SPE 149206

Buoyancy Technology Used Effectively in Casing-Running Operations to

Extend Lateral Step-Out: Multiple Case Histories Detail Application Risks,
Successes, and Improved Operation Procedures
Hank Rogers, Daniel Ryen, and Dale Sparks, SPE, Halliburton

Copyright 2011, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Eastern Regional Meeting held in Columbus, Ohio, USA, 17–19 August 2011.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
Operators today face an ever-increasing demand for locating commercial reserves and producing those reserves with an
emphasis on exploration and development costs. In addition to basic financial pressures, operators also strive to reduce the
environmental impact of well-construction and production operations. Extended-reach drilling technology allows operators to
reach recoverable reserves that were previously unreachable. Specifically, extended-reach drilling from a multipad wellsite
allows significant portions of the well-construction costs to be distributed throughout multiple wells rather than being carried
by an individual wellbore. Also, the capability to drill multiple wells from a single pad reduces the environmental impact of
the drilling operation.
Extending the wellbore reach from a given pad depends on the location of the target formation. Depth, horizontal
distance, and production type significantly affect the type of drilling program, as well as the casing-running operation. Casing
flotation is a proven technology that has been deployed in multiple fields around the world to extend the attainable lateral
reach of the casing-running operation. In many wells where flotation is required, the common limiting factor that determines
the maximum step out that can be achieved is based on available hook load or weight in the near-vertical section of the well.
However, when smaller casing strings are used, the limiting factor is not available weight, but rather the buckling limits of
the casing. In some cases, slackoff loads with small casing strings cause helical buckling and lockup of the casing before
reaching total depth (TD).
This paper documents the use of flotation technology in several wells where buckling limits and subsequent casing lockup
was averted to allow successful casing-running operations to be performed without the requirement of costly premium
torque-shouldered connections. Additionally, the paper presents improved processes used successfully that significantly
increased operational efficiencies before cementing operations. Detailed prejob planning and computer simulations are
provided to demonstrate the limits without casing flotation and the stepout achieved with casing flotation.

Introduction
Attempts to run casing in extended-reach horizontal wells (wells with a measured-to-true vertical-depth ratio greater than 2:1)
(Ruddy and Hill 1992) can fail because friction between the wellbore and the casing often results in a substantial amount of
drag. This drag often exceeds the available weight in the vertical section of the wellbore. In shallow, highly-deviated or
horizontal wells, there can be insufficient casing weight in the vertical-hole section to overcome the drag in the extended
highly-deviated section.
Wellbore geometries that include severe doglegs, excessive turns, bends, or large amounts of formation cuttings can also
adversely affect the casing/formation drag forces. A poorly cleaned wellbore can result in formation cuttings settling on the
lower side of the borehole, causing excessive debris to build up in front of the casing as it is being run in the hole. This
buildup can prevent casing from reaching the desired setting depth. Differential sticking is another problem in extended-reach
wells.
The incentives of extended-reach drilling are purely economic. The need to reach additional reserves from existing
surface facilities is apparent, given the capital cost of additional surface facilities. In some cases, the additional reserves
cannot be economically justified by any other means than drilling extended-reach wells from existing facilities. The increased
need for recoverable reserves, the heightened attention to natural gas, and the use of extended-reach drilling have improved
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production rates with such success that US producers have almost reached a production position that could allow the export
of natural gas from US fields.

Previous Solution Attempts

Drilling fluids and wellbore geometries have been altered in various attempts by researchers and operators to address friction
or drag problems associated with extended-reach drilling. Previous attempts include a catenary/modified catenary
(McClendon and Anders 1985; Sheppard et al. 1986) drilling method and the use of low-friction-coefficient drilling fluids.
The catenary and modified catenary methods created a wellbore path in which the build angle was continuous and angle
changes were minimal in an effort to reduce drag forces. In some cases, the wellbore geometry or trajectory was modified so
that the maximum available weight would be present in the near-vertical section of the well. Drilling fluids with high
lubricity were also used during casing operations to reduce the coefficient of friction or drag between the casing being run
and previous casing/wellbore.
In other attempts, casing-running procedures were modified to either overcome or decrease the coefficient of friction
between casing and wellbore. One method involved the use of an inverted casing string in which heavy casing was run in the
vertical section to provide additional weight. This method attempted to overcome the drag forces rather than reduce them. If
drag forces were high enough, the lower end of the casing could buckle.
When casing was rotated, the friction coefficient was changed from the static friction coefficient to the dynamic friction
coefficient. Because the dynamic coefficient was the lesser of the two values, any pipe movement (either by rotation or
reciprocation) allowed the available weight to maximize casing penetration in the horizontal section. The need for casing that
could be rotated was one reason that led to the development of torque-shouldered connections (Fig. 1) that allowed rotation.
Such connections allowed torque to be transferred through the casing without compromising the integrity of the individual
connections. To date, torque-shouldered casing connections have been widely accepted and used by the industry.

Fig. 1—The torque-shouldered connection between box thread and pin thread effectively transfers torque from joint to joint.

Casing-Flotation Concept
In the 1980s, an operator from the west coast of the United States devised a method (Mueller et al. 1990; Hood et al. 1991)
by which casing was “floated” in the wellbore. Casing flotation used an “air chamber” created near the lower end of the
casing string. The air chamber created a buoyant effect that reduced the casing weight, resulting in less drag between the
casing and the formation. UNOCAL successfully implemented buoyancy-assisted casing programs (Mueller et al. 1991) on
the platform Irene West, northwest of Santa Barbara, California.
In early casing-flotation development, retrievable packers were successfully used to seal the casing above the air
chamber. However, the retrieval of the packer, after total casing depth was reached and before cementing operations could be
performed, was undesirable for two reasons:
• The time required for retrieval of downhole packers increased on-site job costs.
• The static time required to retrieve downhole packers allowed drilling fluid to develop gel strength, making it more
difficult to remove the drilling fluid during conditioning and cementing operations.

Flotation equipment is designed to help run casing to bottom in highly deviated or horizontal wellbores. When running
casing in highly deviated or horizontal wellbores, drag forces between the casing and the formation often exceed the available
hook weight of the casing for larger casing, or exceed the buckling capacity of the smaller casing. In either case, the result is
the inability to run casing to the desired setting depth. In an effort to extend the reach of horizontal wells, the need to reduce
casing/formation drag resulted in the concept of floating the casing into the wellbore. This technique uses air or light fluid
trapped in the lower section of the casing string. This light fluid or air creates a buoyant chamber on the lower end of the
casing. The buoyant chamber can significantly reduce the casing weight resting on the wellbore, resulting in reduced drag
between the casing and the formation. The buoyant chamber can be almost any length, depending on the reduction in drag
needed to run casing to total depth. Less casing drag generally allows the casing to be run to greater measured depths (MDs).
SPE 149206 3

Fig. 2 illustrates how friction and deviation work together to limit how far casing can be run into lateral wellbore sections.
The force required (Fweight/gravity) to move the object is directly proportional to the friction factor and the mass of the object.
The lateral force (Flateral) is the force the object (casing) applies to the wellbore and is perpendicular to the center of the
wellbore. The longitudinal force (Flongitudinal) is the force acting parallel to the center of the wellbore. Both forces are a
function of angle Ǿ and the mass of the casing (Fmass). When angle Ǿ is near zero, the friction factor for the wall of the
wellbore is negligible because the longitudinal force component is high and the lateral force is low. However, as the wellbore
angle Ǿ increases, the friction factor for the wall of the wellbore increases significantly because the longitudinal force
component is low and the lateral force is high. Casing flotation uses the induced buoyancy of the casing to reduce the mass of
the casing, thereby reducing the effects of friction and the longitudinal force necessary to cause movement.

Fig. 2—Illustration of how friction and deviation work together to limit how far casing can be run into lateral wellbore sections.

Since its inception, flotation technology has allowed operators to extend wells in excess of 12,000 ft, and presently 30,000
ft offsets are being considered (Ryan and Raitt 1995). Other operators have successfully used such techniques in fields
around the world. These proven applications help ensure the continued use of flotation technology to further extend wellbore
reach and have led researchers to develop additional flotation-tool designs.
Rig cost was reduced with improved designs, particularly the use of a displaceable assembly (Fig. 3) located in the casing
string at the upper end of the buoyant chamber. However, currently available equipment has additional design limitations,
such as internal components with near-drift diameters and shear mechanism holes in the outer case that could require
secondary squeeze operations.

Fig. 3—Typical casing string with flotation equipment run into horizontal well.

Improved Tool-Design Needs

The initial success of flotation technology challenged tool designers to develop additional flotation devices. Equipment to
assist with buoyant casing programs should incorporate a few general parameters. Tool IDs should be increased to allow full
casing ID after drillout. Seal configuration should allow for larger tolerances between flotation cases and internal
components, thus helping eliminate problems with wedging or locking of internal components during displacement
operations. In addition, tools should be capable of holding pressures from both above and below. After casing has been
4 SPE 149206

cemented, the internal components of the flotation equipment should be drillable with polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC) bits.

Initial Design Criteria

Construction of the flotation assembly began with a list of criteria, including a full-bore case and a minimum pressure rating
of 5,000 psi, from above, at 300°F. After rupturing, the tool should require a low pressure (<200 psi) to displace it to the float
collar so standard cementing plugs could be used. To facilitate drillout operations with cementing plug technology at that
time, the equipment had to be PDC drillable and able to incorporate a antirotation feature for use with antirotating cementing
plugs. With respect to application, the equipment needed to be suitable for liner or subsea applications, as well as surface-
release type completions.

Original Candidate-Well Consideration and Selection

Historically, to determine the feasibility of using a flotation assembly on a casing operation, operators considered the factors
of wellbore geometry, casing size and weight, software aids, and rig equipment:
• Wellbore geometry—Does the well require special running procedures or equipment? Several software packages are
available to aid the drilling engineer in this area.
• Friction coefficient—The friction coefficient of the drilling fluid can be obtained from most drilling-fluid suppliers
or cementingservice companies.
• Rig equipment—Considerations should include top drive or available hook load to push casing into the wellbore in
the event a negative weight situation occurs. Also, casing should be held in the well while the elevators are tripping
to the next casing joint.
• Fluid returns—Will fluid returns be taken at the surface or lost to low-pressure zones below the surface? Equipment
problems related to the air chamber could result in a quick drop in annular fluid height, which could lead to a well-
control situation.
• Casing-collapse rating—Does the casing-collapse rating exceed the expected hydrostatic pressure at TD? Increases
in collapse pressure as a result of running casing should be considered.

Original Field Trial in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM)

The flotation assembly was first component tested in the laboratory under controlled temperature and pressure conditions.
Calculations were performed on a 9 5/8-in. assembly to confirm that components could be manufactured from PDC-drillable
materials. The assembly (Fig. 4) was built and successfully pressure tested. A full-scale displacement test was successfully
performed on the assembly, confirming that the tool could be released from its steel case.
After completing laboratory tests, researchers conducted on-site testing at an offshore platform in the GOM where an 11
¾-in. flushline assembly was run. Fig. 5 illustrates the initial well path in which the equipment was run. The initial program
was 11 ¾-in. flushline casing run to a 15,500-ft MD and 5,326-ft true vertical depth (TVD) with a 4,500-ft air chamber.
Drilling problems required the 11 ¾-in. casing to be set at approximately an 11,500-ft MD and 5,124-ft TVD with a 2,500-ft
air chamber.
The casing in the openhole section was machined with spiral grooves to help reduce differential sticking and maximize
fill area in the previous 13 ⅜-in. string set at 4,870 ft MD. No centralizers were used because of insufficient clearance
between the 13 ⅜- and 11 ¾-in. casing. The casing was run successfully and closely mirrored the calculated hook load (Fig.
6). Although the use of flotation was not absolutely required for the reduced hole depth of 11,563 ft versus the planned
15,500 ft, the flotation assembly was used successfully.
After the successful flotation job in the GOM, the technology was deployed successfully in the Asia Pacific region in 9
⅝-in. casing on several dozen wells. Additional sizes deployed were 7- and 7 ⅝-in. After much success using flotation in
casing strings 7 in. and larger, several North American operators began considering the use of flotation in smaller casing
strings in shale plays to increase reservoir exposure. One particular operator in North America successfully deployed 5 ½-in.
casing flotation, running more than 100 jobs successfully in the Marcellus shale play in the northeast United States. After
almost two years of success, the operator worked with their cementing-service provider to identify inefficiencies in their
processes that could be improved or removed to improve overall operational efficiencies on location.
SPE 149206 5

Fig. 4—Typical schematic of flotation assembly.

Fig. 5—Initial well path in which the equipment was run.

Fig. 6—Hook load comparison with and without flotation assembly.

6 SPE 149206

New Flotation-Selection Criteria Created for the Marcellus Shale in North America
With the increased use of horizontal drilling practices in the Marcellus shale in North America, the use of flotation
technology has proven to be useful. However, this does not occur because the production casing strings cannot be run without
flotation, because they can in many cases, but rather because flotation helps reduce operator costs in other measurable ways.
Specifically, many casing strings run in the Marcellus can be run to depth by applying surface torque to rotate the casing to
depth. Rotating casing reduces the effective friction factor acting between the casing and the wellbore. Often, to achieve pipe
rotation, high-strength casing connections are required. Examples of high-torque connections can be conventional API
connections with torque rings inserted into each coupling, which can increase the torque rating for the connection
significantly. For some casing sizes and grades, the connection torque can increase up to 50%. However, if API connections
with torque rings do not have sufficient torque capabilities, proprietary connections with internal torque shoulders are used.
Though the proprietary connections provide significant improvements in torque capabilities compared to API connections,
the associated costs can also be significant.
When running smaller casing sizes, such as 5 1/2 in., insufficient weight (hook load) in the vertical section of the well is
generally not the limiting factor, which means the conventional method of determining the need for flotation technology by
the reduction in available hook load is not the primary determining factor. Rather, buckling of smaller casing strings near the
upper portion of the build section is the most common justification for flotation because severe buckling can often lead to
lockup, a condition that prevents further casing-running operations. Because casing flotation creates conditions where casing
drag in the lateral section is reduced, the required force to push the casing into the lateral section is reduced. The reduced
force required to push the casing into the lateral with flotation eliminates buckling, or at least reduces the severity of buckling
experienced.

Evacuation Process Reviewed and Revised

After using casing flotation successfully for several years in the Marcellus shale in the northeast US, one operator invited its
cementing service company to review and suggest possible process improvements to the surface rig up and procedures used
to evacuate the buoyant fluid (air) from the casing after reaching TD. The only specific requirement specified by the operator
was to percolate to the surface before breaking circulation. The surface rig up and procedure used by the operator to evacuate
the air from the casing were:
1. Land the casing.
2. Rig up a manifold-style cementing-plug container onto the casing with two lines (Fig. 7).
a. A 2-in. 1502 valve was attached to the upper manifold port with a line to the pit.
b. Another 2-in. 1502 valve was attached to the lower manifold port with a line to the rig/cement unit pumps.
3. Perform pressure-test operations.
4. With the upper valve closed, increase pressure to burst the rupture mechanism incorporated into the flotation
equipment.
5. Once the rupture mechanism bursts, open the upper valve to allow the discharge of air from the casing as it
percolates to the surface.
6. While percolating air through the upper line, intermittently pump drilling fluid into the lower line.
7. Continue this process until air stops percolating to the surface line to the pit.
8. Reconfigure the surface lines for cementing operations and perform a second pressure test.
SPE 149206 7

Fig. 7—Basic surface rig up used for percolation, circulation, and cementing.

This process often was lengthy, sometimes taking three to five hours or longer to percolate air after bursting the flotation
equipment on each job. If the operator completes one well per week per rig, and this process is used on each well, the rig time
consumed percolating air from the casing would take 6.3 to 10.8 rig days annually (52 weeks × 3 to 5 hours = 152 to 260
hours).
Though the operator had successfully performed more than 100 flotation jobs using the procedures detailed, the
cementing-service company identified multiple process improvements that were recommended. First, it was believed that,
based on the well trajectory ending in an updip angle, none of the air from the buoyant chamber was actually percolating to
the surface. Rather, it was believed that all the air discharged to the pits in Steps 5 to 7 was actually drawn into the casing
after bursting the flotation equipment as the fluid in the casing flowed through the flotation equipment into the buoyant
chamber. The cementing service company proposed that every cubic foot of air allowed to enter the casing had to be
percolated out when using the stated procedure. Additionally, the cementing service company believed the procedure that
required two separate rigups of surface lines on the rig floor was a duplicate effort, resulting in nonproductive time (NPT)
and introducing additional risks associated with the dual rigup that was required. After a thorough review of downhole fluid
movement, surface-rigup options, and improved procedures, the cementing service company proposed the following
procedure using a conventional surface rigup:
1. When using the percolation method and the surface rigup shown in (Fig. 8), be prepared to close the valve from
the pump once the rupture has occurred to help prevent influx of air into the casing. Once fluid stabilization
occurs in the casing, little vacuum will remain in the casing.
2. Apply surface pressure to burst the rupture disk and monitor surface pressure for 15 min. No change in measured
pressure is expected.
3. Pump a volume of mud equal to 90% of the buoyant-chamber volume.
4. Stop and monitor surface pressure for 15 min.
5. Open the line to the pit/separator and monitor the pressure with the cement unit for 15 min or until flowback
stops.
6. Close the valve to the pit/separator and pump the balance of the air-chamber volume plus an extra 10%. Note if
returns up the annulus are observed.
7. Stop and monitor the surface pressure for 10 min.
8. Open the line to the pit/separator and monitor the pressure for 10 min.
9. If flow persists up the casing, close the valve to the pit/separator and pump 15 bbl of mud.
10. Stop and monitor the surface pressure for 10 min.
11. Repeat Steps 8 and 9 until flowback through the casing stops or annular returns are noticed.
8 SPE 149206

Fig. 8—Conventional surface rigup proposed by the service company as suitable for percolation, circulation, and cementing.

This process was debated heavily with operations personnel because of concern the entire air bubble could be circulated
out the shoe and up the annulus, possible resulting in surface conditions emulating a gas kick. However, the proposed process
was finally approved for use. When used, no air percolated to the surface and circulation was established in less than 45 min;
and, with only one rigup/pressure test, circulation was established in less than one hour, resulting in a savings of two to four
hours. Because no air from the buoyant chamber was percolated to the surface, it was believed the entire air volume would
be circulated to the surface, potentially affecting the mud column and hydrostatic pressure in the annulus. However, the fears
that a surface kick or a loss of the annular fluid column would occur were not realized.
To date, a total of five jobs have been performed using the new surface procedures and have been further refined to less
than 30 min from rupture to circulation.

Second Application Evaluated

A second operator drilling in the Marcellus shale planned a 5 ½-in.production casing string to be run to 12,500 ft. The 5 ½-in.
casing incorporated premium connections to allow the efficient transfer of torque from the top drive tool to help reduce
frictional effects that hamper casing-running operations. Conventional casing-running operations were to be used. However,
as shown in Fig. 9, the casing got stuck approximately 500 ft off bottom. In addition to sticking 500 ft off bottom, rotation
could not be achieved when the shoe reached 10,400 ft., resulting in 500 ft less production zone exposure to the casing,
thereby affecting the long-term production capabilities of the well.
SPE 149206 9

Fig. 9—Computer torque and drag simulation of a recent job performed by an operator in the Marcellus shale shows casing buckling
begins somewhere in the string when the shoe is near 10,400 ft. The red line represents buckling (helical or sinusoidal) and is
occurring with the shoe at the MD shown. The green line shows estimated hook load while the shoe is at the MD shown. The
operator was unable to rotate casing after the shoe reached approximately 10,500 ft, even though proprietary shouldered
connections were used.

During post-job evaluation, casing flotation was discussed as a possible technology that could help prevent casing-
running difficulties on future wells. The operator and cementing service company collaborated to review the previous job to
evaluate benefits that could have been achieved if flotation had been used. All parameters used to create the drag simulation
shown in Fig. 9 were used with the addition of a 5,500-ft air chamber (Fig. 10). The new simulation clearly showed the
benefits of casing flotation. Specifically, no buckling or excess torque was indicated by the simulation; showing the casing
could be run successfully to the target depth of 12,500 ft. Further noted by the simulation was that the casing could be run to
the target depth with rotation, without the need for expensive premium casing connections. One additional simulation, not
shown, indicated the casing could be run successfully beyond 15,000 ft while maintaining the same well-path trajectory if the
operator needed the additional formation exposure and the formation structure allowed.
10 SPE 149206

Fig. 10—Revised computer simulation with a 5,500-ft buoyant chamber indicates the casing could be run safely to the desired target
depth of 12,500 ft without buckling of any kind. Continuing the wellbore on the current trajectory indicates the casing could be run
beyond 15,000 ft with casing flotation with API connections.

Conclusions
Casing flotation has become a common technique in today’s drilling environment. Many operators have identified it as an
integral tool to be considered by drilling engineers. Beyond the simple application of flotation technology, this paper
documents the need to continuously evaluate processes and equipment used. Even though a particular process has been
successfully used for many jobs, it is clear that, in some situations, additional efficiencies can be realized. The collaboration
between the operator and the service company required many hours of discussion and many face-to-face meetings before the
operator approved the new processes suggested.
In addition to the simple time and cost savings realized by the operator, a measurable reduction in time onsite was
achieved by the service company. Reducing job time by several hours helped the service company’s crews by allowing them
to be released sooner from each job, resulting in additional jobs being performed.

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