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2020/21 1st Quarter Grade 12 Chemistry Handout-1

Carboxylic Acids

A carboxylic acid is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group, –COOH.

Carboxyl group - a carbon atom that is double-bonded to 1 oxygen atom and single-bonded to a hydroxyl
group.
When a carboxylic acid is in aqueous solution, a hydrogen ion may be removed from the carboxyl group
relatively easily.
A solution that contains hydrogen ions is acidic. These compounds are therefore weak acids.

Naming Carboxylic Acids

The functional group of carboxylic acids, –COOH, combines two smaller groups:

 a hydroxyl group and

 a carbonyl group.

To name organic compounds containing a carboxylic group, start with the alkane name for the longest
chain, including the carbon atom in the carboxyl group.
Drop the -e suffix of the root compound and replace it with the suffix -oic, followed by the word acid.
For example, a carboxylic acid with 3 carbon atoms is propanoic acid.
In a compound that combines an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, the alcohol is indicated as a substituent
group: hydroxy.
Some carboxylic acids have more than one carboxyl group.
When naming an acid with two carboxyl groups, use the suffix dicarboxylic acid.
Citric acid is an example of a compound with three carboxylic g roups.

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Formic acid, acetic acid, and benzoic acid are acceptable IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry) names that do not follow the systematic rules for naming acids.

Properties of Carboxylic Acids

Since carboxylic acids have two polar groups—a carbonyl and a hydroxyl — located close together,
their molecules are very polar.
The carboxyl groups form hydrogen bonds with one another and with solvents such as water.
Due to this hydrogen bonding, carboxylic acids with 5 or fewer carbon atoms are very soluble in water.
Larger carboxylic acids have decreasing solubility due to the large non-polar hydrocarbon group. They
are, however, soluble in polar organic solvents, such as alcohols.
Carboxylic acids share many properties with other acids.

Esters

Ester - an organic compound that contains a carbonyl group bonded to a second oxygen atom which is
bonded to another carbon atom.
R - CO - O - R

Naming Esters

Esters are formed by the condensation reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.

To name the resulting ester, determine which part of the molecule was contributed by the alcohol. This
is the part that does not include the carbonyl group. This gives the ester the first part of its name.
The second part of the name comes from the carboxylic acid.
The -oic acid part of the name is dropped and replaced with -oate.

Properties of Esters Page 2 of 11

The functional group of an ester is similar to the carboxyl group of an acid, but without the hydroxyl
group.
As a result, esters are less polar than carboxylic acids and do not form hydrogen bonds.
Small esters are soluble in water due to the polarity of their carbon–oxygen bonds. Esters are less
soluble in water than carboxylic acids and have lower boiling points.

Reactions Involving Carboxylic Acids and Esters

Formation of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids can be formed by the oxidation of aldehydes in the presence of an oxidizing agent.

Formation of Esters: Esterification

Esterification is a condensation reaction in which an alcohol and carboxylic acid react to form an ester
and water.

Reaction of Esters: Hydrolysis

When esters are treated with an acid or a base, the esterification process can be reversed. The ester
splits into the carboxylic acid and alcohol components with the addition of a molecule of water. This
reaction is called hydrolysis.

Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are large ester molecules known as lipids.

The long-chain carboxylic acid component is called a fatty acid.
The alcohol component is glycerol.
Glycerol is a 3-carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl groups, so it can bond with three fatty acids at once.
The ester that is formed is called a triglyceride. So, fats and oils are triglycerides.

Saponification
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When these long-chain esters are heated with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide, the hydrolysis
reaction occurs.
A triglyceride can be split to produce glycerol and the sodium salt of the fatty acid when sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is added to the triglyceride.
This resulting sodium salt is commonly called soap, so the reaction is called saponification.

Structure and Properties of Fats and oils

Lipids are not water soluble because of the non-polar nature of the long fatty acid chains in the
triglyceride molecules. These long, non-polar chains overcome the polarity of the carbon–oxygen bonds in
the ester groups.
The hydrocarbon chains in fatty acids affect the physical state of the lipid.

What is Solution?

Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. We name it a homogenous mixture

because the composition is uniform throughout the solution. The components of a solution are mainly of
two types such as solutes and the solvent. The solvent dissolves the solutes and forms a uniform solution.
Therefore, normally solvent amount is higher than the solute quantity.

What is Suspension?

The suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of substances (E.g., muddy water). There are two components
in the suspension such as the dispersed material and the dispersion medium. There are larger solid
particles (dispersed material) that distribute throughout the dispersion medium. The medium may occur
as a liquid, gas or a solid.

Factors That Affect the Rate of Dissolving

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Stirring
Stirring a solute into a solvent speeds up the rate of dissolving because it helps distribute the solute
particles throughout the solvent. For example, when you add sugar to iced tea and then stir the tea, the
sugar will dissolve faster. If you don’t stir the iced tea, the sugar may eventually dissolve, but it will take
much longer.

Temperature
The temperature of the solvent is another factor that affects how fast a solute dissolves. Generally, a
solute dissolves faster in a warmer solvent than it does in a cooler solvent because particles have
more energy of movement. For example, if you add the same amount of sugar to a cup of hot tea and a
cup of iced tea, the sugar will dissolve faster in the hot tea.

Particle Size
A third factor that affects the rate of dissolving is the size of solute particles. For a given amount of
solute, smaller particles have greater surface area. With greater surface area, there can be more
contact between particles of solute and solvent. For example, if you put granulated sugar in a glass of
iced tea, it will dissolve more quickly than the same amount of sugar in a cube (see Figure below). That’s
because all those tiny particles of granulated sugar have greater total surface area than a single sugar
cube.
The heat solution is defined as the difference in the enthalpy related to the dissolving substance in a
solvent at constant pressure which is leading in infinite dilution. The unit of solution enthalpy is KJ/mol.

The enthalpy change is observed when the solute is dissolved in the solvent. When solid or gas is
dissolved in the solvent the heat is absorbed. This process is known as heat dissolution or heat
solution. The heat solution is measured in terms of a calorimeter.

Formula of Heat of Solution

The formula of the heat of solution is expressed as,

ΔHwater = mass water × ΔTwater × specific heat water

Where

ΔH = heat change

mass water = sample mass

ΔT = temperature difference

Specific heat = 0.004184 kJ/g∘C.

Solved Examples
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Example 1

The heat absorbed when hydrated salt (Na 2CO3.10H2O) is dissolved at 291K isothermally in a large
quantity of water is 65 KJ per mole solute. Determine the heat of crystallization of 1 kg
Na2CO3.10H2O.

Solution:

Given data:

m = 65 kJ per mol

ΔT = 291K

Specific heat = 0.004184 KJ/g∘C

Substitute in the given formula, we get

ΔHwater= masswater  × ΔTwater × specific heatwater

         = 65 × 291 × 0.004184

Therefore, ΔHwater = 79.140 kJ/Kg solute

Types of Solutions

Solutions are a part of our everyday lives. The soda you enjoy sipping, the deodorant that you put on all
important occasions are all examples of solutions. Did you ever wonder how many types of solutions are
actually there? Well, in this chapter, we will talk about the different types of solutions and look at what
exactly these are.

What is a Solution?

Going by the definition, a binary solution is nothing but a homogeneous mixture of two substances. These
two substances or components are the solute and the solvent. The solute is the substance that gets
dissolved. It is present in a smaller quantity. On the other hand, the solvent is the substance that dissolves
the solute. It is present in a comparatively larger quantity.

There are different types of solutions. But, what is the basis of their differentiation?

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Different Types of Solutions

Solutions are of different types, based on a number of criteria, like the difference in the solute or the
solvent etc. Let us now look at the different types of solutions, based on different criteria.

On the Basis of Water as Solvent

Based on the whether the solvent is water or not, solutions are of two types.

 Aqueous solutions: These solutions have water as the solvent. Examples of such solutions

are sugar in water, carbon dioxide in water, etc.

 Non-Aqueous Solutions:  These solutions have a solvent that is not water. It could be ether,
benzene, petrol, carbon tetrachloride etc. Common examples include sulfur in carbon disulphide,
naphthalene in benzene, etc.

Based on the amount of solute present in the solution, we can classify them into the following types.

 Unsaturated Solution: An unsaturated is one that can dissolve more solute at a

definite temperature. It means that we can still add more solute to the solvent.

 Saturated Solution: A solution is said to be saturated when we can’t add any more solute to the
solvent. This means that the solution can’t dissolve any more solute at a definite temperature.

 Supersaturated Solution: A supersaturated solution is one where the solute is present in an excess
amount. This solute is dissolved forcefully by raising the temperature or pressure of the solution.
These generally crystal out in the bottom by the method called crystallisation.

Raoult’s law

OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE

What is Osmosis?

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Osmosis is a passive process and happens without any expenditure of energy. It involves the movement
of molecules from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration until the concentrations
become equal on either side of the membrane.

Any solvent can undergo the process of osmosis including gases and supercritical liquids.

Let us have a detailed look at the different types and effects of osmosis in detail.

Osmotic Solutions

There are three different types of solutions:

 Isotonic Solution

 Hypertonic Solution

 Hypotonic Solution

An isotonic solution is one that has the same concentration of solutes both inside and outside the cell.

A hypertonic solution is one that has a higher solute concentration outside the cell than inside.

A hypotonic solution is the one that has a higher solute concentration inside the cell than outside.

Types of Osmosis

Osmosis is of two types:

 Endosmosis– When a substance is placed in a hypotonic solution, the solvent molecules move inside
the cell and the cell becomes turgid or undergoes deplasmolysis. This is known as endosmosis.

 Exosmosis– When a substance is placed in a hypertonic solution, the solvent molecules move
outside the cell and the cell becomes flaccid or undergoes plasmolysis. This is known as exosmosis.

Effect of Osmosis on Cells

Osmosis affects the cells differently. An animal cell will lyse when placed in a hypotonic solution
compared to a plant cell. The plant cell has thick walls and requires more water. The cells will not burst
when placed in a hypotonic solution. In fact, a hypotonic solution is ideal for a plant cell.

An animal cell survives only in an isotonic solution. In an isotonic solution, the plant cells are no longer
turgid and the leaves of the plant droop.

The osmotic flow can be stopped or reversed, also called reverse osmosis, by exerting an external
pressure to the sides of the solute. The minimum pressure required to stop the solvent transfer is called
the osmotic pressure.

Osmotic Pressure

Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop water from diffusing through a membrane by osmosis.
It is determined by the concentration of the solute. Water diffuses into the area of higher
concentration from the area of lower concentration. When the concentration of the substances in the
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two areas in contact is different, the substances will diffuse until the concentration is uniform
throughout.

Osmotic pressure can be calculated using the equation:

Π=MRT

where Π denotes the osmotic pressure,

M is the molar concentration of the solute,

R is the gas constant,

T is the temperature

Significance of Osmosis

 Osmosis influences the transport of nutrients and the release of metabolic waste products.
 It is responsible for the absorption of water from the soil and conducting it to the upper parts of
the plant through the xylem.

 It stabilizes the internal environment of a living organism by maintaining the balance between
water and intercellular fluid levels.

 It maintains the turgidity of cells.

 It is a process by which plants maintain their water content despite the constant water loss due
to transpiration.

 This process controls the cell to cell diffusion of water.

 Osmosis induces cell turgor which regulates the movement of plants and plant parts.

 Osmosis also controls the dehiscence of fruits and sporangia.

 Higher osmotic pressure protects the plants against drought injury.

Svante Arrhenius Acids and Bases

The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases dates back to 1884, building on his observation that salts, such
as sodium chloride, dissociate into what he termed  ions when placed into water.

 acids produce H+ ions in aqueous solutions

 bases produce OH- ions in aqueous solutions
 water required, so only allows for aqueous solutions
 only protic acids are allowed; required to produce hydrogen ions
 only hydroxide bases are allowed

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Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted - Thomas Martin Lowry Acids and Bases

The Brønsted or Brønsted-Lowry theory describes acid-base reactions as an acid releasing a proton and
a base accepting a proton. While the acid definition is pretty much the same as that proposed by
Arrhenius (a hydrogen ion is a proton), the definition of what constitutes a base is much broader.

 acids are proton donors

 bases are proton acceptors
 aqueous solutions are permissible
 bases besides hydroxides are permissible
 only protic acids are allowed

Gilbert Newton Lewis Acids and Bases

The Lewis theory of acids and bases is the least restrictive model. It doesn't deal with protons at all,
but deals exclusively with electron pairs.

 acids are electron pair acceptors

 bases are electron pair donors
 least restrictive of the acid-base definitions

CONJUGATE ACID- BASE PAIR

PH Scale

A buffer is a solution containing either a weak acid and its salt or a weak base and its salt, which is
resistant to changes in pH. In other words, a buffer is an aqueous solution of either a weak acid and its
conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid. A buffer may also be called a pH buffer, hydrogen
ion buffer, or buffer solution.

Buffers are used to maintain a stable pH in a solution, as they can neutralize small quantities of
additional acid of base. For a given buffer solution, there is a working pH range and a set amount of acid
or base that can be neutralized before the pH will change. The amount of acid or base that can be added
to a buffer before changing its pH is called its buffer capacity. 

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation may be used to gauge the approximate pH of a buffer. In order to

use the equation, the initial concentration or stoichiometric concentration is entered instead of the
equilibrium concentration.

The general form of a buffer chemical reaction is:

HA ⇌ H+ + A−

Examples of Buffers
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 blood - contains a bicarbonate buffer system
 TRIS buffer
 phosphate buffer

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