms could be established to facilitate the
(gender discrimination, arranged marriages) in source countries, process of bringing traffickers and their accomplices to justice.
promoting safe and legal migration, and eliminating possibilities
of exploitation in destination countries (for more information see
section 2.2:The drivers of girl trafficking). 3.1.3 Protection
Once trafficked, victims are often stripped of all their
documentation, physically and mentally assaulted and threatened
3.1.2 Prosecution with bodily harm towards themselves and in some case also their
Due to the clandestine nature of human trafficking, a majority families. This makes them even more vulnerable and unable, or
of cases go unreported and the perpetrators remain free unwilling, to escape their traffickers.
to continue to commit such crimes. It is also very difficult to
prosecute the perpetrators because the victims themselves are In order to protect victims of trafficking adequately it is
afraid to testify against them for fear of violent reprisal against necessary to provide some form of measures of recovery
their family. If the victim and her family are residing in the country whether it is psychological or physical. Governments and
illegally, they are often afraid of punishment and deportation by NGOs need to work together to make sure that victims of
the authorities. trafficking are detected either during transit or at the destination
point and given all the support they need. This can be achieved
It is widely reported that many human traffickers are associated through rehabilitation centres, or phone hotlines available for
with international criminal organizations which make them highly victims to receive the information they need to move forward.
mobile and difficult to prosecute as they are well protected within
these organizations. It is also important that the victims are given opportunities
of integration such as regularisation of their status,
In India, law enforcement agencies are often complicit in employment, training, housing and medical care. Minimum
trafficking activities because the profits to be made in the standards of care for trafficking victims should be incorporated
export and import of human beings are so high (see sub- into national anti-trafficking efforts at every level of law
section ‘Sustaining demand’ in section 2.2.3: Demand for enforcement. Often the law enforcement agencies will classify
trafficked girls). Strong political will and accountability is needed victims of trafficking as criminals themselves, thereby breaking
in order to ensure that such corruption is not tolerated. immigration laws. The law enforcement officials are therefore
unwilling to assist victims of trafficking, and often end up sending
In order to combat human trafficking it is essential that the them back to where they came from, where they will be more
appropriate laws are in place to prosecute and punish the susceptible to being trafficked again (see section 2.2.4: Cyclical
traffickers, and compensate victims for damages. Nonetheless, trafficking patterns).
there needs to be greater international cooperation and involvement
of law enforcement agencies with specialized training.
Improved support mechanisms which include witness 3.2 Stakeholder groups working

protection services, and sufficient information on the
traffickers must be provided for rescued victims. Mapping
to combat trafficking
trafficking movements along transit routes and identifying the
The following NGOs are currently working on anti-trafficking policies
actors along the transit chain would speed up prosecution. It may
and programmes throughout India and promote NGO-Corporate
also encourage victims to testify against the traffickers.
sector partnerships as an effective anti-trafficking strategy:
Overall, law enforcement capacity must be strengthened62.
In order to combat complicity of law enforcement officials in
trafficking activities, the complicit officials must be punished
with imprisonment.

3.2.1 Apne Aap BBA also conducts multi-faceted interventions including secret

raids and rescue operations to liberate trafficked children and
Apne Aap is an Indian NGO that focuses specifically on women child labourers who are then rehabilitated. Between March 2009
and girls trafficked for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation and 2010, 768 child bonded labourers, many of whom had been
in India63. Apne Aap uses trafficked victims’ narratives to provide an trafficked, were released by rescue operations led by BBA in six
understanding of reasons for trafficking and experience of trafficked states - Delhi, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh
life; identification of cross border trafficking routes between India and and Haryana.
Nepal; and identification of domestic trafficking routes with India.
Apne Aap’s work is based around organising the victims and 3.2.3 Prajwala
survivors of sex trafficking into “self-help groups” (Mahila Mandals).
Prajwala is an NGO based in Hyderabad that rescues women
This self-help model organises women and girls in small community
from brothels and educates their children to prevent second-
based economic and social cooperatives to access legal protection,
generation prostitution65. Prajwala operates 17 schools throughout
livelihood options and educational learning. There are currently
Hyderabad for approximately 5,000 children and has rescued
2,185 self-help groups today. Through community centres and
more than 2,500 women from prostitution.
publications, Apne Aap’s impact is estimated to reach 10,000
women and girls in India’s red light districts. Map 3: Trafficking
At the NGO’s Asha Niketan centre, Prajwala helps young victims
sources and destination hotspots illustrates the location of
prepare for a self-sufficient future. The co-founder of Prajwala,
“destination hotspots” throughout India where red light districts,
Dr Sunitha Krishnan, has forged public-private relationships
such as those targeted by Apne Aap, are prevalent.
between government, private companies and NGOs. Within
the private sector, Amul India, Taj Group of Hotels and Heritage
Apne Aap advocates corporate-media-NGO partnerships as a
Hospitals have coordinated with NGOs to provide employment for
fundamental aspect of combating human trafficking. The NGO
rehabilitated women.
strives to coordinate resources and expertise in order to synergise
multi stakeholder efforts to prevent human trafficking. For example
in March 2004 Apne Aap set up a conference jointly with the
Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) and the US Consulate
Case study
entitled ‘Corporate Social Responsibility to Counter Human Trafficking survivors become trained
Trafficking’. The conference facilitated an interface between the
private sector, media and NGOs working on human trafficking. as masons
Support for the venue came from the Hyatt Regency Hotel, lunch
was sponsored by CII and the US Consulate sponsored the travel In 2007 Prajwala and the National Academy for Constructions
of NGO participants. Approximately 90 corporate representatives, (NAC) began a collaborative venture on masonry training for
60 NGOs and 30 media persons attended the workshop. victims of trafficking66. The District Administration and Indian
owned Lanco Constructions agreed to partner for the project.
The NAC led the task of technical training and negotiated with
3.2.2 Bachpan Bachao Andolan. Lanco for placement and post-training for the trafficked victims.
The District Youth Welfare supported the venture with training
Established in 1990, Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA) is an Indian costs including the cost of uniforms, helmet and implements.
NGO which focuses on the trafficking of children for the purpose Lanco provided placements for the trained masons. The NGO
of forced and bonded labour64. As part of its strategy to prevent Prajwala provided the space for training; the accommodation
trafficking, BBA raises awareness through campaigns targeting for the trainees; and the “crucial life skills training”.
sources where children are most vulnerable to trafficking.
Twenty-five girls participated in the three months training
Map 3: Trafficking sources and destination hotspots shows at NAC followed by nine months of job training at Lanco.
that there is a concentration of sources in the eastern region All the participants passed their certification test and were
of India. This is an area where BBA have launched their Mukti subsequently employed as masons at Lanco, earning
Caravan (“Liberation Caravan”), which is a mobile campaign led approximately 7500 rupees per day (US$167).
by a group of former child labours to prevent trafficking. The Mukti
Caravan visits villages and informs the locals of the dangers of
trafficking through performing skits and songs. In 2010, the Mukti
Caravan reached approximately 92,950 people in 287 villages
throughout 12 districts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

3.2.4 Sanlaap 3.2.5 Shakti Vahini

Sanlaap is an Indian NGO and an affiliate of the international Shakti Vahini is an Indian NGO which works specifically with
organisation, ECPAT67. Sanlaap primarily assists with the rescue addressing human rights issues, including trafficking69. The NGO
and rehabilitation of survivors of trafficking for the purpose of also assists with the rescue and rehabilitation of survivors of
commercial sexual exploitation. The NGO aims to look after human trafficking. As part of its strategy to prevent the trafficking
trafficked victims from the point of rescue until reintegration. of women and children Shakti Vahini assists victims with: filing for
law suits against traffickers; campaigns for the improvement in the
In 1998 Sanlaap launched a “District Based Prevention and treatment of trafficked victims and raises awareness to educate
Protection” programme to explore preventive and protective people about trafficking legislation in the region of Haryana.
measures against trafficking. This programme laid the foundations
for a new platform, Sanjojan, which links up all stakeholders, The Networks of citizens against trafficking (NCAT) is a Shakti
including survivors, Community Based Organizations, the police, Vahini initiative that aims at involving citizens in anti-trafficking
health services, and training institutes, to create a child-friendly, programmes by providing them with a platform to contribute their
rights-based network of support services for restored survivors of time and services. NCAT also provides legal aid, restoration and
trafficking. Sanjojan was launched in 2009. repatriation to trafficking victims.
.
Case study
Trafficking survivors hired by
Indian Bank
In 2004/5, Sanlaap initiated a partnership with the Indian
Bank and signed an agreement to maintain its ATMs as a
contractor68. Thirty-three trafficking survivors have been hired
as ATM maintenance staff, each employee is in charge of
two ATMs and they earn approximately 2,000 rupees per
month. Sanlaap notes that as the task takes approximately
four to five hours a day, the girls are free to pursue training
programmes to boost their skills base for the future.
This corporate partnership has led to the economic

rehabilitation of trafficking survivors and Sanlaap is currently
reaching out to other banks to secure similar contracts.
Notes

4 Opportunities for action

The challenge is that girls cannot be helped and trafficking The mapping system, as seen in Girls Discovered, could be
stopped without a significant knowledge of the process of expanded upon to explore girl trafficking activities sub-
trafficking and all its complexities. At the moment, tens of nationally in India. This involves including analysis at a sub-
thousands of girls in India live in environments that make them national level in India, drawing upon the current uses of SMS
vulnerable to being trafficked. As a consequence, both preventative technology for social change, which can be adapted to highlight
and corrective measures need to be taken to address the potential and mitigate the vulnerability of girls in particular source locations.
for exploitation and to assist the victims in their recovery process. The system can also be used to map the major transit routes used
by the traffickers and highlight the destination hotspots, identifying
The requirement exists for the provision of a web-mapping areas where there is increased likelihood of exploitation.
framework that utilises the best available data to visualise the
problem and show events interactively as they occur. Given the proliferation of mobile technology in India the use
of SMS systems can be an extremely powerful tool. Whilst the
This chapter explores how SMS technology could be used to mapping system as seen in Girls Discovered is a valuable tool,
develop a more complete and up to date picture of trafficking the complexities of girl trafficking require more real time data and
in India. targeted information in order to support relevant actors to combat
effectively the problem of trafficking.
4.1 Using SMS technology 4.1.1 Learning from current applications

for change of SMS technology
SMS systems are already utilised as data collection and
Mobile technology is being increasingly used for social
information dissemination tools by organisations throughout
change70. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
the world. There are several organisations that use SMS to target
notes that the use of SMS is rising globally. The total number
issues that are pertinent to the prevention of trafficking and should
of SMS sent globally tripled between 2007 and 2010, from an
be considered relation to the potential opportunity of designing
estimated 1.8 trillion to 6.1 trillion. This means that nearly 200,000
and developing on-the-ground SMS tool focused towards
text messages are sent every second.71
trafficking prevention in India.
In India, mobile technology and the use of SMS is rapidly
The following organisations provide an insight into the current
increasing. Between 2005 and 2009, the Indian mobile industry
applications of SMS technology as a tool for development.
has witnessed an addition of 130.69m subscribers recording a
growth of 50.06%. In April 2010 a UN report noted that “more
people in India... have access to a mobile telephone than to a
toilet”72. According to the report, in 2008, there were 545m mobile
4.1.2 Prevention
phones in India serving 45% of the population compared to 31% The following organisations utilise SMS technology that promote
of the population with access to improved sanitation. empowerment and reduce the vulnerability of their target population.
In 2006, India’s telecom market was the world’s fastest

growing after China73. Within India, according to the Telecom
Avaaj Otalo
Regulatory Authority of India’s (TRAI) Annual Report, the total Avaaj Otalo is a “voice-based community forum” that connects
subscriber database (both wireless and wireline) of the telecom farmers in Gujarat, India to relevant and timely agricultural
sector was 429.72m subscribers in 2008-09 (financial year). This information over the phone. It was established on the premise
indicates a substantial increase of telecom users from 300.49m in that small-scale farmers struggle to meet the challenges of global
2007-08 and 206.83 m in 2006-0774. competition, increasing costs of farm inputs, water shortages, and
new diseases and pests brought on by a changing climate.
There are opportunities for action in using SMS technology
as data collection tool to fill the trafficking data gaps and Farmers call up a phone number, and then navigate through audio
contribute to a live mapping system. Despite the prevalence of prompted menus to ask questions, listen to answers to similar
stakeholders operating throughout India that are actively engaging questions, and listen to archives of a popular radio program for
with anti-trafficking policies and programmes, there are still Gujarati farmers. The number farmers can call is toll-free.
significant data gaps.

Services it can provide: Services it can provide:
■■ Provide farmers with market information ■■ Assists governments in storing, searching, sharing and
analysing evidence in child exploitation cases across police
■■ Provide technical advice on improved farming techniques
agencies. It also assists with the protection of children from
■■ Extensive coverage of remote, rural areas exploitation online. This improves the potential for more
effective identification and prosecution of offenders.
MobileActive.org
Ushahidi
Katrin Verclas, co-founder of MobileActive.org claims that the
most successful commercial mobile projects are hybrids, where Ushahidi is a non-profit technological company that develops
commercial operators partner with NGOs and governments. free and open software for information collection, visualisation
and interactive mapping. It provides a platform – a combination
Services it can provide: of social activism, citizen journalism and geospatial information –
which can be used by anyone to collect and visualize information
■■ Improve the use of mobile phones to support content and in an archive of events (approximately 45,000 users during post-
services and support learning opportunities election tension in Kenya, 2008)76. Ushahidi also have Swift River
application platform which facilitates immediate crisis response,
■■ News alerts for rural villagers
such as Haiti.
■■ Citizen journalism
Services it can provide:
■■ Text messages to local radio
■■ Engage with grassroots activists ■■ A platform which combines social activism, citizen journalism
and geospatial information
■■ Connect with other mobile service providers which use mobile
technology for social change ■■ Used by anyone to collect and visualise information which
can then be used to detect traffickers on transit and at source
points
4.1.3 Prosecution
■■ Locates problems, maps predictions, illustrates patterns/
The following organisations demonstrate how SMS technology
routes, justice in documentation, on ground response
can be used to facilitate the prosecution of criminals. By engaging
with similar programmes, stakeholders including businesses, ■■ Uses real time data to inform online mapping systems
citizens, victims and NGOs can share real-time data and critical
information with law enforcement agencies in order to bolster
effective prosecution of traffickers and their accomplices.
4.1.4 Protection
Reducing vulnerability through empowerment is an important
strategy of protection for potential trafficking victims, actual
Microsoft - Child Exploitation Tracking victims and survivors. The following organisations indicate how
System (CETS) SMS technology can be used to facilitate information sharing
and learning.
Launched in 2005, Microsoft’s Child Exploitation Tracking System
(CETS), is a “unique software tool that helps governments store,
These applications of SMS are useful to empower people through
search, share and analyse evidence in child exploitation cases
gaining knowledge, creating support networks and sharing
across police agencies, helping protect children from exploitation
information which subsequently reduces their vulnerabilities.
online, and making possible more effective identification and
prosecution of offenders”75
As of December 2009, the Child Exploitation Tracking System

has been deployed in more than ten countries and is being used
by more than 1,000 investigators worldwide. Administered by the
loose partnership of Microsoft and law enforcement agencies,
CETS offers tools to gather and share evidence and information
so they can identify, prevent and punish those who commit crimes
against children.

FrontlineSMS Case study

FrontlineSMS used SMS technology and free software to provide M-pesa - SMS money transfer in Kenya
“instantaneous two-way communication on a large scale”77.
On 18 June 2010 there was an article in the Guardian praising
Services it can provide: MobileActive for its beneficial impact on social change in
the developing world. Vodafone’s M-pesa money transfer
■■ Turns a laptop and mobile phone modem into a two way group service in Kenya (launched in 2007) enables migrant workers
messaging hub to send cash home safely. So far, 11 million customers have
■■ Major advantage for grassroots NGOs to keep in touch with used M-pesa. Vodafone worked with local mobile operator
victims of trafficking and help them reintegrate Safaricom, Citibank and the Commercial Bank of Africa to
allow M-pesa users to send money safely and cheaply to their
■■ Send and receive messages via special on-screen consoles families without a time-consuming journey home. M-pesa also
■■ Provides incoming and outgoing message history for allows users to make cash withdrawals and loan repayments
each contact all using mobile phone technology.
■■ Engage with your contact groups – run surveys, competitions Case study: Jaalaka - SMS technology for healthcare
etc. via the SurveyManager promotion in India
■■ Run your own text-based information service via the
automated ReplyManager In July 2010 FrontlineSMS assisted the Karnataka Health
Promotion Trust (KHPT), and a team of students from the
■■ Export data to Excel and other programs University of Southern California, to build a network of people
living with HIV/AIDS in India. The project is called Jaalaka,
Survivors Connect meaning “network” in Sanskrit.
Survivors Connect is an NGO comprised of a global group
In India, Hubli-Dharwad, a suburban district in Karnataka, has
of technology experts, researchers, activists, survivors and
experienced a significant HIV/AIDS endemic, predominantly
organizations working to develop a holistic understanding and
amongst the rural female sex-worker population. Karnataka
response to modern-day slavery and human trafficking78. The
Health Promotion Trust (KHPT), a government organisation
NGO researches the latest tools in social networking, mobile/web
that administers public health program has spearheaded
technology and uses them to strengthen anti-trafficking efforts,
several programmes to combat the spread of HIV/AIDs.
networks, build community resilience against slavery and improve
responses to combating trafficking.
KHPT notes that a major problem with HIV/AIDS, especially
amongst female sex workers is the lack of knowledge about
Services it can provide:
the disease and their daily exposure to the risk of other
sexual transmitted infections (STIs). In order to tackle this
■■ Reporting instances of violence/locations of suspected
risk, KHPT formed a partnership with Bhoruka Charitable
trafficking activity
Trust (BCT) – aimed at promoting health and livelihoods
■■ Organize/publicize events and meetings via text amongst female sex workers.
■■ Viral campaigning – forward texts to a friend Since the Hubli-Dharwad region includes over 372 rural
■■ Mobilize awareness building villages, BCT employs both professional Outreach Workers
as well as volunteer Peer Educators (whom are also female
■■ Use as helpline so individuals can get support; also can act as sex workers) to travel to distant villages to educate female
a referral for other professionals sex workers about the risk of HIV/AIDS and to promote safer
■■ Auto responders set up to give out key information sex practices.
about trafficking
■■ Coordinate a referral system depending on a
victim/survivors needs.
■■ Immediate translation
■■ Geospatial mapping of texts

In 2009, a group of University of Southern California (USC) As the previous chapters have demonstrated, there is a lack
students, along with financial and logistical support from the of quantitative data on the overall complexities of trafficking81.
Deshpande Foundation, helped launch a pilot program with Trafficking figures differ according to sources. Trafficking activities
FrontlineSMS software to improve BCT’s data collection are often symptomatic of wider issues such as low levels of
and service delivery. Currently, BCT employs two uses education, poor healthcare, weak employment structures.
of the Frontline Forms program. Firstly, Peer Educators
make contact with rural female sex workers in the field Addressing these issues is important to the overall goal of
and complete a Referral Slips via Frontline Forms and the preventing trafficking as a holistic approach. This will also present
information is immediately sent to the BCT headquarters. wider opportunities to engage with SMS systems.
Secondly, the Outreach Workers in the field also complete SMS systems will provide:
Daily Reports through Frontline Forms and send it to the
headquarters. By using FrontlineSMS technology as opposed ■■ an awareness-raising tool for girls who are vulnerable to
to paper forms, BCT is able to expedite the exchange of trafficking
information with its staff members in various remote rural
areas throughout the district79. ■■ an effective data collection tool for girls at risk of trafficking
■■ a trafficking transit routes’ detection mechanism
■■ a network of communication between anti-trafficking
4.2 How SMS can be used to organisations, businesses, law enforcement officials, and
address trafficking victims including feedback mechanisms
Girls Discovered is an interactive web platform of national and 4.2.1 Identifying the source locations
sub-national maps and data on adolescent girls developed
Girl trafficking is a human rights violation in itself,
by Maplecroft, in partnership with Nike Foundation and UN
however, it is also an activity that is often symptomatic
Foundation (see section 1.3: Overcoming data gaps for more
of wider issues found at source locations including; poverty,
details). Part of the Girls Discovered Action Guide is to
weak infrastructure, low levels of education, poor healthcare
address the critical gaps in research that allows trafficking to
and a weak employment structure (lack of jobs, high rates
continue unabated80. Girls cannot be helped and trafficking
of unemployment).
stopped without this knowledge.
Figure 1: Role of SMS at source locations
Address root causes of girl

trafficking at source locations - data
collection of girls most at risk
Prevention Prosecution Protection
Improve awareness of girl trafficking

amongst friends, neighbours Provide information about healthcare,
education, employment opportunities
Citizen reporting of suspected traffickers
Assist livelihood opportuninties at source
Register children at birth
Improve money transfer from family
members working abroad Provide identification

In certain source locations, trigger events (such as widespread SMS systems offer an immediate on-site reporting
flooding, earthquake etc.) occur that destroy infrastructure, mechanism to detect incidences of trafficking, relaying the
weaken employment structures and create a situation of information back to law enforcement agencies, which could
heightened vulnerability for girls living in poverty in these areas. facilitate a prompt response.
Traffickers are often familiar to the victim. Indian NGO Shakti NGO, Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA), claims that India’s rail
Vahini released a report on Trafficking in India in 2004 which network facilitates the widespread transportation of trafficked
found that traffickers are frequently a family member, friend, children. BBA notes that several trains from Bihar stop at Saharsa
neighbour or known community labour agent82. According to the railway junction during their route to major cities, such as Delhi.
report, only 11% of trafficked victims are trafficked by strangers.
Major transport hubs such as train stations, petrol garages,
trucking stops, airports, border posts and bus stations are all
4.2.2 Transit routes potential opportunities for spotting trafficked victims. BBA notes,
however, that people are often unaware of how to identify
According to the United Office on Drugs and Crime
trafficked victims. If suspicious behaviour is noted citizens,
(UNODC), traffickers sometimes move their victims
officials and managers are unsure of who to contact84.
through highly organised, inconspicuous routes or via
various middlemen in an informal manner83. The choice of
transportation, route and destination is liable to change at any
point of a trafficked girl’s journey.
Figure 2: Role of SMS at transit routes
Flexible on-site reporting

mechanism to detect incidences
of trafficking
Immediate detection of suspicious

behaviour - know what to look for Make trafficked girls visible
Citizen reporting - raises awareness Targeted response
Utilise information to predict popular
Provide reference to Standard transit routes
Operating procedures
4.2.3 Destination hotspots SMS systems can also establish a real time alert system for
companies which will help with identifying incidences of
Bachpan Bachao Andolan notes that girls are often trafficked into
forced labour.
hidden locations including; Dhabas (local restaurants), brothels,
massage parlours, small commercial and private residences85.
There is a need to establish a citizen watch via SMS to make
these girls visible and collect more information about the types of
destination locations.

Figure 3: Role of SMS at destination hotspots
Feedback mechanisms to
improve data collection
Gather information from victims - deepen Inform victims of civil and political rights
understanding of trafficking to prevent
future activities Track conviction rates Delivery of social services - healthcare
Establish warning systems Survivors network
4.2.4 Benefits of SMS technology Distribution

In addition to the prevalence of mobile phones across India, ■■ Disseminate guidelines for identification of trafficking victims
SMS technology is simple and easy to use by all stakeholders. In including a clarification of the definition; sent back to sender
addition, SMS Systems provide two-way communication, whereby upon receipt of message
vital information pertaining to trafficking can be collected as well
■■ Address the gap between policy and practice. Need to raise
as distributed.
awareness to break down the widespread acceptance which is
partly grown out of a lack of understanding of the problem and
Collection the potential risks to businesses
■■ Wide outreach potential due to extensive use of mobile phones ■■ At regional/national level provide police training, guide to
spotting victims. Within companies/unions/labourers; access to
■■ There are discrepancies in statistics due to different
information about trafficking in relation to the law. How to seek
methodology and the inconspicuous nature of the trafficking
retribution if colleague/friend/family has been subjected
crime. Collaborating sources through SMS systems will
to trafficking.
deepen an understanding of trafficking. SMS systems will
lead to an interactive map which is mutually beneficial to all ■■ Provide clarification to citizens of what constitutes as
stakeholders. Real time data is up to date and easy to use ‘trafficking’ and when to be suspicious of certain activities.
Within local areas trafficking practices are often conflated with
■■ Once information sources are collaborated and centralised
child labour which is often overlooked or accepted. A clearer
in a database, issues around trafficking can be identified
definition will help but in addition, there is a need clear outline
and developed. For example, HIV/nutrition/education data
of the relevant legislation.
collection of victims from a variety of NGOs
■■ Generate community mobilisation, which can offer access to
■■ Cost effective data collection that can target particular hot
remedy for victims; send out locations of shelters, information
spots and monitor situations. All stakeholders utilising the SMS
about rights; and galvanise support against trafficking practices.
systems can unify their interests and focus their response and
resources according to prioritisation of needs
■■ The victim becomes the centre of anti-trafficking strategies
as information can be collected from the victims themselves;
potentially strengthens the legitimacy of sources and
contributes to their empowerment. Girls need to be counted as
this is the first step to increasing their visibility86

4.3 Mapping trafficking in India Additional overlays of known trafficking routes, previously

identified by NGOs, government agencies and institutions,
could be overlaid to facilitate the understanding of the
The objective to map human trafficking in India is
hotspot areas. The visualisation of these hotspots over a ‘slippy’
underpinned by a lack of easily accessible and up-to-date
web mapping interface would enable users to pan around and
data surrounding this topic. Accurate statistics to depict this at
zoom into areas of interest.
the localised level are either unavailable or very difficult to access,
which exacerbates the task of representing the problem via
The data received from the live SMS messages feeds into
maps. Also, as human trafficking is intrinsically fast-moving, any
a dedicated spatial database. As SMS updates are received,
approach to mapping this phenomenon must be as dynamic and
the hotspot creation process could be continually re-run at
as timely as possible.
agreed intervals to enable the hotspot areas themselves to grow
and change.
SMS could be used to provide up to date information on
trafficking and begin to fill this data gap. There are already
Users will gain an understanding of the precise locations of
a number of applications where SMS systems are assisting in
human trafficking incidents, the key trafficking routes across
addressing some of the issues of combating child trafficking which
India, and most importantly how both are changing over time.
have been explored in this chapter. There are also examples of
Users will also benefit from the development of an interactive map
SMS applications being used as a tool for data collection, which
alert system that highlights incidents of trafficking as and when
could be used to assist victims as they reintegrate back into
they happen.
society and seek alternative livelihoods. These applications show
how SMS can be used as an effective tool to raise awareness
Given that trafficking is human-related, effective sub-
in source locations and provide vulnerable communities with
national mapping must consider the distribution of the
information to prevent child trafficking of girls.
population within the country and where available, additional
contributory factors. An important caveat to note is that mapping
trafficking is reliant upon new data arriving to ‘feed’ the system
4.3.1 Global Information Systems and ultimately populate the map. Over time and as the size of the
(GIS) methodology database grows it is envisaged that any inferences made from the
hotspot maps will become increasingly more accurate.
The requirement exists for the provision of a web-mapping
framework that utilises the best available data to visualise
the problem. This will be addressed through the provision of an
interactive ‘snapshot’ hotspot map of reported incidents of human
trafficking at the sub-national level across India, distinguished by
source area, transit routes and destination hotspots.
Notes

5 Girl trafficking: a life story

Summary
IIn the following chapter a case study has been developed which identifies the following in relation to a real-life scenario:
• Key stages in a girl’s life at which she may become vulnerable to trafficking
• Profiles of the significant actors that may be involved in trafficking a girl
• Strategic junctures where SMS opportunities can be used as an anti-trafficking tool throughout a trafficked girl’s life journey
• How SMS opportunities can be used as an anti-trafficking tool
• Who is best placed to utilise SMS technology as an anti-trafficking tool
1 Source locations Figure 4: Sites of engagement between girl

and trafficker
Profile: Trafficker
Many traffickers are women, normally between the ages of
25 and 40 years Cinema
Many of the traffickers are either former prostitutes or are
themselves in forced prostitution, trying to escape abuse and Beauty
Shelters
bondage by providing a substitute contests
The trafficker returns to her village and visits places that she
knows are frequented by young, vulnerable girls (See Figure
1: Sites of engagement between girl and trafficker) Sites of
engagement
between girl
The trafficker uses linkages that she has with people in the and trafficker
Beauty Cafe’s
village to maintain a familiarity with vulnerable girls that she parlours restaurants
may traffic. As Table 1:Clientele involved in commercial
exploitation indicates, over half of traffickers are known to their
victims, whilst only 11.1% are strangers
Parents/friends/neighbours of trafficked girls have misguided Train station Bus stop
trust in traffickers
A trafficker’s life story often begins at the same point as a
trafficked victim
Table 5: Clientele involved in commercial sexual exploitation NHRC 2001 Survey. 929 respondents
Person responsible for trafficking Percent

Known person/other than relative 52.5
Family member/relative 34.8
Stranger 11.1
Police 0.1
No response 1.5

1 Source locations continued
Life stage 1
0 -5 years old SMS Opportunity
• In a poor rural village in the Kishanganj district of Bihar a girl is born. She is 1. Raise awareness amongst
the youngest of five children, with four older brothers mothers of child trafficking in
the region
• Like 60% of all trafficked girls, she is born into a poor, low caste family
2. Assist local NGOs in organising community
• Her family are smallholder rice farmers
meetings on preventing and detecting
• Her family earn less than approximately US$2 per day child trafficking
• She is not registered at birth. Only 60% of girls in India are registered at birth 3. Inform farmers of relevant and
• She is underweight and malnourished. In India 48% of children under 5 years timely agricultural information to improve
old are underweight their livelihoods
• Her mother feels burdened by a girl-child and favours her sons
Life stage 2
SMS Opportunity 5 – 10 years old
1. Teacher can inform anti- • At five years old the girl enrols in primary school. Primary school enrolment
trafficking agencies of girls at is high for girls in India. Approximately 96% of girls between the ages of 6
high risk of trafficking and 11 years are enrolled in primary school
2. Farm labourer can report underage girls • However, between the ages of 6 and 11 years she is frequently absent from
school, falling behind her peers
working in the field
• Before she is 12 years old she drops out of school. In India, 51% of girls do
3. Local NGO can use SMS to organise not attend secondary school
vulnerable families and implement rural
livelihoods project • She is required to fulfil her dual responsibility of working on the farm and
carrying out the household work
4. Neighbours can inform agencies if they
detect a child at risk of child trafficking or • Like 1 in 5 Indian girls between the ages of 5 and 14 years, the girl spends
child abuse between 11 and 20 hours labouring to support her family
• She is sexually abused by a family member/neighbour/friend. 60% of all
trafficked children claim they were first sexually abused by someone well
known to them
Life stage 3
Adolescent
• The girl’s village is badly affected by flooding
SMS Opportunity
• Her family lose their livelihood as their rice crops are destroyed in the flood
1. Neighbours can inform
• A friend/neighbour/family member (the trafficker) offers the girl’s father an agencies if they detect a child at
employment opportunity for the girl in a distant town risk of child trafficking or child abuse
• Over 50% of traffickers are known to the family, the father holds a false sense 2. SMS used to raise awareness of increased
of trust for the trafficker and agrees to his/her offer
risk of child trafficking after disaster
• Like the majority of trafficked girls, she believes the traffickers offer is a
legitimate offer of domestic work
3. Local NGO can use SMS to organise
vulnerable families affected by the disaster
• The mother is afraid for the girl but is aware that the family may not survive if
they do not take the economic opportunity

1 Source locations continued

Collection point
• The girl is taken by her father, early in the morning, to meet her trafficker at
SMS Opportunity the local bus stop
1. Train and bus inspectors can • There are other girls, of similar age, also waiting at the bus stop
inform agencies if they suspect • The father sells his daughter to the trafficker for US$20-US$300 and is told
child trafficking that the family will receive regular remittances once the girl is employed
2. SMS used to raise awareness of the • The father returns to his wife and sons. Despite reassurance from her
existence of child traffickers working in the village husband, the girl’s mother is worried about her daughter’s safety
3. Family members and children can inform • The girl is separated from her family and unlikely to ever see them again
agencies if they suspect child trafficking
• At the bus stop, the trafficker bribes the local official between US$20-80 to
turn a blind eye to the trafficking activities
2 Transit Routes
Transit process
• The girl is transported by truck, with other girls to Bihar’s capital, Patna. The
truck stops at a garage to refill SMS Opportunity
• At Patna, she spends the night in a hotel in a room with three other trafficked girls
1. Hotelier /petrol station attendants
• First thing in the morning she is then passed on to a new trafficker. This man / station master can inform agencies
is a stranger to the girl if they suspect child trafficking
• The new trafficker transports the girl by train from Patna to Delhi. This journey
2. SMS can be used to increase awareness of
will take between 12 – 23 hours
detecting child trafficking
• During the journey, they stop at various train stations to change trains
3. SMS can be used to inform focal points along
• At the train stations, officials are paid off. The officials take bribes between the transit route of a high risk of child trafficking
US$20-80 from the trafficker
• Like 80% of trafficked girls, she is subjected to frequent sexual abuse by her
trafficker and officials during the transit process
3 Destination hotspots
Profile: Madam/brothel owner/pimp
Table 6: The price of sex For the madam/pimps and brothel owners, the sex industry is a multi-million
dollar business, in which money, not health is the bottom line. The highest prices
are received for the youngest girls (Frontline World 2004-2007)
Requirements Price Through a process of “sorting and grading” trafficked girls, they set the prices of
Virginity US$100 sexual exploitation for the girls (see Table 2: The price of sex).
The price of sex is determined by how young, pretty and thin the girls are
Unprotected US$10-20
Protected (use condom, On average, the girl will generate US$45,000 to the madam in her lifetime
US$5-10
under age of 25 years) The madam/brothel owner/pimp regularly bribes law enforcement officials to
Protected (use condom avoid arrest
US$0.50 – US$2
over age of 25 years)
Often the madam is a girl who was herself trafficked and subjected to
Source: Rastegar, A (2010) ‘Child Trafficking and HIV in India’ sexual exploitation

3 Destination hotspots
Table 7: Clientele involved in commercial Profile: Customer
sexual exploitation The customer is predominantly working class. For example, truck driver,
labourers etc (see Table 3: Clientele involved in commercial sexual exploitation)
Type of Customer Percent The majority of customers want submissive girls who will tolerate a high level
Student 9.8 of exploitation and perversion
Businessmen/rich people 11.6 The highest demand is for young girls, aged 10-12 years old, particularly virgins
Customers want to remain anonymous
Police/army personnel 6.8
Working class Customers generally do not use condoms as they do not want to pay (see
21.8 Table 2: The price of sex)
(truck drivers, labourers)
Doctors, teachers, lawyers 2.3 They also have limited/inaccurate knowledge about the risks of HIV/AIDs and
other STDs
Tourists 10.5
Demands fluctuate with seasons, highest in holidays and at festival times
Politicians 1.3
Criminals 8.2
New visitors/strangers 16.9
Celebrities 1.3
Foreigners 3.0
No response 6.5
Source: NHRC 2001 Survey. 929 respondents
The break-in process

• She arrives at a small brothel in Delhi’s red light district, the Garstin
Bastion Road
• The girl is bought by the brothel owner, a madam, from her trafficker for
approximately US$1000 SMS Opportunity
• She is then put in a small room for the first three months whilst she is 1. Customers using prostitutes can
“broken in”. There is a small bed and defecation bucket in the room inform agencies if they suspect
• The madam informs her that she must remain in the brothel until she has child trafficking
paid off her US$1000 ‘debt’. She is also told that her family are counting on 2. Police authorities can obtain up to date
her to send money home information of child trafficking taking place and
• The madam gives the girl drugs and alcohol conduct more effective raids on brothels
• A man enters the room and forces her to have sexual intercourse with him. 3. Survivors of trafficking or prostitutes can
When she resists he beats her and rapes her inform agencies if they detect child trafficking
• The madam forces her to prostitute herself for 12 hours a day (approximately
5 to 15 men). The men do not use condoms placing her at extreme risk of
contracting STDs and HIV
• She will earn approximately US$100 per customer as she is sold (often
falsely) as a “virgin” by the madam

3 Destination hotspots continued

Life stage 4: Daily exploitation
• Once the girl is no longer regarded as a flight risk to the madam she moves
SMS Opportunity out of the private room into the main brothel
1. SMS can be used as a tool by • She shares a room with five other girls
survivors of trafficking to inform • The madam now charges between US$10-20 per customer for her
authorities when they know of
other children who are subjected to exploitation • She works long hours with the belief that she is paying off her debt
• She has lots of clients, including policemen, who are often bribed between
2. SMS can be used as tool to inform
US$10-80 by the brothel owners
children, who are victims of exploitation, of
alternative livelihoods • She is undernourished because she receives little food. The madam tells her
that the customers do not like “fat” girls
• She is given hormonal pills and encouraged to get pregnant so that she will
remain in the brothel
• Her life is often threatened by the madam and pimps
Cyclical trafficking
• At 16 years old the girl is pregnant
• She has the child in the brothel, there is no skilled attendant at
her birth
SMS Opportunity
• The child shares a room with the girl in the brothel. The girl
continues to be sexually exploited by customers in the same room 1. SMS used by local NGOs
as her child to organise training events and
rehabilitation of survivors in order that they do not
• The girl is disease-ridden and at 35 years old, she is ejected from go back into trafficking
the brothel as she is told by the madam that she is too old and too ill
2. SMS used by the girl, as a survivor, to assist
• She leaves the brothel with no money, no home and a small child other victims of trafficking
• Like most girls who were victims of trafficking, she believes
that she cannot return to her family. She will be discriminated
against and unable to re-enter her community because she was
sexually exploited
• In addition, she does not believe that she has any other livelihood
options so she will return to her home village as a trafficker

6 Next steps
This report has identified the potential for SMS technology to Establishing contact with the relevant stakeholder groups is
inform and update an anti-trafficking mapping platform. However, essential to ascertain their willingness to participate in this
in order to effectively implement such a project, the next steps project or to improve the effectiveness of the project outputs.
required to develop an anti-trafficking SMS platform must be
identified. This chapter outlines these next steps, including Relevant stakeholders can be split into the following
the importance of conducting field research and establishing categories:
partnerships with a range of stakeholders.
■■ Private sector companies. In order to effectively mitigate the
Additionally, other opportunities for action will also exist. Any further risks associated with trafficking outlined in Chapter 1, private
research should endeavour to continue filling the data gaps on companies will be given the opportunity for action to engage
trafficking and explore all opportunities for combating trafficking. with an anti-trafficking SMS platform.
■■ International organisations. Due to the international nature
of trafficking and in order to establish best practice contact
6.1 Developing an SMS will be maintained with international organisations and their
participation in the project will be sought.
mapping platform ■■ Local NGOs. There are a number of local NGOs which are
focused on child trafficking in India. These NGO’s cover the
An important next step of developing an SMS mapping
entire range of project activities from interventions dealing with
platform should be to conduct field research in India. This will
prevention in rural areas at the source locations; the detection
involve further interviews with on-the-ground stakeholders in order
and prosecution of traffickers along the transit routes; and the
to scope the logistics of implementing a pilot interactive SMS
protection of girls exploited by trafficking at the destination
mapping platform to track and prevent girl trafficking.
hotspots
Field research will enable the team to improve their ■■ Local government agencies. Engagement with local
understanding of trafficking in India by gaining first-hand government officials will be necessary, particularly law
insight into the viability of using SMS technology as an anti- enforcement agencies and relevant state departments, in order
trafficking solution. The key goal of such research is to assess to determine the potential for an anti-trafficking SMS platform
the level of interest in an anti-trafficking SMS mapping system to facilitate prosecution of traffickers and their accomplices and
amongst potential stakeholders and determining the feasibility of protection to victims.
implementing such a project in India.
■■ Local mobile phone operators. Initial discussions will need
to take place with organisations currently using SMS platforms
for social change in order to assess the viability of the project
6.1.1 Local profiling and establish practical considerations and partnerships for
In order to gain a broader understanding of how to successfully implementing this project effectively. With a more practical
implement an anti-trafficking SMS mapping platform there are methodology the team will be able to establish more focused
some points of consideration that must be addressed during field discussions with local mobile service providers
work. The information collected during the fieldwork will contribute
to a profile of an area in which to launch a pilot project.
6.1.2 Establishing partnerships
Developing an anti-trafficking SMS mapping platform
requires public-private partnerships that will enhance
sustainability and effectiveness of the project. Finding
appropriate stakeholders is essential to the effectiveness of an
anti-trafficking SMS platform in India.

6 Next steps
Table 8: Points of consideration for fieldwork in India
How large is the population?

What is the economy?
Who are the heads of the households?
Community profile
What is the position of women in society?
How much leisure time do children have?
Where is leisure time spent?
Who is the local service provider?
Technological What is the phone coverage in the area like?
infrastructure Does the technological infrastructure have the capacity to sustain an SMS platform?
What kind of campaign will successfully market the SMS platform (language etc.)?
How many phones per household?
Who owns the phone? (male/female, young/old)
Mobile profile
Do women have access to a phone?
Do people use SMS?
How do children get to the school (walk, bus)?
Do teachers have a phone?
Institutional profile;
Is the phone on them at all times?
school
Who is best placed in the school to observe attendance (assembly, first lesson)?
What class could be integrated with an anti-trafficking awareness session?
Transportation profile: Do children use transportation on their own?
taxis, buses, trains, Do all the drivers have access to a phone?
rickshaw Is there a central number that the drivers can call, then SMS from there?
What private sector companies are located in the area?
Private sector profile Which companies have links to the community?
Are there links between subcontractors along a larger supply chain?
Are there services in place to protect vulnerable girls?
How will vulnerable girls be protected if they report trafficking via SMS and/or if their situation is reported
Victim profile
by someone else?
What additional wrap-around services are crucial and which would be optional?
6.2 Identifying additional Further research must be conducted in order to identify

additional opportunities for action for stakeholders wanting
opportunities for action to engage with anti-trafficking policies and programmes.
Whilst an anti-trafficking SMS mapping platform is not the only
An anti-trafficking SMS mapping platform has the potential solution to preventing trafficking it provides a very real potential
to become an essential data collection tool. The platform for active engagement with an anti-trafficking project that is in
will provide real time data and maps on the movement of demand in an ‘extreme’ risk country such as India.
trafficked girls, which could be used as a vital tool to assist law
enforcement agencies in the prevention of trafficking and in turn
the timely prosecution of traffickers. In addition, this tool can be
used by stakeholders to raise awareness amongst vulnerable
groups about how to mitigate the threat of trafficking. Also it will
become a vital source of information for victims on support groups
that can offer an alternative route out of exploitation.

Appendix
Administrative regionsregions
Map 6: Administrative
Administrative regions
1. Lakshadweep 15. Mizoram 29. Delhi
2. Kerala 16. Madhya Pradesh 30. Haryana
3. Andaman and Nicobar 17. Jharkhand 31. Uttarakhand
4. Tamil Nadu 18. Tripura 32. Chandigarh
5. Puducherry 19. West Bengal 33. Punjab
6. Karnataka 20. Manipur 34. Himachal Pradesh
7. Goa 21. Meghalaya 35. Jammu and Kashmir
8. Andhra Pradesh 22. Bihar
AFGHANISTAN 35 9. Maharashtra 23. Nagaland
10. Dadra and Nagar Haveli 24. Assam
11. Orissa 25. Rajasthan
12. Daman and Diu 26. Uttar Pradesh
34 13. Chhattisgarh 27. Sikkim
14. Gujarat 28. Arunachal Pradesh
33
32 0 125 250 500
PAKISTAN 31 CHINA km
30
29 28
NEPAL
27 BHUTAN
25 26
24
23
22 21
20
17 BANGLADESH
19 18 15
14 16
13
MYANMAR
12 11
10
9
5
8
7
6
5 5
1 4 5
2 3
SRI LANKA

Appendix
Map
Map 7:
7: Infrastructure andeconomic
Infrastructure and economiczones
zones
Infrastructure
!
\ National capital Airport
o
\ Other major cities and towns |
n Major port
Administrative boundary Railway
Urban area Major road

AFGHANISTAN Srinagar
Data sources
o
VMAP0 (NIMA), 2000; RWDBII (CIA), 1995;

OpenStreetMap contributors, CC-BY-SA, 2011
Amritsar
o
0 250 500
km
PAKISTAN
!
14 CHINA
!
13
New Delhi NEPAL
o
BHUTAN
Agra
Jaipur Lucknow
!
12
o
Kanpur
o
o
Patna
o
Imphal
o
!
11 Ahmadabad Bhopal !9
o
|
n
o
Indore
o
Kolkata
|
n
! |
n
o
10
o
!7 Nagpur ! 8 MYANMAR
o
BANGLADESH
o
LAOS
Economic zones
o
Mumbai
|
n
!6 1. Cochin
Hyderabad |
n
!5 2. M/s. Nokia India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Madras
o
4. Mahindra City (Textiles)

4. Mahindra City (Auto ancillary)
|
n 4. Mahindra City (IT)
o
5. Visakhapatnam
!4 6. SEEPZ
7. Surat
o
Bangalore !32 Chennai 7. Surat Apparel Park

! n|
o
8. Falta
|
n 9. Manikanchan
9. Salt Lake Electronic City
o
10. Indore
!1n| 11. Kandla
12. Jodhpur
12. Jaipur
o
13. Noida
SRI LANKA
14. Moradabad

Appendix
Map
Map 8:
8: Labour Rights and
Labour Rights and Protection
ProtectionIndex
Index
Labour rights and protection

Localised risk due to reported human rights violations
AFGHANISTAN CHINA
Srinagar Increasing gravity
Reported human rights violations (2008 - 2011)

2008 2009 2010-2011
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
HARYANA
Increasing gravity Increasing gravity Increasing gravity
PAKISTAN UTTAR
PRADESH BHUTAN
New Delhi
NEPAL
BIHAR
Kanpur
RAJASTHAN
Imphal
JHARKHAND
Ahmadabad
MADHYA Kolkata
PRADESH
Nagpur BANGLADESH
WEST
GUJARAT
BENGAL
MYANMAR
Mumbai ORISSA
Hyderabad
MAHARASHTRA
ANDHRA
PRADESH THAILAN
KARNATAKA
Bangalore Chennai
TAMIL
NADU
\ National capital
\ Other major cities and towns New Delhi
SRI LANKA
0 125 250 500
km
Data source Maplecroft, 2011
MALAYSI

Endnotes
1 International Labour Organisation (2008) ‘ILO Action Against 26 CIA World Factbook. South Asia: India. https://www.cia.gov/library/
Trafficking in Human Beings 2008’ p1 publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html
2 ibid 27 Sanghera, Jyoti. 1999. Trafficking of Women and Children in South
Asia: A review of anti trafficking initiatives in Nepal, Bangladesh and
3 UNODC (2009) Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2009 http://www.
India. India: UNICEF Regional Office and Save the Children Alliance.
unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Global_Report_on_TIP.pdf
28 NHRC - UNIFEM - ISS Project - A report on Trafficking in Women
4 International Labour Organisation, ‘Forced Labour Statistics
and Children in India 2002 – 2003 Coordinator, Sankar Sen
Factsheet’
29 National Commission for Women. 1997. Study report on sexual abuse
5 EEOC (2010) “EEOC Files Its Largest Farm Worker Human
of children in Goa. New Delhi: National Commission for Women.
Trafficking Suit Against Global Horizons, Farms” http://www1.eeoc.
gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/4-20-11b.cfm 30 HRW. 1995. Rape for profit. Trafficking of Nepali girls and women to
India’s brothels. New York: Human Rights Watch.
6 see www.girlsdiscovered.org
31 Johnston, Hugh and Sona, Khan (ed). 1998. Trafficking in persons
7 International Labour Organisation (2008) ‘ILO Action Against
in South Asia—Final report of a workshop with participants from
Trafficking in Human Beings 2008’ p1
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Canada. New
8 http://www.endhumantraffickingnow.com Delhi: Shastri Indo- Canadian Institute.
9 http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/TheTenPrinciples/ 32 NHRC - UNIFEM - ISS Project - A report on Trafficking in Women
index.html and Children in India 2002 – 2003 Coordinator, Sankar Sen
10 http://human-rights.unglobalcompact.org/dilemmas/human-trafficking/ 33 US Department of State (June 2010) Trafficking in Persons Report:
India p172
11 http://www.business-humanrights.org/GettingStartedPortal/Intro
34 Richard, Amy O’Neill. 1999. ‘International trafficking in women: A
12 http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900sid/ASIN-7DBQ7F/$file/
contemporary manifestation of slavery and organised crime’.
ICHRP_Beyond%20Voluntarism.pdf?openelement
35 NHRC - UNIFEM - ISS Project - A report on Trafficking in Women
13 http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/4-20-11.cfm
14 The Code was initiated in April 1998 by ECPAT Sweden in
36 ibid
cooperation with Scandinavian tour operators and the World Trade
Organisation (WTO). Since 2000, funding has been contributed 37 Times of India, 24 June 2002
by European ECPAT partners, the European Commission and
38 Rozario S.R., et.al 1988. Trafficking in Women and Children in India.
the international tourism industry. Since 2004 The Code has been
New Delhi: Uppal Publishing House.
registered as a non-profit, in Sweden with an international Secretariat
based in New York at ECPAT-USA. For more information see www. 39 Mukherjee, K.K and Deepa, Das, 1996. Prostitution in Six
thecode.org Metropolitan Cities of India. New Delhi: Central Social Welfare Board.
15 UNICEF, State of the World’s Children Report 2011, UNICEF, New 40 NHRC - UNIFEM - ISS Project - A report on Trafficking in Women
York, February 2011 and Children in India 2002 – 2003 Coordinator, Sankar Sen
16 US Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report 2010: India 41 Socio-economic correlates of children and women trafficking: A study
of the six areas of Bangladesh. Dhaka: 1999. BNWLA.
17 UNICEF Child Trafficking Research Hub, 2007
42 Rozario S.R., et.al 1988. Trafficking in Women and Children in India.
18 Gupta, G. R. 2003. Review of Literature for ARTWAC: Delhi, New
New Delhi: Uppal Publishing House
Delhi: Institute of Social Sciences.
43 NCRB (2004)
19 Mukherjee, K.K and Deepa, Das, 1996. Prostitution in Six
Metropolitan Cities of India. New Delhi: Central Social Welfare Board. 44 International Development Law Organisation (IDLO) (2010)
Strengthening The Legal Protection Framework For Girls In India,
20 National Crime Record Bureau. Crimes in India, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001
Bangladesh, Kenya And Liberia – India Country Report’ p100
& 2002. Delhi: NCRB, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
45 Central Social Welfare Board. 1996. Prostitution in metropolitan cities
21 Gupta, G. R. 2003. Review of Literature for ARTWAC: Delhi, New
of India. New Delhi: CSWB.
Delhi: Institute of Social Sciences
46 Mukherjee, K.K and Deepa, Das, 1996. Prostitution in Six
22 Office of the Registrar General, India. Census of India 1991 and
Metropolitan Cities of India. New Delhi: Central Social Welfare Board
Census of India 2001, New Delhi
47 Gathia, Joseph. 1999. Child prostitution in India. New Delhi: Concept
23 HAQ: Centre for Child Rights. Status of Children in India Inc., 2005. pg. 169
Publishing Company.
24 Phinney, Alison. 2001. Trafficking of Women and Children for
48 Centre for Development and Population Activities. 1997. Girls’ rights:
Sexual Exploitation in the Americas. Washington D.C: Inter American
Society’s responsibly, taking action against sexual exploitation and
Commission of Women (Organisation of American States), Women,
trafficking.
Health and Development Programme.
49 Save Our Sisters (SOS) & VEDH Aug-Sept 2001. Needs
25 IMF.World Economic Outlook Database: April 2011. See http://www.
Assessments of Bar Girls in Navi Mumbai.
imf.org/external/ns/cs.aspx?id=28

Endnotes
50 Nirmala Niketan. 2003. Review of literature for ARTWAC: 67 ibid
Maharashtra’, College of Social Work, Mumbai: Maharashtra.
68 http://www.shaktivahini.org
51 Department of Women and Child Development (DWCD) 1997-98.
69 MobileActive.org
Report, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India.
70 ITU, www.itu.int
52 Nirmala Niketan. 2003. Review of literature for ARTWAC:
Maharashtra’, College of Social Work, Mumbai: Maharashtra. 71 UN News Centre (2010) ‘Mobile telephones more common than
toilets in India, UN report finds’ http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.
53 ibid
asp?NewsID=34369&Cr=mdg&Cr1
54 Equations. 2003. A situational analysis of child sex tourism in India
72 Lakshman N. “Going Mobile in Rural India” http://www.businessweek.
(Kerala and Goa). ECPAT.
com/globalbiz/content/jul2006/gb20060721_375326.htm 07/12/10
55 ibid
73 Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, “Annual Report 2008-09”,
56 NHRC - UNIFEM - ISS Project - A report on Trafficking in Women http://www.trai.gov.in/traiannualreport.asp , 07/12/10
74 http://www.microsoft.com/Government/ww/initiatives/Pages/
57 http://www.verite.org/helpwanted/sites/default/files/_pdfs/Help_ government-engagement-programs.aspx
Wanted_2010.pdf
75 http://www.ushahidi.com/
58 www.uncjin.org/Documents/Conventions/dcatoc/final_documents_2/
76 http://www.frontlinesms.com/
convention_%20traff_eng.pdf
77 http://www.survivorsconnect.org/about
59 UN.GIFT: An Introduction to Human Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact
and Action 78 http://www.frontlinesms.com/2010/07/02/jaalaka-connecting-the-
hivaids-community-through-technology/
60 www.endhumantraffickingnow.com
79 Girls Discovered, http://www.girlsdiscovered.org 07/12/10
61 International Development Law Organisation (IDLO) (2010)
Strengthening The Legal Protection Framework For Girls In India, 80 Terre Des Hommes, “Child Trafficking in India”
Bangladesh, Kenya And Liberia – India Country Report’ p88
81 Shakti Vahini, 2004, “Trafficking in India Report 2004”
62 www.apneaap.org
82 UNODC, “Standard Operating Procedure” http://www.unodc.org/pdf/
63 Bachpan Bachao Andolan (March 2010) “Annual Report: 09/10” india/SOP_Investigation_Forced_Labour.pdf , 2008
http://www.bba.org.in/images/Annual_Report_2009-10.pdf
83 Bachpan Bachao Andolan, “Campaigns”, 2010, http://www.bba.org.in/
64 http://www.prajwalaindia.com/home.html campaigns/index.php
65 UNODC and Government of India (2008) ‘Compendium of Best 84 ibid
Practices: On Anti-human Trafficking by Non-Governmental
85 www.girlsdiscovered.org
Organisations’ http://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/
India_Training_material/Compendium_of_Best_Practices_by_NGOs.pdf
66 http://www.sanlaapindia.org/
Notes

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TURKMENISTAN

New Delhi NEPAL

Executive summary..................................1 6 Next steps............................................42

Map 3: Trafficking sources and

Map 6: Administrative regions����������������������������������44

Authors: Alyson Warhurst; Cressie Strachan; Zahed Yousuf, Siobhan Tuohy-Smith

GIS: Chris Emberson; Nick Tait

Design: Martin Millard; Anna Fisher; Joe Baker

i © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 1

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

2 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 3

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

Legal risks Business, directly involved or indirectly complicit through

4 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

The EEOC claim that the Thai workers were subjected to

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 5

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

Human Rights and Business Dilemmas Forum

6 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

Map 1: Trafficking Index map

Twenty highest risk countries – Trafficking Index

Country Score Country Score Country Score Country Score

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 7

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

1.2.3 The benefits of business engaging Case study

8 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

1 Trafficking: a global phenomenon

2. To train the personnel in the country of origin and 1.3.1 Girls Discovered

The remaining chapters of this report specifically explore

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 9

2011 2010 Regional average

India – Rank 7 (of 196 countries, where 1 is worst)

10 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 102 prohibits all

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 11

12 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

Estimated population count in poverty *

Srinagar Low *Night-time Light Poverty Index adjusted using a

New Delhi NEPAL

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 13

2.2.3 Demand for trafficked girls

14 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 15

16 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

State Source districts State Demand areas

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 17

Density of trafficking incidents Trafficking route locations

0 200 400 800

18 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

Interstate trafficking routes by the number of people trafficked

High \ National capital

0 200 400 800

© Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032 19

According to the NHRC 2001 report, cross-border trafficking For sale 13

2.4.1 Commercial Sexual Exploitation

20 © Maplecroft 2011 | Country Report by Maplecroft http://www.maplecroft.com | MC032

Just as accurate trafficking statistics are difficult to obtain,

The benefit of anonymity of a customer offered by a host

Map 6: Administrative regions��44