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Intensification in Cocoa Cropping Systems: is Agroforestry a Solution for


Sustainability? The Case of Manso Amenfi, Western Region, Ghana

Conference Paper · October 2006

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15th International Cocoa Research Conference

INTENSIFICATION IN COCOA CROPPING SYSTEMS: IS AGROFORESTRY A


SOLUTION FOR SUSTAINABILITY?
THE CASE OF MANSO AMENFI, WESTERN REGION, GHANA

Ruf, F.1, Deheuvels, O.2, Ake Assi, L.3, Sarpong, D.4

1 : CIRAD / TERA, TA 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France


2 : UMR System, AgroM, Bât 27 – 2, Place Viala – 34060 Montpellier Cedex
3 : Université de Cocody – Abidjan – Côte d’Ivoire
4 : University of Ghana – Legon – Accra - Ghana

SUMMARY
Do agroforestry practices help to improve cocoa sustainability in the humid tropics? Although it sometimes tends to be
put under the form of an enthusiastic affirmation, is it not a question that still deserves detailed surveys? This question
was initially raised in Côte d’Ivoire by some members of the team who developed a methodology combining questionnaires
passed with farmers and direct field observations through density squares. This methodology has been applied to the
case of the Amenfi central district of the ghanaian western region, which can be considered as an ‘intermediate’ region
between the old cocoa farms in the East and the young ones in the South-West of the country.

In these intermediate zones of the country, agroforestry techniques applied during the 20th century and their mastering by
farmers were part of their low risk and low costs strategies. They helped to maintain some plant-diversity in the cocoa
farms but did not prevent farmers from massively adopting zero shade techniques and massive deforestation, especially
in the extreme western region.

As found in Côte d’Ivoire, the old shaded cocoa farms are considered by farmers as a thing of the past, very linked to the
old “amelonado” variety that was first introduced. New hybrids sown by farmers, and mostly provided by local research
institutions, have been produced under zero shade and high input conditions. The farmers using them tend to reduce
shade, even in their old cocoa plots.

This paper shows that in the 2000s, farmers need higher returns per hectare and more selective shade to increase the
potential of hybrids. This means a much more selective choice of trees than in the past, especially oriented towards trees
that have a high value. The idea of rebuilding the old agroforestry pattern is thus a myth. The future of cocoa agroforestry
will lie in a commercially-oriented one, hopefully shored up by some combination with its shade and cocoa protection
function. This certainly means a much lower density and number of trees species in the cocoa farm than in the past,
hence probably much less biodiversity.

This work contributes to identify some of the most promising trees. It also confirms the need to move forward in the
legislation field, as more and more farmers do exploit some timber on their own, always with high losses and often at
terribly low prices. An absolute prerequisite for any future agroforestry project will thus be opening institutional windows
to enable farmers making money with timber, legally and under better technical conditions.

Key Words : Côte d’Ivoire ; Ghana ; Cocoa ; Agroforestry ; Tree management ; Farming systems

INTENSIFICATION ET CACAO : L’AGROFORESTERIE EST-ELLE UNE


GARANTIE DE DURABILITÉ?
LE CAS DE MANSO AMENFI AU GHANA

RESUME

Les techniques agroforestières contribuent-elles à améliorer la durabilité de la cacaoculture dans les zones tropicales
humides? Bien que souvent énoncée sous la forme d’une affirmation enthousiaste, ne s’agit-il pas d’une question méritant
une recherche approfondie ? Le problème a d’abord été posé en Côte d’Ivoire par certains membres de l’équipe, lesquels
ont développé une méthodologie combinant des questionnaires passés avec les planteurs et des observations dans les
plantations de cacao, au moyen de carrés de densité. Cette méthode est appliquée ici au cas du district de Manso Amenfi

355
dans la “Western Region” du Ghana, intermédiaire entre les régions de vieilles cacaoyères de l’Est et les plus jeunes du
sud-ouest du pays.

Les techniques agroforestières appliquées au cours du 20e siècle et leur maîtrise par les planteurs s’intègrent dans des
stratégies de réduction des coûts et des risques, contribuant à maintenir une certaine biodiversité dans les anciennes
plantations de cacao mais n’empêchant pas les planteurs d’adopter massivement des techniques de zero-ombrage et de
déforestation massive pour établir les nouvelles cacaoyères, notamment à l’extrême sud-ouest du pays.

Comme en Côte d’Ivoire, les vieilles cacaoyères ombragées sont considérées par les planteurs comme une « chose du
passé », en grande partie liée à la variété “amelonado”, la première introduite dans la sous-région. Les Hybrides (ou
‘descendants d’hybrides’) sont conduits sans ombrage ou avec un ombrage provisoire, éliminé dés que les cacaoyers
sont matures et commencent à produire. Ce changement s’accompagne d’une augmentation des traitements insecticides
et plus récemment de l’adoption rapide des engrais. Par ailleurs, les planteurs utilisant ces hybrides tendent finalement à
réduire l’ombrage dans les anciennes plantations.

Au cours des années 2000, les planteurs veulent des revenus plus élevés par hectare, et au mieux, un ombrage très allégé
pour libérer le potentiel de rendement des hybrides. Cela signifie un choix des “arbres d’ombrage” beaucoup plus strict
et sélectif que par le passé, et très orienté vers des arbres à haute valeur ajoutée. L’idée de reconstruire l’agroforesterie du
passé, avec une forte biodiversité, relève donc d’un mythe. Il y a bien un futur prometteur pour l’agroforesterie cacaoyère
mais avec une orientation commerciale, éventuellement consolidée par quelques services écologiques rendus aux cacaoyers
par les arbres « d’ombrage ». Cela implique une réduction drastique de la biodiversité et de la densité des arbres autre
que les cacaoyers, comparativement au passé.

L’étude contribue aussi à identifier quelques uns des arbres les plus fréquemment associés et les plus prometteurs. Elle
confirme aussi le besoin d’avancer au plan de la législation. Même si les planteurs sont de plus en plus nombreux à
exploiter leurs arbres, placés dans un contexte informel et illégal, ils vendent le bois à des prix dérisoires. Un préalable
à tout projet agroforestier est l’ouverture d’une fenêtre institutionnelle pour permettre à l’agriculture familiale de tirer
des revenus du bois d’œuvre, dans des conditions techniques et légales acceptables

INTENSIFICAÇÃO NOS SISTEMAS DE CULTURA DO CACAU: É A AGROFLORESTA


UMA SOLUÇÃO PARA A SUSTENTABILIDADE?
O CASO DE MANSO AMENFI, REGIÃO OCIDENTAL, GANA

RESUMO

Será que as práticas agro-florestais ajudam a melhorar a sustentabilidade do cacau sob a humidade dos trópicos? Embora
algumas vezes tenda a ser colocado sob a forma de uma afirmação entusiástica, não é uma questão que ainda merece
levantamentos detalhados? A questão foi inicialmente levantada na Costa do Marfim por alguns membros da equipa que
desenvolveu uma metodologia que combinava questionários aos rendeiros e as observações em campo através de quadrados
de densidade. Esta metodologia é aplicada ao caso do distrito Central de Amenfi na Região Ocidental do Gana, que pode
ser considerada como região «intermédia» entre as quintas antigas de cacau no Este e as jovens no Sudoeste do país.

As técnicas agro-florestais aplicadas durante o século XX e o seu domínio pelos rendeiros fizeram parte das suas estratégias
de baixos custos e riscos. Elas ajudaram a manter uma certa diversidade de plantas nas quintas de cacau há muito
estabelecidas mas não evitou que os rendeiros adoptassem em massa as técnicas de sombra zero e desflorestação maciça,
especialmente na região extrema Ocidental.

Como se descobriu na Costa do Marfim, as antigas quintas sombrias de cacau são consideradas pelos rendeiros como
uma «coisa do passado», muito ligadas à variedade de «amelonado» que foi inicialmente introduzida. Os híbridos (ou
«descendente de híbridos») são geridos sem sombra alguma ou sob sombra provisional durante o estágio de imaturidade,
rapidamente removidos quando o cacaual começa a produzir. Esta mudança é acompanhada por um aumento relativo de
pesticidas e mais recentemente pela adopção de fertilizante. Além disso, os rendeiros que utilizam estes híbridos tendem
a reduzir a sombra mesmos nos seus talhões velhos de cacau.

Durante os anos de 2000, os rendeiros desejam maiores rendimentos por hectare e portanto muito menos sombra para
libertar o potencial dos híbridos. Isto vai significar uma escolha muito mais selectiva de espécies do que no passado,
especialmente orientadas para árvores que produzam madeira de alto valor. A ideia de reconstruir o velho padrão agro-
florestal é portanto um mito. O futuro da agro-floresta de cacau será uma orientada para a comercialização, espera-se que
amparada por alguns serviços ecológicos fornecidos ao cacau por «árvores de sombra». Isto significa, certamente, uma
muito mais baixa densidade e menor número de espécies de árvores nas quintas de cacau do que no passado, e consequente
e provavelmente muito menos biodiversidade.

356
Este trabalho contribui para identificar algumas das árvores mais frequentemente associadas e mais promissoras. Também
confirma a necessidade para se avançar rapidamente no campo da legislação. Embora cada vez mais rendeiros explorem
alguma madeira nas suas próprias quintas, fazem-no dentro de uma moldura ilegal e informal, sofrendo, assim, perdas
altas e preços terrivelmente baixos. Um prerequisito para qualquer projecto agro-florestal futuro será abrir janelas
institucionais para permitir aos rendeiros fazerem dinheiro com a madeira, legalmente e sob condições técnicas melhores.

INTENSIFICACIÓN EN LOS SISTEMAS DE CULTIVO DE CACAO: ¿EL SISTEMA


AGROFORESTAL ES UNA SOLUCIÓN SUSTENTABLE?
EL CASO DE MANSO AMENFI, REGIÓN OCCIDENTAL, GHANA

RESUMEN

¿Las prácticas agroforestales ayudan a mejorar la sustentabilidad del cacao en los trópicos húmedos? A pesar de que a
veces se tienda a plantear esto como una afirmación entusiasta, ¿acaso no se trata de una pregunta que todavía merezca
investigaciones detalladas? La pregunta fue planteada inicialmente en Costa de Marfil por algunos miembros del equipo
que desarrollaron una metodología que combina cuestionarios para agricultores con observaciones de campo directas a
través de cuadrados de densidad. Esta metodología es aplicada al caso del distrito central de Amenfi, en la región oeste
de Gana, que se puede considerar una región “intermedia” entre las antiguas fincas de cacao del este y las más nuevas en
la parte sudoeste del país.

Las técnicas agroforestales aplicadas durante el siglo XX y su dominio por parte de los agricultores fue parte de su
estrategia de bajo riesgo y bajos costos. Estas técnicas ayudaron a mantener cierta diversidad de plantas en las fincas de
cacao establecidas hace largo tiempo pero no ha evitado que los agricultores adopten técnicas de sombra cero y de
deforestación masiva, especialmente en la región del extremo occidental.

Como se estableció en Costa de Marfil, las antiguas fincas de cacao con sombra son consideradas por los agricultores
como “algo del pasado”, muy vinculadas a la variedad amelonado, que fue la primera en ser introducida. Los híbridos (o
“descendientes de híbridos”) son manejados sin ninguna sombra o bajo sombra provisoria en una etapa inmadura,
rápidamente retirada cuando la plantación de cacao comienza a producir. Este cambio fue acompañado por un relativo
aumento del uso de pesticidas y, más recientemente, por la adopción de fertilizantes. Además, los agricultores que usan
estos híbridos tienden a reducir la sombra aún en los lotes de cacao más antiguos.

En 2000, los agricultores querían retornos más altos por hectárea y, por eso, menos sombra, para liberar el potencial de
los híbridos. Esto significa una elección de especies mucho más selectiva que en el pasado, especialmente orientada
hacia árboles que producen maderas de alto valor. La idea de reconstruir el antiguo modelo agroforestal es, por lo tanto,
un mito. El futuro del cacao agroforestal estará sujeto a un sistema orientado comercialmente, esperanzadamente apoyado
en algunos servicios ecológicos provistos al cacao por “árboles de sombra”. Esto seguramente significa una densidad
mucho menor y un número menor de especies de árboles en las fincas de cacao que en el pasado y, por lo tanto,
probablemente mucha menos diversidad.

Este trabajo contribuye a identificar algunos de los árboles más frecuentemente asociados y más prometedores. También
confirma la necesidad de avanzar en el campo de la legislación. A pesar de que más granjeros explotan algo de madera
por su cuenta, lo hacen en un marco ilegal e informal, soportando pérdidas significativas y precios terriblemente bajos.
Un prerrequisito para cualquier futuro proyecto agroforestal será, por lo tanto, la apertura de una ventana institucional
para que los agricultores puedan ganar dinero con la madera, legalmente y bajo mejores condiciones técnicas.

INTRODUCTION At the same time, it is a crop on which many


conservationists and natural resources managers base their
As other tree crops, possibly more than others, cocoa has hope for an agriculture that not only provides a living for
been an important agent of deforestation for centuries and tropical farmers but also helps to conserve a degree of
especially during the twentieth century. As other cropping biodiversity in tropical forest landscapes. It is hoped and
systems based on so-called ‘perennials’, cocoa farming argued that shade trees intercropped with cocoa slowdown
looks poorly sustainable. Over the last four centuries, the shifting pattern of cocoa farming. A short trip in the
cocoa production has been moving from one country to cocoa farms throughout Ghana displays a clear opposition
another, from one region to another, in a universal model between the ancient cocoa growing regions (Eastern/
of ‘boom-to bust’ cycles and ‘tree crop shifting Central Regions) where huge shade trees above the cocoa
cultivation” (Ruf 1987, 2004). groves is still part of the landscape and the Western region

357
where spectacular cocoa fields under full sun frequently The questionnaire was rapidly tested in the Central Region
prevail in usually younger cocoa farms. before undertaking a more in-depth survey in Manso
Amenfi (Western Region). Cirad and the University of
If shade and agroforestry both seem to be linked with Ghana had previously accumulated data on farmers’
elderly cocoa farms while zero-shade strategies seem to strategies concerning intensification (adoption of
be linked with the young ones, what will agroforestry pesticides and fertilizers) and diversification (especially
become in the cocoa farms of the future? What are the oriented towards rubber) in this area. Thirty (30)
main factors behind this apparent relationship between household have been surveyed. They were chosen in each
the choice to cultivate cocoa under agroforestry-shade or place after designation by the local chief.
full sun and the age of the cocoa plot?
These surveys are an attempt to answer the following
In Ghana and in the neighbouring Côte d’Ivoire, an
questions:
increasing number of logs seem to be taken out, not from
the primary forests that have already almost disappeared 1. What is a cocoa farm in Ghana? What is the current
but from the old ageing cocoa farms (Ruf and Zadi 1998) structure of cocoa based orchards?
where loggers and farmers cut down the remaining trees. 2. Did a major cocoa producing country such as Ghana
Behind this other sign of rapid reduction of tree diversity escape the “cocoa shifting cultivation pattern” or not?
in cocoa farms, there is a need to identify the determinants
3. With regard to the sustainability issue, do agroforestry
of this agroforestry decline and a necessity to set up a
practices suppress or at least reduce the migratory
more sustainable agroforestry for these regions. In other
character of the cocoa farming? In other words, could
words, the cocoa agroforests formerly left after primary
agroforestry practices help to slowdown the decline
forest clearing would themselves be in danger and their
of cocoa production centres after 2 or 3 decades?
current destruction would increase the biodiversity loss.
4. With regard to the biodiversity issue, does
But which type of agroforestry could we offer in these agroforestry practiced by cocoa farmers really help
regions? Do farmers want shade for cocoa or for non- to maintain some of the natural biodiversity of the
cocoa revenues? What are the stakes in terms of policies Ghanaian tropical forest?
and projects to be implemented in the cocoa growing
5. Fundamentally, what is the current real trend in Ghana
regions?
cocoa farms regarding shade and agroforestry
Economists and Agronomists tend to believe that farmers strategies versus full sun cocoa cropping systems?
keep non-cocoa trees to get revenues rather than to For the last ten years or so, how has the forest tree
maintain biodiversity or even provide shade to cocoa (Ruf density and more generally the non-cocoa tree density
and Schroth, 2004). However, even if farmers get higher evolved in the cocoa farms?
revenues from the timber in the future, from a strict 6. What is the farmers’ perception of shade trees and
conservation perspective, agroforestry systems, even if their impact on cocoa sustainability, biodiversity and
they can be maintained and promoted, are a compromise on their revenues and patrimony?
rather than a solution (Terborgh and Van Schalk 1997
7. Finally, why it is worth working on cocoa landscapes
quoted by Niesten and al, 2004 : “Moreover, Agroforestry
in Ghana? Where? How? For which stakeholders?
systems may or may not be sustainable in the medium to
long term and therefore offer uncertain outcomes even
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
where adopted as conservation range”). These authors
logically raise the following issue “Achieving Biodiversity 1. The current structure of the cocoa-based orchard
conservation by using conservation concessions to in Manso Amenfi
complement agroforestry”. How could this be tested in
Cocoa plots in Manso Amenfi district are around 20-25
Ghana?
years old in average with a relatively poor yield of 280
METHODOLOGY kg/ha but seem to have moved forward to 380 kg/ha in
2003/04 for those who apply fertilizer. Like other regions
We have lead a survey based on two complementary of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, Manso Amenfi is probably
approaches: at the beginning of a strong revival owing to modern inputs
such as pesticides and more recently fertilizers. In the
1. The first one is a qualitative approach of farmers’
provisional sample studied, the average number of
perception of agroforestry. It has been evaluated
fertilizer bags per acre jumped from 1 bag in 2003 to 5
through a questionnaire passed with each farmer in
bags in 2004 for those who apply fertilizer. This jump
his own cocoa plot.
may however be exaggerated due to the small size of the
2. The second one is a quantitative approach through a sample. A study based on a larger sample (Ruf, 2004b)
system of density squares of 20 m x 20 m in which shows an evolution from 0 bags in 2002 to 1 bag in 2003
we counted all cocoa and non cocoa trees per class and finally 2 bags in 2004. Thus Western Ghana is
of age. Both questionnaire and form were tested first probably at the beginning of a green revolution.
in Côte d’Ivoire in 2003/04 (Deheuvels & al., 2003)
and then adapted to the Ghana situation in October
2004.

358
In mature and producing farms (aged 14 to 35 years), the trees per hectare in the sample. Although the authors had
average total density of cocoa trees is around 950 trees the feeling that the oil palm density was quite low in Ghana
per hectare, including an average of 60 trees per hectare cocoa farms, compared to Côte d’Ivoire, the average
that have been regenerated through coppicing. This 900 density is around 50 trees per hectare, 50% adults and
figure is under the usually recommended density, varying 50% young.
from 1111 to 1333 trees per hectare, but this is in line
with most cocoa farmers’ strategies. These farmers More importantly, the density of ‘forest trees’, that have
enormously increase the density at the planting stage. In been usually left to develop with the cocoa trees at the
young cocoa fields, the average density of cocoa trees clearing stage, is around 18-20 trees per hectare. Not all
reaches much more than 1500 trees per ha4. A high density but most of these trees are well above the cocoa canopy
enables farmers to reduce the negative impact of high and do provide shade.
mortality of the young plantings. Owing to a better cover
of the soil by the cocoa canopy, it also reduces the weed 2. The “cocoa shifting cultivation pattern” in Ghana
control during the first years. Then, year after year, farmers Fifty years ago, the ghanaian cocoa was produced in the
select trees and make the density lower down to 963 trees Eastern region. It then started to move west to the Ashanti
per hectare in average for plots aged 18 to 50. region (Hill, 1963). Today, the cocoa belt has even left
the Ashanti region and moved to the western part of the
The fruit trees intercropped with cocoa, in most cases western region, in Brong Ahafo (Fig. 1). Cocoa production
planted at the same time, are few. The recorded density of in Ghana did not escape the “shifting cultivation pattern”
orange, pears, mandarins and cola trees is around 8-10 described by Ruf (2001).

700000

600000

500000

400000
tonnes

300000

200000

100000

0
60/61

90/91
63/64

72/73

84/85

87/88

96/97
75/76

78/79

81/82

93/94

99/00
69/70
66/67

Ashanti Brong Ahafo Central Eastern Western Volta

Figure 1: Cocoa production (Metric Tons) in the different cocoa producing areas in Ghana, from 1960 to 2000.

3. Sustainability : does Agroforestry slowdown the Without shade, the tree receives a maximum stimulation
migratory pattern of cocoa? and the risk of shorter-lived trees is higher (Wood and
Shade provided by these agroforestry systems plays an Lass 1987, Wilson 1999). The unproductive phase is
important role in the cocoa production sustainability. It is shortened but the steady maximum yielding phase too.
the amount and the spreading of this shade that obviously This leading to a productive period possibly shorter than
needs to be improved. Many agronomical and 20 years, as long as fertilizers are not used (Ruf and Burger
physiological studies have shown that cocoa tree is a shade 2001). However, over a period of 30 to 40 years, the
tree whose photosynthesis saturation level is quite low. shifting cultivation pattern seems repeating itself with or

4
It is to be noted that young cocoa plots that receive fertilizers seem to be of a lower density, 1220 cocoa trees per hectare.

359
without agroforestry practices and thus with or without agroforests may be seen as a useful stock for successful
shade above the cocoa trees. For centuries and especially monoculture.
during the 20th, cocoa farmers and more generally tree-
crop farmers have been searching forests to be cleared. Agroforestry may play its role of improving sustainability
They repeated that process much more than regenerating of a tree crop system and thus hopefully reduce the
and replanting old cocoa farms. There were two main propensity to abandon a farm and to open forest
reasons for that: somewhere else. But this is only if this agroforestry is at
least partially a commercially-oriented system. The
1. forests were often freely available,
intercropped species should not only provide a better
2. forest clearing reduces costs of cocoa growing and
environment to the main tree crop, but also and most of
maximises its returns.
all sufficient additional revenues that reduce financial risks
On top of this, the cocoa agroforestry systems created on during crisis periods. On the contrary, agroforestry would
primary forests have never been a complete substitute to look very much like mono-cropping, leaving the producers
the slashed forests. Historically, clearing virgin forests quite vulnerable to prices’ collapses.
partially or totally built the main cocoa agroforestry
systems. For instance, neither the Bahia region in Brazil The frontier between agroforestry and full sun cropping
nor the Southern region of Yaoundé in Cameroon escaped systems functionalities is thus not that clear and visible.
a collapse of their old cocoa production centres. And it is not necessarily impossible to cross. As
agroforestry techniques will not prevent deforestation but
But they had and still have among the richest and most may help to maintain some kind of secondary forest-like
complex cocoa agroforests in the world. In the case of systems and although agroforestry interest cannot be
Ghana, Agroforestry systems are now found in all denied, it still looks historically as the intermediate step
production areas except the main one in the very western before complete deforestation. Then its real function could
part of the Western Region. Most of the current ghanaian be to rebuild a form of forest habitats when full sun mono-
cocoa production comes from this western region where cropping systems may also play a role in restoring tree
full sun mono-cropping systems prevail. covers.

Although agroforestry techniques help to prolong the life Nowadays, a looking-like green revolution has been
cycle of cocoa, they do not necessarily protect trees against brought in Ghana by the introduction of higher yielding
pest and diseases. They sometimes create attractive local hybrids together with a strong incentive to intensify the
climatic conditions, especially for fungal diseases such use of pesticides and fertilizers.
as Moniliophtora roreri or Phytophtora sp. They do not
stop the process of ‘forest rent’ wearing and tree fatigue The booming fertilizer adoption in Côte d’Ivoire since
leading to a shift of production and thus to further the late 1990s and finally now in Ghana since 2003 helps
deforestation to other regions. They do only delay this farmers to reconsider the sustainability of full sun mono-
universal and very predictable process. cropping more positively.

Although agroforestry practices do provide a higher Of course, fertilizers also will face a limiting factor and
biodiversity level than no shade systems, migrants cocoa farming sustainability cannot be built on the only
populations are attracted by quick revenues generated by base of modern inputs and chemicals. However,
the cocoa tree itself. They chose to adopt more intensive developers have to consider the trade-off between non-
and mono-cropping full sun systems rather than ‘respectful cocoa tree density in the cocoa farms and the use of
agroforestry systems’ and the crop is then a deforestation fertilizers, either chemicals or organic.
tool.
4. Does agroforestry help to maintain biodiversity?
Besides or after the forest rent, some agroforestry systems One of the main goals of this survey was to have a precise
may build an “agroforestry rent”. For instance, thousands idea of the trees’ biodiversity generated by agroforestry
of hectares of mature coconuts fields could provide space cocoa cropping systems lead under big remaining forest
and a relatively favourable environment to introduce trees. We found 81 local names for big shade trees found
intercropped cocoa. This can be done at a low cost, hence in cocoa farms, which gives a measurement of tree
an ‘agroforestry rent’. This rent is limited to the available diversity in shaded cocoa farms. The team is still actively
stock of mature coconuts and once it is used, farmers working on the identification of trees (Table 1). This table
would move to forests and their rent. will be compared to that established in Côte d’Ivoire and
correspondence with scientific names is currently being
A highly complex cocoa agroforest could also provide an done.
agroforestry rent in the case that a farmer decides to cut it
down. As it became a sort of rich secondary forest, it However, the current farmers’ economic stakes are having
provides similar advantages to the next crop cycle. a strong influence on the number of these trees that is
However, there is no guaranty that a new agroforestry rapidly decreasing.
system will replace the former one. On the opposite, ageing

360
Table 1: Local names (Twi) of trees recorded in the cocoa farms surveyed in Manso Amenfi region.

Local name Main features declared by farmers


ABAKO Timber (planks)
ABISSABUO Fruits appreciated by savanah people
ADEGELE
ADINAM Good shade
ADOMA
AFRAME
AFRAN, AFNAN Harmful to cocoa. Transmits Loranthus sp.
ALABAKATA
AMANDEDIA
AMENGO
AMRE, AMRI Timber
ANCHIN
ANKA
ASIA
ASSISSIAN Initial shade for cocoa
ATOA Too hard Shade
BISSE
BUTUBUTU
CEIBA, CEABA Good for cocoa
DAGOUMAN
DAHUMA Too strong shade, no aeration
DANGER Timber
DANWUMA Good timber but bad shade
DOJMA, DORMA
DWUMA Provides habitat to capsids
EDINAM
EGNINAN
EKOUYO
EKRO
EMERE, EMRA
EMANA
ESA
ESSIA
FEYUO
FORTOR
FRAMON
FRUMUNTUM
GNACHRE, GNANCHRE
HUNJABE (ewe name)
KAKAPEPE
KETERE
KLAKLA
KOKONISUO
KUMKRO
KROMA, KRAMA
NSOSO ADUA, NSUSUDUA Good shade but sometimes too heavy
NWANTAKRA
NYAMEDUA Excellent shade for cocoa; Used as medicine
NYANKYERE Too heavy shade

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Local name Main features declared by farmers
NYOMUTI (ewe name) Conserve the moisture. Good for cocoa
OBEDI ONUAN
OBONTROHOA
OCHROE
ODJUMA Bad for cocoa
ODOM
ODOUMOU
ODUM, ODOUM (MAHOGANY) Excellent timber
OFRAM Wood is too soft
OGNINAN
OKORO
ONINA, ONYINA (=CEIBA)
OPAM Initial shade for cacao
OPROKOUM
OSSOMAN
OTEE, OTIE, OTRE Good timber. Sometimes too much shade
PAMPA, PANPAI Too much shade for cocoa
PAPEA, PAPIA, PEPIA
PE Harmful according to extension services
PREKESSE Too much shade for cacao
SESEA
SISSE
SOCHRIN, SONCHI
SOFO Bad for cocoa
SONKWI Bad for cocoa
SOSOMASA
TANURO, TANDURO
TOSSUBOLU (ewe name) Bad shade, no interest
WAMAN, WAMA Too much shade and provide habitat to squirrels
WAWA Too much shade and provide habitat to squirrels
YAYA
YOUMAN

5. Current agroforestry regression and the green Year after year, farmers have been told that the upper
revolution amazons introduced in the 1960s and more actively in the
1970s and hybrids (that include upper-Amazon characters)
Most Ghanaian farmers keep reducing the number of forest can grow quite well without shade. Once the mature phase
trees in their cocoa farms. In a number of cases, is reached and the coca farm is well settled, shade trees
agroforestry systems are just disappearing. In Côte can be removed. In most cases, throughout the cocoa
d’Ivoire, the introduction of upper-amazon cocoa varieties farmers’ world, shade is now more considered as
was one of the main factors that accelerated deforestation provisional and (much) suited to the immature stage,
from the 1970s up to 2000. during three to ten years.

In Ghana, the process is similar. More than 90% of the 6. What is the farmers’ perception of shade trees and
interviewed farmers state that forest trees are progressively their impact on cocoa sustainability, biodiversity
cut down by themselves and their neighbours. There are and on their revenues and patrimony?
several arguments but the main one is very clear: Shade Regarding trees as shade for cocoa, farmers’ perceptions
was something of the past, related to the old planting are heterogeneous. Some do not want it at all and 90 %
material, locally nicknamed“Tetteh Quarshie”. According want to reduce or eliminate shade trees in their cocoa farms:
to a large majority of farmers, the hybrids do not need
shade. It is even harmful to the development and — Mostly because shade reduces cocoa yields and
production of hybrids. revenues by increasing black pod and capsids impacts

362
(some of the big shade trees can be hosts for these The problem is that they hardly produce any agricultural
insects) but also by its general effect on the cocoa revenue. The only way to keep them in the future could
plant, especially when compared with the effect of be to protect them and possibly to valorise them as tourists
full sun management on production, attractions. Farmers may well be associated in that type
— Also because shade makes the cocoa growing too fast, of eco-tourism.
ending up with tall cocoa trees that are difficult to
harvest, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

— Sometimes also to avoid the risk of logging We especially want to thank Olivier Robinet, head of
companies tapping the resource and damaging the Service de Coopération et d’Action Culturelle (SCAC)
cocoa farm. of the French Embassy in Ghana, for his financial and
scientific support. We also thank all the inquirers for the
However, the farmers who are ready to keep some shade quality of their work in the field.
mostly keep forest trees that provide a direct benefit. This
is mostly timber. Most farmers say that they use it for REFERENCES
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do not acknowledge it easily. conservation of the atlantic forest of Southern
Bahia, Brazil. Master, University of Florida,
CONCLUSION 166 p.
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