Vapour Power Cycles and Steam

Nozzles:
lecture no-2

Dr. Rajeev Trehan

Head, Department of Industrial and Production Engineering
Advisor, Centre of Training and Placement
Dr.B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar
Contents
Simple steam vapour power cycle
Carnot cycle with steam as working substance
Performance criteria for Thermodynamics Vapour cycles
Rankine cycle
Rankine cycle with Superheated Steam
Rankine cycle with incomplete with Evaporation
Modified Rankine cycle
Efficiency of Modified Rankine cycle
SIMPLE STEAM VAPOUR POWER
CYCLE
A power cycle continuously converts heat( energy released by the burning of fuel) into
work , in which a working fluid repeatedly performs a succession of processes
In the vapour power cycle, the working fluid, which is water, undergoes a change of phase.
Steam power plant is working on the vapour power cycle.
Heat is transferred to water in the boiler from an external source( furnace, where fuel is
continuously burnt) to raise steam with high pressure and temperature.
Carnot cycle with steam as working
substance
The schematic diagram of a Carnot engine is shown in Fig.10.1 and the Carnot cycle using
steam as the working substance is represented on p-v and T-s diagrams as shown in Fig.
10.2(a) and b) respectively.
Carnot cycle with steam as
working substance
Consider 1kg o saturated water at pressure p1 and
absolute temperature T1, as represented by point 1
in Fig. 10.2a and (b. The cycle is completed by
the following four processes:
1. Process 1-2. The saturated water at point 1
is isotermally converted into dry saturated steam,
in a boiler, and the heat is absorbed at a constant
temperature T1 and pressure p1. The dry state of
steam is represented by point 2. It means that the
temperature T2 (i.e at point 2) and pressure p2 (i.e
at point 2) is equal to temperature T1 and pressure
p1 respectively. The isothermal process is
represented by curve 1-2 on p-v and T-s diagrams
in Fig.10.2(a) and (b).
We know that the hat absorbed by the saturated
water during its conversion
 We know that the heat absorbed by the saturated water during its conversion into dry steam is its latent heat
of evaporation ( i.e hfg1 = hfg2) corresponding to a pressure p1 or p2 (p1= p2).
We also know that the area 1-2-b-a in the T-s diagram represents the heat absorbed to some scale, during the
isothermal process.
Therefore, Heat absorbed during isothermal process (area 1-2-b-a)
q 1-2 = Change in entropy * Absolute temperature
= (s2-s1) T1 = (s2-s1) T2 .........(i)
2. Process 2-3 The dry steam at point 2 now expands isentropically in a steam engine or turbine. The
pressure and temperature falls from p2 to p3 and T2 to T3 respectively. Since no heat is supplied or rejected
during this process, therefore there is no change of entropy. The isentropic expansion is represented by the
curve 2-3 as shown in Fig. 10.2(a) and (b)
3. Process 3-4 The wet steam at point 3 is now isothermally condensed in a condenser and the heat is
rejected at a constant temperature T3 and pressure p3. It means that the temperature T4 (i.e at point 4) and
pressure p4(i.e at point 4) is equal to the temperature T3 and pressure p3 respectively. This isothermal
process is represented by the curve 3-4 on p-v and T-s diagrams as shown in Fig. 10.2 (a) and (b).
We know that area 3-4-b-a in the T-s diagram represents the heat rejected to some scale during the
isothermal process.
Therefore, Heat rejected during isothermal compression (area 3-4-a-b), …….(T3=T4……(ii)
 4 Process 4-1 The wet steam at point 4 is finally compressed isentropically in a
compressor all it returns back to its original state (point 1). The pressure and temperature
rises from p4 to p1 and T4 to T1 respectively. The isentropic compression is represented
by the curve 4-1 as shown in Fig. 10.2 (a) and (b). Since no heat is absorbed or rejected
during this process, therefore entropy remains constant. This completes the cycle.
We know that work done during the cycle.
= Heat absorbed – Heat Rejected
= (s2- s1) T1 – ( s2-s1)T3 = (s2-s1)(T1-T3)
And efficiency of the Carnot cycle,
ɳ = Work done/Heat absorbed
= (s2-s1)(T1-T3)/(s2-s1)T1
= T1-T3/T1
T1 = Highest temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure p1=p2, and
T3 = Lowest temperature corresponding to the condenser pressure
P3= p4
Notes: 1 Since the heat absorbed is at the highest temperature and rejected at the lowest
temperature, the Carnot cycle would give a maximum possible efficiency.
2: In the above theory, we have taken temperature at points 1, 2, 3 and 4 as T1, T2, T3 and T4
respectively in order to keep similarity between Carnot cycle and other cycles. But some authors
take it T1 ( for points 1 and 2) and T2 (for points 3 and 4). In that case, they obtain the relation for
efficiency as.
ɳ = T1-T2/T1 = 1-T2/T1
3:It may be noted that it is impossible to make a steam engine working on Carnot cycle. The
simple reason for the same is that the isothermal expansion 1-2 will have to be carried out
extremely slow to ensure that the steam is always at temperature T1. Similarly, the isothermal
compression 3-4 will have to be carried out extremely slow. But isentropic expansion 2-3 and
isentropic compression 4-1 should be carried out as quickly as possible in order to approach ideal
isentropic conditions. We know that sudden changes in the speed of an engine are not possible in
actual practice. Moreover, it is impossible to completely eliminate friction between the various
moving parts of the engine, and also heat losses due to conduction, radiation etc. It is thus obvious,
that it is impossible to realise Carnot’s engine in actual practice. However, such an imaginary
engine is used as the ultimate standard of comparison of all steam engine.
Example:
A power plant is supplied with dry saturated steam at a pressure of 16 bar and exhausts at
0.2 bar. Using steam tables, find the efficiency of the carnot cycle.
Performance criteria for Thermodynamics
Vapour cycles
Though, theoretically the Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle, yet it is not considered as a
standard performance of thermodynamics vapour cycles.
The following terms, in addition to the efficiency, are commonly used for the comparison of
performance of thermodynamic vapour cycles.
Efficiency ratio It is also known as relative efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of thermal
efficiency (or actual cycle efficiency) to Rankine efficiency (or ideal cycle efficiency).
Mathematically,
Efficiency ratio = Thermal efficiency/*Rankine Effieciency
Note :Thermal efficiency = Heat equivalent to one kilowatt(kWh)/Total heat supplied to the steam per
kWh
=3600*O/ms(h2-hb)
Where ms= Mass of steam supplied in kg/h, and
P = Power developed in kW.
 Work ratio. It is defined as the ratio of net work output to the gross (engine or turbine) output.
Mathematically,
Work ratio = Net work output/Gross output = Turbine work – Compressor work/ Turbine work
It may be noted that the Carnot cycle, despite of its high ideal thermal efficiency, has low work
ratio. It is one of the reason that Carnot cycle is not attempted. In order to have better performance of
the plant, both efficiency ratio and work ratio are the important criteria. It is
Plant, both efficiency ratio and work ratio are the important criteria. It is desirable to have the value of
work ratio almost unity. The higher value of work ratio also mean a smaller size of the plant.
Specific steam consumption: It is also known as steam rate of flow of steam. It is defined as the
mass of steam that must be supplied to a steam engine or turbinein order to develop a unit amount
of work or power output. Th amount of work or power output is usually expressed in kilowatt hour
(kWh). Mathematically
Specific steam consumption
=1kWh/w = 3600/w = 3600/h2-h3 kg/kWh
Where w = Net workdone or power output = (h2-h3)KJ/kg
Rankine cycle
The rankine cycle is an ideal cycle for comparing the performance of steam plants. It is
modified form of Carnot cycle, in which the condensation process (3-4) is continued until
the steam is condensed into water. The schematic diagram of a steam engine or a turbine
plant is shown in fig.
Rankine cycle
The rankine cycle using as a working substance, is
represented on p-v and T-s diagrams as shown in Fig.
10.4 (a) and (b)
Consider 1kg of saturated water at pressure p1, and
absolute temperature T1 as represented by point 1 in
fig 10.4 (a) and (b) The cycle is completed by
following four processes.
1 Process 1-2 The saturated water at point 1 is
isothermally converted into dry saturated steam in a
boiler, and the heat is absorbed at a constant
temperature T1 and pressure p1. The dry state of steam
is represented by point 2. It means that the temperature
t2 and pressure p2 is equal to temperature T1 and
pressure p1 respectively. This isothermal process is
represented by curve 1-2 on p-v and T-s diagrams in
fig.
We know that heat absorbed during isothermal process
by water during its conversion into dry steam is its
latent heat of vaporisation (i.e hfg1 = hfg2),
corresponding to a pressure p1 or p2.
 2. Process 2-3 The dry saturated steam at point 2, now expands isentropically in an engine or
turbine. The pressure and temperature falls from p2 to p3 and T2 to T3 respectively with a dryness
fraction x3. Since no heat is supplied or rejected during this process, therefore there is no change
of entropy. The isentropic expansion is represented by the curve 2-3 as shown in Fig. 10.4 (a) and
(b).
3. Process 3-4 The wet steam at point 3 is now isothermally condensed in a condenser and the
heat is rejected at constant temperature T3 and pressure p3 until the whole steam is condensed into
water. It means that the temperature T4 ad pressure p4 (i.e. at point 4) is equal to the temperature
T3 and p3 respectively. The isothermal compression is represented by curve 3-4 on p-v and T-s
diagrams in Fig a and b. The heat rejected by steam is its latent heat.
4. Process 4-1 The water at point 4 is now warmed in a boiler at constant volume from
temperature T4 to T1. Its pressure also rises from p4 to p1. This warming operation is represented
by the curve 4-1 on p-v and T-s diagrams in Fig. a and b. The heat absorbed by water during the
operation is equal to the sensible heat or liquid heat corresponding to the pressure p1 i.e. equal to
sensible heat at point 1 minus sensible heat at point 4.

Let hf1= hf2 = Sensible heat or enthalpy of water at point 1 corresponding to a pressure of p1 or p2
h f4= hf3= Sensible heat or enthalpy of water at point 4 corresponding to a pressure of p4 or p3
 Therefore, Heat absorbed during warming operation 4-1
= hf1- hf4 = hf2- hf3
And heat absorbed during the complete cycle.
=Heat absorbed during isothermal operation 1-2 + Heat absorbed during warming operation
4-1

= hfg2 + (hf2- hf3) = hf2+ hfg2 –hf3 = h2- hf3

…(i)
We know that heat rejected during the cycle
h 3- hf4 = hf3 +x3hfg3-hf4 =x3hfg3
Therefore, Workdone during the cycle
= Heat absorbed – Heat rejected
= (h2- hf3) – x3hfg3
= h2- (hf3+ x3hfg3) = h2-h3
And efficiency ( also called Rankine efficiency),
ɳR = work done/ Heat absorbed = h2 – h3/h2- hf3
Example
A steam power plant is supplied with dry saturated steam at a pressure of 12 bar and
exhausts into a condenser at 0.1 bar. Calculate the Rankine efficiency by using steam tables
and Mollier chart.
Reasons for Considering Rankine Cycle as an
Ideal Cycle For Steam
Power Plants:
1) It is very difficult to build a pump that will handle a mixture of liquid and vapor
at state 1’ (refer T-s diagram) and deliver saturated liquid at state 2’. It is
much easier to completely condense the vapor and handle only liquid in the
pump.
2) In the rankine cycle, the vapor may be superheated at constant pressure from
3 to 3” without difficulty. In a Carnot cycle using superheated steam, the
superheating will have to be done at constant temperature along path 3-5.
During this process, the pressure has to be dropped. This means that heat is
transferred to the vapor as it undergoes expansion doing work. This is difficult
to achieve in practice.
Rankine cycle with Superheated Steam

We have already discussed , in the last article, the case of a Rankine cycle where the steam
produced in wet with dryness fraction x2. But sometimes, the steam produced is
superheated. In such a case, the Rankine cycle may be shown p-v and T-s diagrams as
shown in fig. (a) and (b)
In may be noted from the above figure, that
1-2-3-4 represents the Rankine cycle with
superheated steam, whereas 1’-2’-3’-4’
represents the cycle with complete evaporation.
In such a case, heat absorbed during the
isothermal expansion,
h 2 =hsup = hg2 + cp (T sup – T2)
where, hg2 = Enthalpy of dry
saturated steam corresponding to a pressure of p1
= p2 (from steam tables)
Tsup = Temperature of superheated
steam in K,
T2 = Saturation temperature in K.
Corresponding to a pressure of P1 = p2 (from
steam tables) and
Cp= Specific heat of superheated
steam
 The superheating of steam before entering for isentropic expansion has the following
advantages:
1. The work done (equal to the area 2’- 2-3-3’) as shown in figure.
2. The dryness fraction of steam at the end of isentropic expansion (i.e leaving the steam
engine or turbine ) increases.
3. The specific steam consumption decreases.
4. The net efficiency of the cycle increases with the increase in degree of superheat( i.e Tsup
–T2). In other words as the degree of superheat increses, the average temperature of heat
addition of cycle also increses and thus the efficiency increases.
Rankine cycle with incomplete with
Evaporation
We have already discussed in the last article that in isothermal expansion of a Rankine
cycle, the water is converted into dry saturated steam at a constant temperature T1 and
pressure p1, Sometimes, the steam produced is not completely dry, but it is wet with
dryness fraction equal to x2. In such a case, The rankine cycle may be represented on p-v
and T-s diagrams as shown in figure.
 It may be noted from the above figure, that 1-2-3-4 represents the Rankine cycle with
incomplete evaporation, whereas 1-2’-3’-4 represents the cycle with complete evaopartion .
In such a case, heat absorbed during the isothermal expansion 1-2 is equal to x2hfg2.
Therefore, Heat absorbed during the complete cycle.
= x2hfg2+ hf2-hf3 = h2-hf3
Modified Rankine cycle
We have seen in the Rankine cycle, that the steam is expanded to the extreme toe of the p-v
diagram at point 3 as shown in the figure. But in actual reciprocating steam engines, it is
found to be too uneconomical ( due to larger size of the cylinder) to expand steam to the
full limit.( i.e upto the point 3).
Efficiency of modified Rankine
cycle
It may be noted that the diagram is very narrow at the
toe, and the amount of work done represented by area
5-3-6 during this final portion of the expansion stroke
is extremely small. In fact, it is too small to overcome
even the friction of the moving parts in the steam
engine. The expansion of steam, therefore, is carried
on in the engine cylinder at a pressure higher than that
f the condenser pressure or exhaust pressure or back
pressure. The higher pressure is known as release
pressure (p5)
In order to overcome the above mentioned difficulty,
The Rankne cycle is slightly modified. In a modified
Rankine cycle, the expansion stroke of the piston is
stopped at point 5 by cutting the toe of the Rankine
cycle, and the steam is exhausted from the cyclinder at
a constant volume.The causes a sudden drop of
pressure from p5to p6. The expansion of steam is ,
therefore, completed by a constant volume line 5-6 as
shown on p-v and T-s diagram in fig (a) and (b). By
doing so, the size of the cylinder and stroke length is
considerably reduced.
Efficiency of Modified Rankine cycle
Consider modified Rankine cycle as shown in the figure:
Let, p1= p2= pressue of steam at point 2
V2= Volume of steam at point 2
H2= enthalpy OR TOTAL HEAT of steam at point 2
U2= Internal energy of steam at point 2
P3, v3, h3,u3= Corresponding values of steam at point 3
P4 = Back pressure of steam at point 4, and
hf4 = Sensible heat or enthalpy of water at point 4.
We know that work done during constant pressure process 1-2,
= Area 1-2-6-0 = 100 p2 v2…….(i)
We also know that work done during isentropic expansion 2-3
Area 2-3-7-6 = Change in internal energy
= u2- u3
And work done during constant pressure process 4-5
Therefore, Work done during the cycle per kg of steam,
W= Area 1-2-3-4-5
= Area 1-2-6-0 +Area 2-3-7-6 – Area 0-5-4-7
= 100 p2v2 + (u2- u3)- 100 p4 v4
= 100 p2 v2 + [(h2-100 p2v2)- (h3-100 p3v3)] – 100 p4v4
= h2- h3 +100(p3-p4)v3
We know that heat supplied per cycle
= h2 –hf5 = h2-hf4
Therefore, Efficiency of the modified Rankine cycle
ɳMR= Work done / Heat supplied = (h2- h3) +100 (p3 – p4)v3/ h2 – hf4
Deviation of Actual Cycle from Ideal Cycle:

The actual cycle deviates from the ideal cycle for the following reasons.
1) Turbine Losses:

During the expansion of steam in the turbine there will be heat transfer to the surroundings
and the expansion instead of being isentropic will be polytropic as shown in the figure.
2) Pump Losses:

There are losses in the pump due to irreversibility and the process of compression is
polytropic instead of isentropic as shown above.
3) Condenser Losses:

Due to pressure loss in the condenser, fluid cools below the saturation temperature, which
requires additional heat energy to bring the liquid to the saturation temperature.
Methods of Increasing the Efficiency of Simple
Rankine Cycle:
Rankine Cycle With Reheat:
In reheat Rankine cycle, the expansion of steam is carried out in several stages and the
steam is reheated by addition of heat between the stages of turbine. Thus excessive
moisture in the low-pressure stages of the turbine is avoided.
Above figure shows schematic and corresponding T-s, p-v diagrams of a reheat Rankine
cycle with two turbine stages. Steam is expanded from the boiler pressure P3 to some
intermediate pressure P4 in the first stage of the turbine. It is then reheated in the boiler
from state 4 to state 5 and finally expanded from P4 = P5 to the exhaust pressure P1 = P6,
in the second stage of the turbine. Note that we can employ any number of turbine stages.
1) Rankine Cycle With Reheat:

Reheating does not result in any appreciable

gain in thermal efficiency, because the
average temperature of heat addition is not
changed. The main advantage is that the
moisture content of steam is reduced to a safe
value.
Thermal efficiency of Reheat cycle:
Optimum Intermediate Pressure and
Temperature for Reheat Cycle:
The reheat Rankine cycle will perform efficiently when intermediate pressure for reheating
is optimized. First, the intermediate temperature is determined as follows:

And then, the intermediate pressure will be equal to saturation pressure corresponding to
the above temperature
 2) Regenerative Feed Heating Cycles:

The object of regenerative feed heating cycle is to supply the working fluid to the boiler at
some state between 2 and 2’, thereby increasing the average temperature of heat addition to
the cycle.
(a) Single stage regenerative cycle
I. Open feed water heater
II. Closed feed water heater
(b) Multiple stage regenerative cycle.
Open Feed Water Heater:
A regenerative cycle having a single stage of feed water heating is shown above. Steam enters the
turbine at state 5. After expansion to state 6, part of this steam is extracted and supplied to the feed
water heater while the remainder continues to expand to state 7. Other processes are as shown
above. The above T-s diagram is not the exact one, (because the mass flow rate is changing at all
the state points) but, it simply shows various states of the working fluid.
Let m1 = mass of steam extracted at state 6 then, heat balance for heater gives

The amount is so adjusted that the liquid leaving the feed water heater at state 3 is saturated.
Thermal Efficiency:
Closed Feed Water Heater:
Regeneration here is single stage, while turbine is of two stages. The extracted steam of
mass m1 kg is completely condensed in the heater and this liquid is first passed through a
drain cooler and then enters the condenser where it mixes with the main condensate of
mass (1-m1) kg. This liquid from the condenser is first heated from state 2 to state x in the
drain cooler and then from state x to state 3 in heater. If we assume perfect heat exchange
in water heater, then the feed water as well as the condensate of the extracted steam will
leave the feed water heater at state 3. Similarly in the drain cooler, the liquid coming from
heater will get cooled to the temperature t2 of the condensate from the pump.
Let, m1 = mass of extracted steam per kg steam supplied to the turbine. Heat balance for
drain cooler gives,
Thermal efficiency
Heat balance for feed heater gives,
Multi–Stage Regenerative Cycles
Above figure shows an arrangement in which there are 3 stages of feed water heating
employing closed heaters. Steam to the 1st, 2nd and 3rd heaters is supplied at states 11, 12
and 13 respectively. The feed water leaving each heater is at the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure of bled steam supplied to that heater. The corresponding T-s
diagram for the cycle is shown above.
Considering one kg of steam leaving the boiler and entering the turbine at state 10.
Let, m1 = mass of steam supplied to 1st heater.
m2 = mass of steam supplied to 2nd heater.
m3 = mass of steam supplied to 3rd heater.
Heat balance for 1st heater gives,
Thermal efficiency
Heat balance for 2nd heater gives,

Also, heat balance for 3rd heater + drain

cooler, gives,
Binary Vapor Power Cycle:
Thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle can be increased by:
1. Increasing the average temperature of heat addition.
2. Decreasing the average temperature of heat rejection.
Maximum temperature of the cycle is limited by practical considerations. For steam as a
working fluid, the following difficulties arise at maximum temperature.
1) Critical temperature of steam is equal to 3740C and critical pressure is 221.2 bar. It is not
possible to work at this pressure.
2) Latent heat of vaporization decreases as the pressure increases.
3) If high pressure steam is expanded, high degree of moisture content will be
present at the end of process.
 The minimum temperature of the cycle is usually limited to natural water temperature of
250C. At this temperature, the saturation pressure of water will be 0.0318 bar. It means that
the condenser has to work at vacuum. This is very difficult. So, ideal working fluid for
Rankine cycle should fulfill the following requirements.
1. Reasonable saturation pressure at maximum temperature.
2. Steep saturated vapor line to minimize moisture problem.
3. Saturation pressure higher than atmospheric at minimum temperature.
4. Low liquid specific heat so that most of the heat is added at maximum temperature.
5. Non-toxic and non-corrosive.
All the above requirements are not met by any single working fluid. In binary cycle two
working fluids are used in order to obtain good results. Mercury and steam are most
commonly used working fluids. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature of mercury
is 20.6 bar and 5400C at critical point.
Mercury-Steam Binary Vapor Cycle:
Above figure shows the schematic diagram of a mercury-steam binary cycle. The
corresponding T-s diagram is also shown. There are two distinct circuits, one for mercury
and the other for steam. Saturated mercury vapor from the mercury boiler at state C enters
the mercury turbine, expands to state D, and is condensed at state A. The condensate is
pumped back to the boiler by the mercury pump.
The heat rejected in the mercury condenser is used to vaporize water into steam at state 3.
Thus, the mercury condenser also acts as the steam boiler. Note that there is a considerable
temperature differential between condensing mercury and boiling water. Saturated steam is
then superheated to state 4 as shown, expanded in the steam turbine to state 5 and then
condensed. The mercury cycle is represented by A-B-C-D-A and the steam cycle by
1-2-3-4-5-1 on the T-s diagram.
Let x = mass of mercury per kg of steam.
Then,
Query?
Thank you