The Premiere Digital Magazine for the Reptile Hobbyist Vol 4 Issue 3

Part II of Sean McCormack MVB: Inbreeding in

captive reptile populations

Check out Colubrid Corner this month : Coffey

Line Aberrant Grey-banded Kingsnake

Eco-Friendly!!
Group Editor: John F. Taylor (The Herp Father)
Managing Editor: Dr. Robert G. Sprackland
Tails & Trails: Melissa Coakley Snake Hunting Chick
Herpetoculture 101: Lillie Nyte
Ask the Vet: Dr. Sean McCormack
The Tremper Insider: Ron Tremper
Exec. Director & Design: Rebecca Billard-Taylor
Coloubrid Corner: James Tintle and Doug Mong
The Forest Photographer: Kim LaForest
Featured authors: Tony Jones

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Table of Contents
Page 5 The Forest Photographer by Kim Laforest

Page 8 Choosing the right reptile pet by Lillie Nyte

Page 13 Living Dinosaurs The Tuatara by Tony Jones

Ask the Vet: Inbreeding in reptiles Part II Page 19

by Sean McCormack MVB
Live food FAQ by Tony Jones Page 23
Colubrid Corner: Lampropeltis alterna Page 27
by James Tintle

Photographing Geckos
by Kim LaForest
Over a year ago, I
obtained my first Leopard
Gecko (Eublepharis macu-
larius). It’s been a love af-
fair ever since. These neat
lizards pose many chal-
lenges for a photographer.
While they come in many
beautiful patterns, they
are very challenging to
photograph. You have to
remember that you with a
camera are an intimidat-
ing sight to a small lizard.
Even if they are used to
you being around and
handling them, photo-
graphing them requires an
amount of patience that is
not easily obtained. One
might think that if they
are handled often, they
would be easier to photo-
graph; I have found that is
not always the case.
I recently made
several images of three of
my four leopards and let’s
just say that I had a blast
trying to capture their cute
little personalities and
faces. If you have someone
who can help you while
©Kim Laforest
you are trying to get your
shots, it would be very
useful. It can be extremely
difficult to look through
a lens and focus on your
subject while it is moving
around. This is where an
extra set of hands would
be most welcome. I love
macro photography, which
is extreme close up pho-
tography, usually of very
small objects. If you are
trying to obtain a macro
shot of a gecko’s eye for
instance, it of course can
be very tricky, as opposed
to photographing an insect
which may be sitting still
on a leaf.
When preparing
for your shoot, It is best
to find a piece of material
to use as a background
that will really make your
gecko’s colors pop, most
likely a solid color will
work best. For this last
shoot I used black because
most of my Leos have yel-
low on them, so I thought
it would look great. Also,
a container to put your
gecko in that is big enough
while at the same time
shallow enough may be
helpful so that you can
get down to eye level with
your subject. I have found
in my years as a photog-
rapher that with some
 ©Kim Laforest
images the less noise in the background
the better, this way it doesn’t take away
from your subject as much, and really
produces a better image. There are a few
different ways to blur the background 1.)
Control your focus, 2.) Having a small-
er range of things in focus can create a
sharper subject while blurring the back-
ground.
Remember to always have your
camera ready; like I explained in the first
article, if you pause for a second to look
at your review screen, then you risk the
chance of missing a great capture! Al-
ways take lots of shots, I find it is best to
have more images to choose from than
less… If you get 15 great shots out of 100,
it will be worth it. If I had a dollar for So what are you waiting for? Get out there and
every time I said to myself; make some photos! Your subjects await you, and your au-
dience awaits you! Don’t miss the miracle of the moment
“Oh, that would have been a great shot if only Thank you for reading, until next time, happy shooting
would have had my camera ready!”
I would most likely be relaxing on a hammock
somewhere on my own private island photographing Kim - The Forest Photographer
Iguanas. I have learned my lesson in this area.

©Kim Laforest
©Kim Laforest

©Kim Laforest

©Kim Laforest
 ©John Taylor

Choosing the Right Pet for You

by Lillie Nyte

Emperor Scorpion (Pandinus imperator)

can be great scorpions for beginners.
Bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) are
Over 4 million households in the US now keep exotic friendly and adept well in captivity.

reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates as pets. Reptiles,

amphibians, and invertebrates, such as tarantulas and

scorpions, are gaining in popularity as pets due to

increased knowledge of proper husbandry practices and

increased availability of husbandry tools. However, because

these animals are now readily available in some of the most

common and well known pet store chains there is also a

significant amount of misinformation given to consumers

©Becky Billard
 and many people are caught ill-prepared for the animal are not known for being particularly personable towards

they have just brought home. So how do you know which their keepers but there are some exceptions. Some

pet is right for you? invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians are not hands on

creatures but may be very interesting

RESEARCH RESEARCH RESEARCH!

to observe. People that spend more time at home during

While impulse purchases are always a tempting prospect
the evenings may enjoy the company of nocturnal
when looking at a rare and beautiful animal. It is almost
animals over diurnal animals. Some people are looking
always a bad idea to bring home an animal when you
for animals that grow to an impressive size but beware
are unfamiliar with it’s care and do not have the proper
that a large lizard or snake is not recommended for a
husbandry tools to look after it. It is imperative that all
novice keeper. In terms of costs, all pets and especially
responsible pet owners do the proper amount of research
reptiles can be quite costly to care for when daily, weekly,
prior to acquiring any animal great or small. Do not rely

solely on the knowledge of pet store employees or animal ©John Taylor

vendors as some may not be as knowledgeable as you may

think. Sometimes in the course of your research you will

find that a certain species may be unsuitable for you due

to factors such as it’s diet, it’s full grown size, or difficulties

in providing a proper captive environment.

What are you looking for in a pet?

Do you want personality? Ease of care? Friendliness?

Size? These are all important questions that one should

think about. Most reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates
Leopard geckos (Eublepharis macular- and monthly maintenance is all accounted for. Keep
ius), can be very social and curious! in mind that some species of animals may be noisy,

especially at night, when frogs and geckos may start

communicating with each other as they would in the

wild.

Housing your pet

It is very important to keep in mind how large an animal

will ultimately become and whether or not you have the

©Austin Taylor
space and the ability to keep it in your domicile. Some the form of natural bedding such as shredded bark, sand,

animals can be kept in rack systems which is a space mulch, moss, coco husk, etc. Aquatic and semi-aquatic

saving technique especially for those that have a large reptiles and amphibians will require consistent water

amount of animals or a small amount of space, however changes and even costly filtration systems. Some geckos

racks are not suitable for all species. Animals should and amphibians will need high amounts of humidity and

always be kept in appropriately sized enclosures which require daily misting which can be provided via a misting

may be quite costly and that should always be taken into system or manual misting by their keeper.

consideration prior to acquiring any animal. It must also

Dedicating your time
be noted that some apartments and landlords may not

allow their tenants to keep reptiles. How much time are you likely to be able to give towards

the care and maintenance of your new pet? Some animals

Correct captive conditions
like invertebrates and snakes need very little of your time

Reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates often come from in terms of daily care. While some lizards especially ones

exotic locales and unlike most domestic pets must be that will grow quite large will require more dedication in

presented with suitable conditions within their enclosures terms of care, maintenance, handling, and taming. Some

in which to live. They are unable to regulate body animals only need to be fed once a week and some will

temperatures like mammals and must have the proper need to be fed every other day or so, time will need to be

temperature and humidity levels provided for them taken not only to feed but also to prepare food.

in order to survive in the foreign conditions in which

Proper diets
they now find themselves. It can be
©John Taylor
quite costly and time consuming to

maintain the necessary conditions

within an animal’s enclosure. Diurnal

lizards also need expensive ultraviolet

lighting that needs to be changed

on a regular basis, about every

six months. Reptiles, amphibians,

and invertebrates need to be kept

on a variety of substrates that are

appropriate to the species which can

be as simple and cheap as newspaper

to slightly more expensive options in

Red tail boa (Boa Constrictor)
 Do mice and rats make you squeamish? Don’t like insects constant supply of fresh and varied vegetables and even

such as crickets, flies, or mealworms? Most people may fruits. Some animals also require vitamin and mineral

not give a thought as to what their pets eat prior to supplementation to their diet. Feeding these animals is

keeping them, only to find out that they can’t stomach not a cheap endeavor, the price of mice and rats adds up

the reality. The majority of snake species eat mice and quickly and even keeping up a supply of fresh vegetables

rats which can be readily acquired as frozen or live. can be quite costly week after week.

Tarantulas, scorpions, and other invertebrates eat a variety

Lifespan
of live feeder insects. Tiny jewel toned dart frogs eat tiny

fruit flies. Different species of lizards require different Reptiles typically have long lifespans although some are

diets, they may be carnivores, omnivores, frugivores, longer than others. Well kept, healthy turtles and tortoises

insectivores, or even vegetarians. Some geckos are able may far outlive their keepers by decades. Small lizards can

to eat easily prepared powdered diets while bearded live anywhere from five to upwards of ten years. Snakes

dragons require a variety of fruits, vegetables, and insects. typically reach the ages of fifteen and beyond into their

It may be necessary to dedicate refrigerator and freezer thirties. Even some species of tarantulas can live upwards

space to food for the animals including frozen rodents of twenty years for females and ten years for males.

and live mealworms. Herbivorous lizards will need a

©John Taylor

They start small and can outgrow you in no

time!

©John Taylor
Veterinary care many years to come. Everyone should be prepared for the

long term cost and dedication that it takes to own these

Some time in the long life of these animals it may be
exotic species.
necessary to visit a veterinarian. Veterinary care can

be costly and many veterinarians

do not specialize in reptiles which

would require someone to travel long

distances to see a reputable reptile vet.

You should never try to medicate a

reptile without a proper diagnosis from

a veterinarian.

All these factors must be taken into

consideration before bringing home a

new pet to ensure that both the keeper and the kept will

have a healthy, happy, and long lasting relationship for

©John Taylor
The Tuataras Of New Zealand real enigmas of the reptile world... The Tuatara!
New Zealand must indeed be unique for it is only here that
by Tony Jones the single representative of an ancient order of reptiles has
survived. Its nearest relatives died out at least 60 million
years ago leaving only the tuatara to remain isolated to New
In September 2000 I flew to Christchurch on the South Zealand and its nearby
Island of New Zealand. This was to be a bit of a first for islands. Often described
me as I had promised my girlfriend that this trip was to as a “living fossil”, the
be a real holiday instead of spending two weeks trekking tuatara is now restricted
around the undergrowth looking for animals. I did not to a handful of islands off
pack a field guide, did not call any zoos, did not make the coast of New Zealand,
contact with any local herpers and did not even look having been eradicated
to see what herps were to be found in New Zealand. from its habitats on the
However, despite all of my non-preparations, I knew in mainland. This is mainly
the back of my mind that no trip to this unique habitat due to the introduction
would be complete without an encounter with one of the of Pacific rats (which out-
 flowing directly from the male’s vent into the female.
• Tuataras have a parietal eye.
Ok so your iguana has one too. However, in tuataras,
the degeneration of this organ is less complete. It has
a rudimentary retina and lens and has a chemical
connection to the brain. It is thought to be associated
compete the tuatara for food) and pigs which had been with the pineal gland and appears to help in the early
introduced by Europeans. development of tuataras and have some role as a
general biological clock!
Tuataras were originally thought to be related to Agamid
lizards and were classified here by John Gray of the British • Tuataras have a stronger skull.
Museum in 1831. Gray had been in
receipt of a single tuatara skull and
had noted the chisel like marks made
by the upper mandible, leading to the
use of the Latin “Sphenodon”, meaning
“Wedge Tooth” Incidentally, Gray
later received a whole tuatara skeleton
and, not realising this was from the
same animal as Sphenodon, named it
Hatteria punctuata and still grouped it
with the Agamids.
Although subsequent scientists
soon realised that the tuatara was
certainly not a lizard it has been the
responsibility of recent DNA work
by Dr Charles Daugherty at Victoria
University that has (almost) settled the
arguments surrounding the tuatara.
There are now two recognised species
of tuatara; Sphenodon punctuatus, and
the much less common, Sphenodon guntheri. (Gunther The skull is more robust and is more like that of a
1867) crocodile than a lizard. There are also more holes in a
tuatara skull than in those of a lizard.
It is understandable that Gray thought the tuatara to be an
Agamid lizard. The similarities are astonishing. Even when
armed with knowledge to the contrary, as I held a tuatara
in my hand it was difficult to conceive that this animal is
not a lizard. It has many typically saurian features; its back
sports a row of spines and their diet is typically lizard like.
Even upon close scrutiny, it looks more like a lizard than
some lizards do! At least the tuatara has legs! So what’s
the difference? There are many but here are some of the
major differences.
• Tuataras have no copulatory organs.
Male tuataras have no penis. Copulation is similar
to that of lizards with the male subduing the female
by grasping the back of her neck with his jaws and
twisting his tail around hers until the cloaca’s are • Tuataras have skeletal similarities they share with
aligned. From here things change slightly. As the birds.
tuatara has no penis, fertilisation is achieved by sperm
 Their vertebrae and ribs have features that they share
with birds and a few extinct fossil reptiles, namely the
hook like structures that attach the muscles and ribs.
• Tuataras have a beak.
This feature is less pronounced in tuataras but is
more noticeable in the skulls of extinct relatives. (The
sphenodontida were at one time thought to be the
dominant reptile group during the age of the dinosaur.)
The specimens that I had the opportunity to handle
were on display at Orana Park in Christchurch, New
Zealand. The animals were housed in a simple enclosure
within the small reptile house at the park. All told there
were around a dozen or so enclosures of various sizes,
most of which housed native species such as common
gecko, common skink and green gecko. There were
two non-native species, an Australian lace monitor
and a pair of Australian shingle back skinks. Two of
the larger enclosures housed tuataras. The décor and
set up were quite basic with a dirt/mulch substrate and
a large ceramic water-bowl. In addition to the various
bark hides that littered the floor of the enclosure, there
was also a short length of corrugated tubing which
was buried at a 45 degree angle. This led to a shelter
beneath the floor of the enclosure which was accessible
from above through a trap door. This underground lair
seemed to be a favourite spot for the tuataras as this
was the first place the keeper looked when trying to
find the animals. In the wild tuataras often co-habit,
sharing burrows with birds such as prions and other
nesting sea birds.
Although tuataras are essentially nocturnal, they often
emerge from their burrows to bask when necessary, as
do many other species of nocturnal reptile. In the wild
their diet consists of many insects along with worms,
snails, spiders, beetles and the like. Tuataras will also
eat small seabird chicks and eggs, particularly those
with which they share their burrows. The Tuataras at
Orana are fed a typical variety of commercial live-foods
including mealworms, wax worms and wax moths
and are treated with an occasional pink mouse. I was
surprised to hear that crickets do not feature in the diet
although I could not ascertain if this was by design or
because they were not available.
Tuataras are tolerant of much cooler temperatures than
many lizards or snakes would prefer. Indeed, tuataras
are active at temperatures below 7 degrees C. This is
reflected in the design of the enclosure which is almost
completely glass apart from a large wire mesh section
which vented directly outdoors. On the day we visited
the park during New Zealand’s mid spring, the weather
was particularly cold and we were wearing coats and
hats. Even during the winter months, the tuataras at
Orana Park are not provided with any supplemental
heat. When I held the animal I could feel that its body
temperature was very cool, even though my hands were
not particularly warm anyway. If this had been a lizard
in my collection I would have been quite concerned.
Fortunately, this was no lizard. Unfortunately, it wasn’t
in my collection either!
Tuataras have not been bred at Orana Park, but at the
most southerly tip of New Zealand’s South Island is the
world’s leading tuatara breeding project. Invercargill
is home to the Southland Museum, which houses the
“Tuatarium”. I managed to contact Lindsay Hazely, a
leading authority on tuatara husbandry and breeding
having worked with these animals at Southland Museum
for thirty years.
The entire collection is housed on display in the
200 square metre enclosure, which is divided into
several separate areas to house the different sizes and
age groups. Here are housed four adult tuatara (Sp.
punctuatus) from which Lindsay has produced over 60
living offspring, the oldest of these being 16 years old.
In addition to this, the Tuatarium has also raised seven
Brothers Island Tuatara (Sp guntheri), who are now 10
years old.
To the un-initiated, thirty years to produce 60 offspring
may not seem like much of an accomplishment.
However, when you consider that tuataras may not reach
sexual maturity until between 18 and 22 years of age, the
picture becomes a little clearer. In the indoor enclosure
at the Tuatarium, both heat and food are provided
at optimum levels. This allows the developmental
process to proceed a little more quickly, with breeding
success being achieved at around 14 years. Accelerated
sexual maturity is not the only benefit of the artificial
environment. The tuataras at Southland are the first to
achieve annual breeding, a feat that was never thought
to be possible. Wild tuataras have a biennial breeding
cycle (at the most) which is certainly one of the major
reasons there are declining wild populations. Think on
that for a while!
Tuataras were first bred at the Tuatarium in 1984, and
since then the centre has become the worlds most
successful tuatara breeding project. Of the sixty or so
young the centre has produced, Southland has supplied
32 Tuatara to other institutions. Their re-introduction
programme is the ultimate goal. And the project goes
from strength to strength. No captive hatched Tuatara
has itself produced young, but in 1998 a 14 year old
captive raised female at the Tuatarium produced eggs.
Although the eggs were not viable, this event was the
first of its kind in captivity and helps to confirm that
tuataras can be sexually mature at 14 years of age.

Lindsay attributes the success of the tuatara breeding
project at Southland Museum to a number of
contributing factors. The first and most important
being temperature. Although the arrival of humans
and non native predators has accelerated the demise
of the tuatara; (They are now only represented in 0.1%
of their former range!) Lindsay also cites a dramatic
climate change. Having looked at historic weather
patterns and comparing them with the present day it
appears that the current climate in New Zealand may
have the tuatara struggling. Indeed Newman & Cree
(1991) observed that 25% of females gravid in the
wild lay once every four years. The prime conditions
in the artificial environment at Southland have seen
the average female gravidity rate soar well above the
wild rate of 21%. Moreover, such conditions seem to
allow juvenile tuatara to reach sexual maturity within
its physiological possibility.
Secondly and related to the provision of optimum
temperatures is the abundance of food. By maintaining
the mean air temperatures at 16-17 Degrees Celsius the
females at Southland are able to consume an average of
100-150 grams of food each year. The longer, warmer
“summer” allows for a more active metabolism and an
increase in food consumption. These extra calories and
nutrients are then made available for egg production.
This is thought to be a major contributing factor in the
annual production of eggs.
Lastly but interestingly is the provision of UV light.
Lizard producers have long known of the importance
of UV and its role in vitamin D3 and calcium
metabolism. The provision of UV for these purposes
seems consistent with the breeding and rearing of
tuatara. However, experiments with captive hatched
tuatara have led Lindsay to explore the influence of
UV on the pineal gland. As we know the degeneration
of the parietal eye in tuatara is less complete and is
thought to have a relationship with the pineal gland.
(The body’s time clock) In newborn tuatara the
parietal eye is visible under the skin but becomes
covered with less transparent scales over a period of
6-12 months. After experiencing a 50-80% mortality
rate in newborn tuatara, in 1992 Lindsay started to
experiment with UV and tuatara hatchlings. The
primary cause of death had been a chronic calcium
deficiency, which had not responded to dietary
supplementation. He now achieves 100% rearing
success! This can only be good news for the survival
of this fascinating and biologically important reptile.
Although the North Island has a greater diversity of
wild species than the rest of New Zealand, the South
Island has its own attractions. Apart from the obvious
attraction of collections such as that at Orana Park and
Southland Museum, the Island itself is exceptionally
beautiful. It was impossible to discipline myself and
not come home with enough landscape photos to fill an
entire album! The scenery, fauna and flora make a trip
to New Zealand one that I would highly recommend.
Thanks to Korina Ferguson at Orana Park Christchurch,
New Zealand for allowing access to their Tuataras.
Huge thanks to Lindsay Hazely at The Tuatarium,
Southlands Museum Invercargill. New Zealand, for
all the info, advice and corrections, not to mention the
photos.
Literature Cited.
Gill B &Whitaker T: New Zealand Frogs & Reptiles.
Parkinson B : The Tuatara
Hazley L : UV and Life
Hazely L : Annual Breeding of Tuatara (abstract)
 two biggest species I mention above in terms of morphs
created, the Leopard Gecko and Royal Python, are also
Inbreeding in captive Reptile Popula- the best examples to use when describing the specific
problems that manifest when inbreeding is lauded as a
tions
The morph craze
The rise of colour morphs in certain species, most notably
in Royal Pythons and Leopard Geckoes in recent years
has seen a massive increase in the level of inbreeding
within the reptile hobby that is not only now expected but
also glorified and defended with extraordinary vigour. My
introduction to the reptile community in my early teenage
years was surrounded by keepers who were fascinated by
the natural biology and behaviour of the myriad of rep-
tile and amphibian species from different regions of the
world. Generally enclosures and husbandry techniques
attempted to emulate the wild habitat and the use of natu-
ralistic vivaria with living plants was widespread. Selective
breeding for unusual traits or ‘domestication’ of species
was not so widespread. The hobby has changed consider-
ably since then, and the more worrying trend is that it has
become more of an industry for many where animals are
kept and produced in minimal welfare standards in order positive practice and the negative consequences of the
to maximise profit. I’ve mentioned elsewhere the health practice ignored or worse still falsely justified. For fear
implications and welfare concerns inherent in mass pro- of writing a book instead of an article I will not go into
duction of reptiles in large scale facilities, and the culture tremendous detail on all the genetic problems associated
that extends to the small scale keeper as a result in terms with morphs in these species but I would encourage all
of housing, husbandry and value of the individuals kept. readers to investigate for themselves the genetic dysfunc-
tions inherent in the following few examples:
The boom in popularity of reptiles as pets in recent years
has led to a stunning variety of morphs or man-made • Enigma Leopard Geckoes with neurological or
artificially selected forms that vary significantly from the vestibular (balance) disease
wild-type of that particular species. These morphs have
• Cryptosporidium susceptibility in many Leopard
arisen through careful selection for desirable traits, and
Gecko strains (thought to have some genetic com-
are often exemplified or propagated by inbreeding. With-
ponent for parasite resistance)
out inbreeding it would not be possible to produce many
of the common morphs we see today, some of which have • Spider Royal pythons with mild to severe neuro-
superceded the original wild type form in certain species logical issues aka ‘wobbles’
to the point it has itself become a rarity in the trade. The
 • Lethal gene combinations in many Royal morph
pairings
• Spinal kinking, duckbills, bug eyes and other
physical malformations in Royal Pythons
It is simply undeniable that a great proportion if not all
of these health issues of the animals being produced are
at least partly if not fully attributable to degrees of in-
breeding associated with their production. Breeders and
hobbyists alike can argue all they want on the merits and
justifications of doing so, but the bottom line is that to
continue breeding these defective lines of animals with-
out substantial and considered efforts to improve the
lines by outcrossing is tantamount to animal abuse and is
only justified for financial gain.
Dispelling the Myths
Many excuses or justifications are given when the prac-
tice of inbreeding is raised. All can be rebuttalled easily,
applying the following logic.
Crossing siblings, parents, and heterozygotes carry
different levels of risk
This may be true in isolation for single matings but if
one considers the effect of many breeders ‘allowing’ close
matings over many years and in geographically limited
areas the inbreeding coefficient for the whole population
rises sharply. By ‘allowing’ close matings in your collec-
tion to ‘enhance’ the appearance of whatever strain or
morph you are producing, you are having a detrimental
impact on the overall genetic health of that population as
a whole in the future.
Single matings aren’t harmful, only repeated crossings
of related animals
Again one breeder ‘allowing’ a single mating between
two siblings or parent to offspring may not carry a huge
risk when viewed as an isolated event, but considering
the bloodline involved may be highly inbred already if
traced back far enough, and considering the likelihood
of future closely related crossings being carried out with
the offspring produced, each single mating dismissed as
an isolated low risk event has the potential to impact the
genetic integrity of the animals in future. Breeders should
not be so shortsighted as to think their actions in their
current generation of apparently healthy animals has no
impact on the future health of the next generations.
Wild occurrence rise in inbreeding in the past 10-20 years we have also
seen a variety of health problems becoming more appar-
As discussed earlier wild populations are maximally ent, some very subtle and relating to disease ressitance
suited to their environment, otherwise they would not and reproductive success which may be directly related
survive. Comparing artificially selected animals bred for to genetic issues.
appearance and other arbitrary human values, aesthetic
or economic, with wild populations where an occasional Defective young are culled so good breeders only sell
inbreeding event has no great impact on the population or breed healthy animals
is an invalid argument.
There are two serious problems with this sort of state-
Low incidence in certain species or bloodlines ment. Firstly, there is an ethical dilemma with producing
large numbers of defective offspring only to cull them
I have seen many times in discussions on inbreeding the immediately or once realised that they are excess to
person defending the practice citing an example they requirements. Not to mention that methods of culling
know where they or a colleague has ‘bred seven gener- are often questionable in humane terms or in efficacy.
ations of Jaguar Carpet pythons using sibling and par- Secondly, if you have even 10% of a clutch of eggs hatch-
ent matings with no problems’ for example. This is not ing physically deformed neonates then arguably none of
proof that inbreeding is not harmful. This is an example the rest of the related clutch should be deemed as repro-
where someone has not seen any of the visible effects of ductively viable animals. Invariably they are all carrying
inbreeding over time in their line of animals. They may the potential to display this trait in future generations.
be lucky so far that nothing visible has been identified. Therefore saying the unhealthy ones are culled and a
Genetics relies on chance mutations and gene combina- breeder is responsible because they only sell the physical-
tions. Many times highly inbred animals can be pro- ly perfect specimens ignores the fact that the breeder is
duced and don’t display any negative effects. But arguing selling from a bloodline that carries invisible genes and
that because this is true that inbreeding in general is problems. If a new owner buys from this bloodline and
without risk is foolish. Applying a similar logic someone decides to breed later they are likely unaware of the full
might say car crashes do not happen or are very low risk genetic potential of their animal, to produce desirable
because they have been driving for 20 plus years and and undesirable offspring in the same clutch or litter.
have never had a crash. It is simply an illogical defense Subsequent generations may have an even higher in-
and no excuse to make light of the often serious conse- stance of congenital deformities. This sort of problem in
quences of inbreeding. the industry is the hidden cost of the morph craze and
deliberate inbreeding. Many thousands of animals fail to
Primitive Vs. advanced vertebrates?
hatch, fail to thrive or are so badly deformed that they
Another opinion that is often given to defend current are killed immediately after birth or hatching. Do we as
breeding practices and standards in the reptile industry hobbysits want this as the reality and standard of how we
is that inbreeding does not seem to affect lower verte- operate, especially in light of all the opponents that crit-
brates such as fish, amphibians and reptiles compared icise us on animal welfare grounds? Most people don’t
with mammals for instance. This is not proven fact. The take into account when they buy their high end royal
fact is that much of the research carried out on inbreed- python morph for example the sheer number of defec-
ing to date in the scientific literature relates only to mam- tive and unthrifty babies that were produced and culled
mal species and birds. The reason for this is that agricul- in order to produce our pet. Is that a standard practice
tural and animal science research has primarily focused we should consider or knowingly contribute to? I would
to date on agricultural species. As discussed earlier vast argue that these are the things we should consider when
data and research exists on genetic variation and in- buying into a culture of deliberate inbreeding. But most
breeding effects in terms of the domestication of species, people are unaware because the breeders are not adver-
and animal production for human benefit. Unfortunately, tising their genetic mutant offspring for all to see and
herpetoculutre is still in it’s infancy by comparison to ag- marvel over. And some people just don’t want to know at
riculture which has been around for thousands of years. what cost their animal is produced, which is a great pity.
Fecundity of captive reptiles, as in their ability to repro-
Conclusion
duce lareg numbers of offspring, is lower in many species
than others. And we have also been breeding many of In conclusion the issue of inbreeding in captive herps is
the species we keep in captivity for a few generations in one that generates a lot of interest, much argument and
relatively small numbers so to date may not have seen the a great deal of mistruths being touted as fact in order to
effects of inbreeding depression in most. With the huge
defend current practices. If one respects even the basic tenets of animal husbandry and breeding then accepting
that inbreeding is detrimental to animal health and welfare over time is the only responsible option. Consistently
justifying the practice as harmless and propagating mistruths to those looking for advice as a way of defending the
practice is misguided at best and dangerous at worst. As the reptile hobby has grown into a multi-million dollar in-
dustry, sadly production has become more and more intensive to the point animals are now very much a commod-
ity in line with intensive agriculture. Big commercial breeders are idolised and respected in the industry, however
some are more responsible than others. Their opinion and expertise especially when it comes to breeding is respect-
ed and their methods trickle down to the small scale breeder over time. If that advice advocates deliberate inbreed-
ing as standard practice and neglects to inform of the significant risks and costs in terms of animal welfare then I
think we need to be fearful of where the industry is heading. When discussing the issue of inbreeding it is vital to
consider whether it is being done for commercial gain or for the benefit of the animals. It is invariably the former,
and if you are supporting that side of the industry then you must ask yourself which is more important for you as a
reptile keeper, human profit and enjoyment or animal welfare?
 Black crickets are resilient to cold, are less jumpy and grow
to be the biggest and meatiest cricket on the menu, making
Live-Food FAQ article and photos by Tony Jones them my personal favourites. However, a hungry black
cricket can be aggressive enough to snack on a captive
Q. What kind of cricket is best for my lizard?
lizard and so care should be taken to avoid this happening.
A. The easy answer to this question is that any of the (Indeed all hungry bugs have the potential to do this, but
crickets available at your reptile stockist will do just fine for black crickets are particularly voracious.) All good herpers
your lizard. That said it is worth knowing a little about the will know about the importance of gut loading reptile live
different types that are available as all bugs are not created foods and so keeping your crickets well fed should negate
equal. the aggression problem. Some keepers also leave a piece of
carrot or potato inside the vivarium for the crickets to eat
Banded Crickets (Gryllodes sigillatus) Banded crickets are to discourage them from munching on lizard.
prolific breeders, making them a common live-food in UK
shops. The large yield available from a breeding culture Until relatively recently all of these types of cricket had
makes them a popular choice for commercial breeders, been rare or non-existent in shops as the bulk of crickets
but there is a downside. Being a tropical species, banded sold in the UK were Domestic Crickets (Acheta domestica).
crickets don’t fare too well in cold weather and can often Unfortunately this species was wiped out by a virus a few
die in transit from the breeder to the shop. They should years ago and is now impossible to breed across Europe.
be fine by the time you buy them at the
store but it is worth remembering that
availability could be an issue at certain
times of the year. Banded crickets are
also very agile and fond of climbing too;
worth knowing if you have a lazy lizard!
Silent Crickets (Gryllus assimilis)
Silent crickets are less likely to keel over
in cold temperatures so you’ll often find
these on the shelves during the winter
months, but being less prolific breeders
makes them more expensive to produce
and that means that sometimes they can
cost a few pence extra per tub. I think
the silent cricket is well worth the extra
cost as they have several advantages over
their banded cousins. Being meatier
and slower makes silent crickets a great
lizard’s lunch but most people like them
because they make less noise!
Black Crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus)
Several breeders both here and on the continent have There are a couple of mealworm varieties to choose from:
tried to re-establish breeding cultures since then but to no
avail. Breeders in the US seem to have avoided getting the Regular mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) are the most
virus although most here believe it’s only a matter of time. common variety and should be gut loaded and dusted
in the same way you would with a cricket or locust. Be
Q. Are locusts a better food than crickets? sure to use the right size; it is worth knowing that young
worms are available for smaller animals. Just ask your
A. It depends what you mean by better. Nutritionally shopkeeper to order you in some ‘Mini-Mealworms’.
speaking either crickets or locusts of the right size, gut
loaded and dusted with the appropriate supplements Giant Mealworms (Zophobas morio) are a different
make fine food for your animal. Although they look a species to the regular mealworm but can be used in exactly
little creepy, many people do prefer locusts as they are the same way. They are most suitable for larger species
easy to catch should they escape, unlike crickets that will such as monitors, tegus and adult bearded dragons.
scarper and hide in an inaccessible hidey hole, chirruping
annoyingly. I spoke to several experienced and large scale lizard
breeders and none of us has ever experienced a mealworm
I think the golden desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria ) is eating its way out of a lizard. Despite this old wives tale
quite attractive, for a locust, and you may occasionally see re-surfacing every few years we think it originated when
the less attractive migratory locusts (Locusta migratoria) people have observed a mealworm that decided to make a
too. meal of an already dead lizard.
Q. I’ve been told to steer clear of mealworms as they When buying giant mealworms make sure you are getting
are of poor nutritional value and can eat their way out ‘morios’ and not hormonally boosted giant regulars.
of a lizard’s stomach. Is that true? The hormone is used to disrupt the life cycle and
metamorphosis of regular mealworms allowing breeders
A. Mealworms have had a poor press for a while but I’m to feed the worm and grow it larger. The hormone used
not sure they deserve the bad reputation. Mealworms for the process is believed to reduce fertility in some
have a thick exoskeleton shell which can be difficult for species of lizard.
smaller species to digest and it is not uncommon to find
regurgitated mealworms in a vivarium after a feed. Bit this Mealworms are best served in a smooth sided dish along
problem is easy to avoid if you use the right size worm and with a little powdered supplement. Mealworms are too
they can be a great meal if adequately gut loaded. Indeed, smooth to hold supplement powder well and it is easily
some commercial leopard gecko breeders use mealworms brushed off if worms are allowed to crawl into the vivarium
almost exclusively. substrate. The dish makes the mealworms easier to catch
and keeps them powder coated. as are their larger lookalikes the pachnoda worm. Both these
types of soft worm are best served as a supplemental treat,
Q. Occasionally my mealworms turn white and some even especially as some lizards can become fussily addicted to
turn into beetles. Can I still feed them to my lizard? them, turning their nose up at other types of live-food.
A. Sure! In fact, the white mealworms are better than regular Q. I’m thinking of getting poison arrow frogs. Are small
ones. This is because mealworms turn white when they shed crickets the only food option?
their skin and are much softer at this time. The chitinous
exoskeleton shell is difficult to digest and so these soft white A. No, there are a couple of different varieties of flies available
worms are great for lizards. Some lizards seem to dislike the for them to eat, namely fruit flies and curly wing flies. Both of
beetles but they’re OK to use as food for those that will eat these are usually only available if you order them in advance.
them You may also need to order the smaller sizes of cricket in
advance too as not all shops will routinely stock them.
Q. Are wax worms fattening?
Q. What size crickets should I be using?
A. I couldn’t say for sure as I’ve never eaten more than a
handful! Joking aside, wax worms are loaded with calories, A. Use the distance between your lizard’s eyes as a rough
guide and be aware that slightly smaller bugs are preferable
to ones too large. A few smaller bugs are easier to digest than
one larger one due to their greater surface area and so are less
likely to be regurgitated.
Most shops will sell crickets and locusts in sizes small,
medium and large, but some use a more accurate ‘instar’
rating. An instar refers to the skin shedding cycle a bug goes
through as it grows.
Insects start off as hatchlings as they leave the egg a few days later
they
will
shed
their
skin
and
become a 1st instar. The next shed they become a 2nd and then a 3rd right up to a 5th instar before they acquire fully
developed wings and become an adult. I think instars are a more accurate and less ambiguous description of size and
help everyone to avoid misunderstandings when ordering specific sizes of live food.
Q. How many should I feed my lizard at each sitting?
A. Only feed the exact amount of bugs that your lizard will eat in a sitting. Of course it is impossible to know this
number in advance, but trial and error will enable you to eventually make a good guess. It is important that you do not
leave uneaten bugs in the vivarium for two reasons. Firstly, hungry bugs can attack and even kill your animal. Secondly,
hungry bugs will feast on the only moist substance available, this being lizard droppings.
We know that gut loading is vitally important to lizard husbandry, so make sure your bugs aren’t gut loading on poo. Be
sure then to catch or squish any uneaten bugs. I usually do this three or four hours after feeding.

Q. I’ve heard about a new type of calcium rich lizard food. What is it?
A. The latest in live-food from the States is the phoenix worm; a super-high calcium feeder worm with a low phosphorous
content. It is a fantastic step in the right direction to address the calcium deficiency problem we sometimes see, and could
negate the need for separate calcium supplementation. Phoenix worms are now available at some shops in the UK and I
think it is only a matter of time before Phoenix Worms are popular over here.
 which in the hobby are called alternates.

Coffey Line Aberrant Grey-banded kingsnakes make excellent captives as they

are the medium size and take rodents on a regular basis.
Grey-banded Kingsnake: Lampropeltis alterna
Captive neonates may be a little tricky to get started on
(Brown, 1901) Article and photos by James Tintle rodents as they tend to lean more towards lizards as their
Range: Grey-banded Kingsnakes can be found in south- first meals. Neonates can also be on the smaller size when
western Texas and south to northern Mexico. Specimens first hatched where day old pinks are a fairly large meal
have been collected in the Bolsón de
Mapimí portion of the Chihuahuan Des-
ert.
Grey-Banded Kingsnakes are a medium
sized colubrid, rarely exceeding four feet
in length. Their pattern is a typical tricol-
or fashion, red or orange blotches or rings
outlined in black. The black may be out-
lined with white. In between these blotch-
es, is a grey coloration. It can range from
light grey to almost black. Their pattern is
highly variable between distinct localities
and can range from wide red centered
blotches (Blair’s Phase) or 2-3 scale wide
blotches tapering ventrolaterally (Alterna
Phase). In between each black outlined
blotch there can be small dots of black,
for them. If considering purchasing a captive
Grey-banded kingsnake make sure it’s feed-
ing regularly on rodents unless you’re a more
advanced hobbyist.
Dan Coffey a hobbyist from California, is the
originator of this line hence the name. Dan
started working with select aberrant king
snakes found throughout their range and selec-
tively bred them for 20 plus years. It’s unsure
whether this trait started off as a simple reces-
sive trait or was picked up in their lineage from
a specific animal. Either way, I’ve proved it out
to be a simple recessive trait, by breeding two
Blair’s phase heterozygous animals together
and producing an aberrant offspring in June of
2014.
This aberrant mutation is very unpredictable
and can produce offspring that have a zig-zag
pattern to almost patternless. Even though
this pattern mutation is over two decades old
there are not many produced each year. There
are other hobbyists working on integrating
the hypomelanistic and anerythristic genes

into this aberrant gene to ultimate-

ly produce a Coffey Line Aberrant
Ghost. There is no known amelanistic
gene in Grey-banded kingsnakes. The
amelanistic Grey-banded offered in
the hobby today are from a borrowed
amelanistic gene from Ruthven’s
Kingsnake (Lampropeltis ruthveni)
or any of the milksnake subspecies
(Lampropeltis triangulum ssp). Wheth-
er you’re interested in the Grey-banded
kingsnakes natural variations, or any of
the mutations or combinations thereof,
they should be in any Kingsnake or
Milksnake fans collection.