INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?

¡  Science…
l  a body of established knowledge
l  the observation, identification, investigation,
and theoretical explanation of natural
phenomenon

usually the ul*mate goal is theory

genera*on and verifica*on
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?

¡  Theory…
l  a set of inter-related constructs and
propositions that specify relations among
variables to explain and predict phenomena
l  should be simple, consistent with observed
relationships, tentative and verifiable
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?

¡  Scientific Method…
l  involves the principles and processes
regarded as characteristic of or necessary
for scientific investigation
l  process or approach to generating valid and
trustworthy knowledge
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?

¡  Research…
l  the application of the scientific method
l  a systematic process of collecting and
logically analyzing information (data)
¡  Research Methods (Methodology)…
l  the ways one collects and analyzes data
l  methods developed for acquiring
trustworthy knowledge via reliable and
valid procedures
What is Research?

• Searching for a theory, for

testing theory, or for solving a
problem.

• Scientific Research is “a
systematic, controlled,
empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the
presumed relations among
natural
phenomena.” (Kerlinger,
1973)
FResearch - a scientific investigation
intended to discover new knowledge, to
test new knowledge or technology, verify
existing theories and generate new
ones.
FResearch - a tool for growth of science,
pure or applied, physical, biological or
social.
F Research - a tool for human
development.
 Research and Human Development

New Better Skills,

Attitudes,
Knowledge Behavior

Improved
Better Quality
Research Practices & of Life
Service Delivery

New Tools,
New
Devices,
Technology
Equipment
 RESEARCH AND THE ACADEME

Instruction Extension

Educational
Development

Research

The 3 major functions of higher education are:

RESEARCH, INSTRUCTION AND EXTENSION
 2 Forms of Research

¡  Basic or Pure Research:

l  aim is to develop a body of general
knowledge for the understanding of
human social behaviour by means of a
combination of empirical enquiry and
application of theory.
¡  Applied or Policy Oriented Research:
l  aim is to provide knowledge and
information that can be used to influence
social policy.
 2 Forms of Research:

¡  Basic Research is done by academics.

¡  Applied Research is conducted by applied
social researchers employed by sponsors.
¡  Success for basic social researchers is
when results are published in a peer
reviewed journal and have an impact on
the scientific community.
¡  Success for applied social researchers is
that their results are used by their
sponsors in decision making.
 Features of Research: Basic and Applied

Sources: Easterby-Smith et al. (2008); Hedrick et al. (1993)

 The Research Process

¡  Identification of the research problem

¡  Understanding the research problem
¡  Formulation of hypothesis (es)
¡  Choice of the empirical variables
¡  Determination of possible research obstacles
¡  Choice of research methods
¡  Preparation of a detailed research design
¡  Collection of data
¡  Analysis and interpretation of data
¡  Drawing of conclusions and recommendations
¡  Reporting the research findings
Figure 1: Process of Research Steps wise
 Contd…
…

Source: Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

Terminology
Methods

The techniques and procedures used to

obtain data

Methodology

The theory of how research should be

undertaken
Nature of Research
Bogus survey
l  Statistics are hard to obtain and interpret

l  Difficult to know if the situation is getting

better or worse

l  Program producers will not allow to talk

about the complexities of methods but will
use numbers to horrify viewers (Like News
about floods, earthquakes etc.)

Real research
l  Methodologically rigorous

l  Findings are interpretable

What is ‘not’ Research?
q  Just collecting facts or information with no
clear purpose.

q  Reassembling and reordering facts or

information without interpretation.

What is Research then?

q  Something that people (Researchers/
scientists) undertake in order to find things out
in a systematic way, there by increasing their
knowledge’ (Saunders et al. (2009).
Characteristics

ü  There is a clear purpose to find things out

ü  Data are collected systematically

ü  Data are interpreted systematically

What does ‘systemically’ and ‘to find out ’
suggest?

q  Systematic suggests that research is based

on logical relationships and not just beliefs.
Rainfall and election win !!

q  To find out things suggests multiplicity of

possible purposes of research e.g.
describing, explaining, understanding,
criticizing, and analyzing
The Problem
What is a problem?
¡  Absence of information
resulting to a gap in our
knowledge
¡  There are contradictory
results
¡  A fact that exists which you
want to explain
Characteristics of a good
problem
¡  The topic should be of great
interest to the researcher
¡  It should be useful for the
concerned people in a
particular field
¡  It should be novel.
¡  It should lend itself to
complex designing.
¡  It should be completed in
the allotted time desired.
¡  It should not carry ethical
or moral impediments.
The Title
¡  draws, in summary form, the
content of the entire investigation
¡  serves as a frame of reference for
the whole study
¡  enables the researcher to claim the
title as his own
¡  helps other researchers to refer to
the work for possible survey of
theory
The Hypothesis
¡  Hypothesis is a tentative
explanation for certain
behaviors, phenomena, or
events which have
occurred or will occur. It is
the most specific
statement of a problem.
Types of hypotheses
¡  Null hypothesis
-means no existence of an
effect, an interaction, of
relationships, or of
difference
¡  Alternative hypothesis
-considered the operational
statement of the research
¡  Non-directional hypothesis
-does not state any direction
-it is two-tailed
¡  Directional hypothesis
-shows a direction of the
effect or difference
-requires a one-tailed test
The Hypothesis cont.

Characteristics of a good Functions of the

hypothesis
¡  researchable
¡  should state in definite
terms the relationship
between variables
¡  testable
hypothesis
¡  Introduces the
researcher’s thinking
at the start of the
study
¡  Structures the next

¡  should follow the

stages or procedures
findings of previous of the study
studies ¡  Provide the format for
the presentation,
analysis, and
interpretation of the
data in the study
Scope of the Study

• Defines where and when the study was

conducted and who the subjects were

• Sets the delimitations and establishes

the boundaries of the study

A limitation is a phase or aspect of the

Investigation which may affect the result
of your study adversely But over which
you have no control. It must be stated honestly.
Definition of terms
-necessary in order for
researchers and readers
to be in thinking terms of
the same thing

Types of definition
Conceptual
-the academic or universal meaning attributed to
a word or group of words
-that which is given in dictionaries
Operational (functional definition)
Measured – states the way the concept is
measured in the study
Experimental – may spell out the details of
the manipulation of a variable
What is a variable?
¡  A characteristic that has
two or more mutually
exclusive values or
properties
¡  The constructs or properties
being studied (Kerlinger,
1973)
Types of variables
¡  Dependent – the outcome
or objective of the study
¡  Independent – a property
or characteristic that makes
the outcome vary or differ
*Manipulable – variables
such as method, use of
instructional materials,
reinforcement, use of feedback
*Non-manipulable – factors
such as sex, mental ability,
socio-economic status, race,
age
Research Methodology

¡  HistoricalResearch
¡  Descriptive Method

¡  Experimental Method

¡  Ex Post Facto Research (Causal-

Comparative Method)
¡  Alternative Research Methods
Descriptive Method
¡  Describes the nature of a
situation as it exists at the
time of the study and to
explore the causes of
particular phenomena
(Travers, 1978)
Types of Descriptive Research
¡  Case Studies
¡  Surveys
¡  Developmental Studies
¡  Follow-up Studies

¡  involves collection of data in ¡  Documentary Analysis

order to test hypotheses or ¡  Trend Analysis
answer questions concerning ¡  Correlational Studies
the current status of the
subject of the study (Gay,
1976)
¡  Determines and reports the
way things are; can only
measure what already exists
(Sevilla et. al., 1972)
Alternative Research Methods
¡  Participatory Method – a problem is defined in
terms of the people who feel and think that it is a
problem (Segovia, 1981)
Ex. School-Based Study on the Development of
Social Awareness Values Among Children:
Philippine Research
¡  Indigenous Method – uses indigenized concepts
and instruments consistent with Philippine reality
and Filipino psychology
¡  Ethnographic Method – concerns being very near
the people being researched as the kind of
information to gather bears on the nature of
information articulated by the subject’s behavior.
Methods of gathering data
¡  Sampling – the process which involves taking a
part of a population, making observations on this
representative group, and then generalizing the
findings to the bigger population
Sample
¡  a small group that you observe (Gay, 1976)
¡  any sub-aggregate drawn from a population
(Ferguson, 1976)
Population
¡  the larger group about which your generalization
is made (Gay, 1976)
¡  all members of any well-defined class of people,
events, or objects (Kerlinger (1973)
Types of Sampling
Random Sampling
¡  selecting a sample size from
a universe such that each
member of the population has
an equal chance of being
included in the sample and all
possible combinations of size
have an equal chance of
being selected as the sample
(Weirsma, 1975)
¡  because it gives every
member of the population an
equal chance to be a sample,
this strategy is known as the
best procedure
Non-random Sampling
¡  all participants of the
investigation are not
derived through equal
chances
¡  certain parts in the overall
group are deliberately not
included in the selection of
the representative
subgroup
 Types of Sampling cont.
Types of Random ¡  Stratified Sampling
Sampling
¡  Simple Random
-Table of random numbers
-Lottery sampling/Fish
bowl technique
¡  Systematic Sampling
-selecting the members of ¡  Cluster Sampling
a sample that allows only
chance and a “system” to
determine membership in
the sample.
-a strategy for selecting
samples in such a way that
specific subgroups (strata) will
have a sufficient number of
representatives within the
sample to provide sample
numbers for sub-analysis of the
members of these subgroups
(Vockell, 1983)
-selecting members of the
sample in clusters rather than
in using separate individuals
-groups, not individuals, are
randomly selected
-sometimes referred to as “area
sampling” because it is
frequently applied on a
geographical basis
Types of Non-Random Sampling

¡  Purposive – purposely getting data from

identified samples (sampling with a
purpose)
¡  Quota – identifying a set of important
characteristics of a population and then
selecting desired samples in a random
way; assumes that the samples will
match the population with regard to the
chosen set of characteristics
¡  Convenience – based on the convenience
of the researcher