3.

8 Power in Three-Phase AC Circuits

Since the phase impedances of a balanced star- or delta-connected load contain equal currents, the phase
power is one-third of the total power. As a definition, the voltage across the load impedance and the current in
the impedance can be used to compute the power per phase.

Let's assume that the angle between the phase voltage and the phase current is θ, which is equal to the angle
of the impedance. Considering the load configurations given in Fig. 3-22, the phase power and the total power
can be estimated easily.

Figure 3-22. Per-phase powers in (a) a delta-connected load and (b) a star-connected

load.

In the case of Fig. 3-22a, the total active power is equal to three times the power of one
phase.

Equation 3.50

Equation 3.51

Since the line current  in the balanced delta-connected loads, if this equation is substituted
into equation 3.51, the total active load becomes

Equation 3.52

In Fig. 3-22b, however, the impedances contain the line currents Iline (= phase current, Iphase) and the phase
voltages ). Therefore, the phase active power and the total active power are

Equation 3.53
Equation 3.54

If the relationship between the phase voltage and the line voltage () is used, the total
active power becomes identical to the equation developed in equation 3.52. This means that the total power in
any balanced three-phase load (Δ- or Y-connected) is given by equation 3.52.

Similarly, the total reactive and the total apparent power in the three-phase balanced ac circuits can be given
by

Equation 3.55

Equation 3.56

Power Measurement Techniques

In the three-phase power systems, one, two, or three wattmeters can be used to measure the total power. A
wattmeter may be considered to be a voltmeter and an ammeter combined in the same box, which has a
deflection proportional to VrmsIrms cos θ, where θ is the angle between the voltage and current. Hence, a
wattmeter has two voltage and two current terminals, which have + or − polarity signs. Three power
measurement methods utilizing the wattmeters are described next, and are applied to the balanced three-
phase ac load.

1 Two-Wattmeter Method
This method can be used in a three-phase three-wire balanced or unbalanced load system that may be
connected Δ or Y. To perform the measurement, two wattmeters are connected as shown in Fig. 3-23.

Figure 3-23. Two-wattmeter method in star- or delta-connected load.

In the balanced loads, the sum of the two wattmeter readings gives the total power. This can be proven in a
star-connected load mathematically using the power reading of each meter as

Equation 3.57

If the difference of the readings is computed,

Equation 3.58

which is  times the total three-phase reactive power. This means that the two-wattmeter method can
also indicate the total reactive power in the three-phase loads and also the power factor (see Fig. 3-24).

Figure 3-24. Three-phase voltage phasors used in the two-wattmeter method.

2 Three-Wattmeter Method
This method is used in a three-phase four-wire balanced or unbalanced load. The
connections are made with one meter in each line as shown in Fig. 3-25. In this configuration, the total active
power supplied to the load is equal to the sum of the three wattmeter readings.

Equation 3.59

Figure 3-25. The wattmeter connections in the three-phase four-wire loads.

3 One-Wattmeter Method
This method is suitable only in three-phase four-wire balanced loads. The connection of the
wattmeter is similar to the drawing given in Fig. 3-25. The total power is equal to three times the reading of only
one wattmeter that is connected between one phase and the neutral terminal.

3.8.1 Virtual Instrument Panel

The objective of this section is to understand the powers and the power measurement techniques associated
with the three-phase ac circuits. Fig. 3-26 illustrates the front panel of the VI named Three phase power
measurements.vi.
Figure 3-26. The front panel and brief user guide of Three phase power
measurements.vi.

3.8.2 Self-Study Questions

Before studying this VI, make sure that you study and understand the power concept presented in Section
3.2.2. Open and run the custom-written VI named Three phase power measurements.vi in
the Chapter 3 folder, and investigate the following questions.
1:
A balanced three-phase, three-wire star-connected load is connected to a three-phase supply. The
line voltage is 400 V. The load comprises an impedance of 100 + j100 Ω per phase. Set these
parameters and select the suitable circuit to determine the total active, reactive, and apparent
power by using the VI provided.

2:
Assume that the load in question 1 is a four-wire circuit. Use three power measurement methods
and confirm your findings manually.

3:
Three 10 μF capacitors are connected in star (Y) across a 2300 V (rms, line voltage), 60 Hz line.
Calculate the line current, the active power, the reactive power, and the apparent power by using
the VI.

4:
A three-phase heater dissipates 15 kW when connected to a 208 V, three-phase line. Determine
the value of each resistor if they are connected as star.

5:
An industrial plant draws 600 kVA from a 2.4 kV line at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. What is the
equivalent line-to-neutral impedance of the plant?

6:
An electric motor having a power factor 0.82 draws a current of 25 A from a 600 V three-phase ac
supply. Find the active power supplied to the motor.

7:
Each phase of a delta-connected load comprises a resistor of 50 Ω and a capacitor of 50 μF in
series. The three-phase load is connected to a 440 V (rms, line voltage) and 50 Hz three-phase star
 (Y)-connected supply. Calculate the phase and line currents, the power factor, the total active
power, and total apparent power. Observe the phasor diagrams using the VI given in the previous
section, 3phase phasors.vi.

Hint: First, transform the delta-connected load to a star-connected equivalent (see Section 2.5).
Then perform the power calculations.

A7
: Answers: 5.46 A (rms), 9.46 A (rms), 0.62, 4480 W, 7240 VA

Measurement of Three Phase Power: Three Wattmeter Method

Power measurement in an AC circuit is measured with the help of a Wattmeter. A Wattmeter is
an instrument which consists of two coils called Current coil and Potential coil. The current
coil having low resistance is connected in series with the load so that it carries the load current.
The potential coil having the resistance is connected across the load and carries the current
proportional to the potential difference.

For measuring the power in a 3 phase or Poly Phase system, more than one wattmeter is
required, or more than one readings are made by one wattmeter. If more than one wattmeter is
connected for the measurement, the process becomes convenient and easy to work with instead
of taking various readings with one wattmeter.The number of wattmeters required to measure
power in a given polyphase system is determined by Blondel’s Theorem.

According to Blondel’s theorem – When power is supplied by the K wire AC system, the
number of wattmeters required to measure power is one less than the number of wire i.e. (K-I),
regardless the load is balanced or unbalanced.

Hence, Three wattmeters are required to measure power in three phase, four wire system,
whereas, only two wattmeters are required to measure the power in 3 phase, 3 wire system. Here
in this article, a Three wattmeter method of power measurement is discussed.

Three-Wattmeter Method of Three Phase Power Measurement

Three Wattmeter method is employed to measure power in a 3 phase, 4 wire system.However,
this method can also be employed in a 3 phase, 3 wire delta connected load, where power
consumed by each load is required to be determined separately.

The connections for star connected loads for measuring power by Three wattmeter method is
shown below.
 The pressure coil
of all the Three wattmeters namely W1, W2 and W3 are connected to a common terminal known as
the neutral point. The product of the phase current and line voltage represents as phase power
and is recorded by individual wattmeter.

The total power in a Three wattmeter method of power measurement is given by the algebraic
sum of the readings of Three wattmeters. i.e.

Where,

W1 = V1I1

W2 = V2I2

W3 = V3I3

Except for 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced load, 3 phase power can be measured by using only Two
Wattmeter Method.
 Two Wattmeter Method of Power Measurement
Two Wattmeter Method can be employed to measure the power in a 3 phase, three wire star or
delta connected the balanced or unbalanced load. In Two wattmeter method the current coils of
the wattmeter are connected with any two lines, say R and Y and the potential coil of each
wattmeter is joined on the same line, the third line i.e. B as shown below in figure (A).

The total instantaneous power absorbed by the three loads Z1, Z2 and Z3, are equal to the sum of
the powers measured by the Two wattmeters, W1 and W2.

Contents:

o Measurement of Power by Two Wattmeter Method in Star Connection

o Measurement of Power by Two Wattmeter Method in Delta Connection

Measurement of Power by Two Wattmeter Method in Star Connection

Considering the above figure (A) in which Two Wattmeter W1 and W2 are connected, the
instantaneous current through the current coil of Wattmeter, W1 is given by the equation shown
below.
Instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of Wattmeter, W1 is given as

Instantaneous power measured by the Wattmeter, W1 is

The instantaneous current through the current coil of Wattmeter, W2 is given by the equation

Instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of Wattmeter, W2 is given as

Instantaneous power measured by the Wattmeter, W2 is

Therefore, the Total Power Measured by the Two Wattmeters W1 and W2 will be obtained by
adding the equation (1) and (2).
Where P – the total power absorbed in the three loads at any instant.

Measurement of Power by Two Wattmeter Method in Delta Connection

Considering the delta connected circuit shown in the figure below.

The instantaneous
current through the coil of the Wattmeter, W1 is given by the equation

Instantaneous Power measured by the Wattmeter, W1 will be

Therefore, the instantaneous power measured by the Wattmeter, W1 will be given as

The instantaneous current through the current coil of the Wattmeter, W2 is given as

The instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of Wattmeter, W2 is

Therefore, the instantaneous power measured by Wattmeter, W2 will be

Hence, to obtain the total power measured by the Two Wattmeter the two equations, i.e. equation
(3) and (4) has to be added.

Where P is the total power absorbed in the three loads at any instant.

The power measured by the Two Wattmeter at any instant is the instantaneous power absorbed
by the three loads connected in three phases. In fact, this power is the average power drawn by
the load since the Wattmeter reads the average power because of the inertia of their moving
system.
Introduction:
 Generally, three phase balance is the ideal situation for a power system and quality of delivered Electrical
Power. However Voltage unbalance may makes worse effect on Power quality of Electrical Power at distribution
level.
 The voltages are quite well balanced at the generator and transmission levels. but the voltages at the
utilization level can become unbalanced due to the unequal system impedances, the unequal distribution of single
phase loads, asymmetrical three-phase equipment and devices (such as three-phase transformers with open
star-open delta connections), unbalanced faults, bad connections to electrical connectors.
 An excessive level of voltage unbalance can have serious impacts on power quality. In the system the level
of current unbalance is several times the level of voltage unbalance. Such an unbalance in the line currents can
lead to excessive line losses, losses in the stator and rotor of Motor Malfunctioning of Relay, unsymmetrical
measuring of Meters. Voltage unbalance also has an impact on ac variable speed drive systems where the front
end converter consists of three-phase rectifier systems
 Phase balancing is very important and usable to reduce distribution feeder losses and Improve system
stability and security
What is unbalance Voltage
 Any deviation in voltage and current waveform from perfect sinusoidal, in terms of magnitude or phase shift
is termed as unbalance
 In ideal conditions the phases of power supply are 120 degree apart in terms of phase angle and magnitude
of their peaks should be same. On distribution level, the load imperfections cause current unbalance which travel
to transformer and cause unbalance in the three phase voltage. Even minor unbalance in the voltage at
transformer level disturbs the current waveform significantly on all the loads connected to it
 If three phase voltages have the same magnitude and are in exactly 120deg phase displacement, then the
Three-phase voltage is called balanced, otherwise, it is unbalanced.
 There are no negative- and zero-sequence voltages in a balanced system, only positive-sequence
components of balanced three-phase voltage exist. On the contrary, if the system is unbalanced, negative-
sequence components or zero-sequence components or both may exist in the system.

Causes of unbalance Voltage

 Switching of three phase heavy loads results in current and voltage surges which cause unbalance in the
system.
 Unequal impedances in the power transmission or distribution system cause differentiating current in three
phases.
 Any large single phase load, or a number of small loads connected to only one phase cause more current to
flow from that particular phase causing voltage drop on line
 With continuous operation of motor’s in various environment cause degradation of rotor and stator windings.
This degradation is usually different in different phases, affecting both the magnitude and phase angel of current
waveform
 A three phase equipment such as induction motor and Transformer with unbalance in its windings. If the
reactance of three phases is not same, it will result in varying current flowing in three phases and give out system
unbalance.
 A current leakage from any phase through bearings or motor body provides floating earth at times, causing
fluctuating current.
 Unbalanced incoming utility supply
 Unequal transformer taps settings
 Large single phase distribution transformer on the system
 Open phase on the primary of a 3 phase transformer on the distribution system
 Faults or grounds in the power transformer
 Open delta connected transformer banks
 A blown fuse on a 3 phase bank of power factor improvement capacitors
 Unequal impedance in conductors of power supply wiring
 Unbalanced distribution of single phase loads such as lighting
 Heavy reactive single phase loads such as welders
 How to calculate unbalance
 %voltage unbalance= 100x (maximum deviation from average voltage) / (average voltage)
 Example: With phase-to-phase voltages of The System is 430V, 435V, and 400V.
 The average Voltage=(430+435+400)/3=421V.
 The maximum Voltage deviation from Average Voltage=435-421=14V
 %voltage unbalance=14×100/421=3.32%
 The permissible limit in terms of percentage of negative phase sequence current over positive sequence
current is 1.3% ideally but acceptable up to 2%.
 Effects of unbalance Voltage on System and Equipment:
 The factors for voltage unbalances can be classified into two categories: normal factors and abnormal
factors.
 Voltage imbalances due to normal factors, such as single-phase loads and three-phase transformer banks
with open star-open delta connections, can generally be reduced by properly designing the system and installing
suitable equipment and devices.
 Abnormal factors include series and shunt faults of circuits, bad electrical contacts of connectors or
switches, asymmetrical breakdown of equipment or components, asynchronous burnout of three phase power
fuses, single-phase operation of motors, etc. The abnormal factors just mentioned above might result in critical
damage of systems and equipment.
 Increase Neutral Return Current
 The unequal distribution of loads between the three phases of the system cause the flow of unbalanced
currents in the system, that produce unbalanced voltage drops on the electric lines. This increase in neutral
current which cause line losses.
 If the system has balanced phase then Neutral current flow will be less on a system. We can save
thousands to millions of rupees money by reduce losses be the reducing the neutral current flow in the system
 Thus unbalance in LV distribution network resulting in increase of neutral current.
 Voltage or Current Shift
 If the system is unbalanced, negative-sequence components or zero-sequence components or both may
exist in the system.
 The resistance for negative sequence current is 1/6th of the positive sequence current, which means a small
unbalance in voltage waveform will give more current and thus losses.
 Excessive power loss
 The unbalance Voltage always causes extra power loss in the system. The higher the voltage unbalance is
the more power is dissipated means higher power bills.
 The imbalance of current will increase the I2R Losses
 Let’s look at a simple exercise, In balance System The Load current in R Phase=200A, Y Phase=200A,B
Phase=200A and in Unbalance System The Load current in R Phase=300A, Y Phase=200A,B
Phase=100A,Consider Resistance of line are same in both case and all phases.
 In Balanced System:
 Total Load current =R+Y+B = 200+200+200=
 Total Losses =R(I2R)+Y(I2R)+B(I2R)=40000+40000+40000=120,000Watt.
 In Un Balanced System:
 Total Load current =R+Y+B = 300+200+100=
 Total Losses =R(I2R)+Y(I2R)+B(I2R)=90000+40000+10000=140,000Watt.
 Here Total Load current is same in both case but Losses in unbalance system is more than balance system.
 An unbalance of 1% is acceptable as it does not affect the cable. But above 1% it increases linearly and at
4% the de-rating is 20%. This means – 20% of the current flowing in the cable will be unproductive and thus the
copper losses in the cable will increase by 25% at 4% unbalance.
 Motor failure
 In general, a three-phase motor fed by a balanced three-phase voltage with only positive-sequence
component which produces only positive-sequence torque.
 Reduce Motor life by heating: Extra loss due to voltage imbalance will heat the motor windings, by
increasing the operating temperature of Motor leads to the breakdown of winding insulation and might finally in
motor failure. This may also decompose the grease or oil in the bearing and de-rate the motor windings. The
voltage unbalance of 3% increases the heating by 20% for an induction motor.
 Winding insulation life is reduced by one-half for each 10°C increase in operating temperature
 Vibration of Motor: The negative-sequence voltage caused by voltage imbalance produces opposite torque
and leads to motor vibration and noise. Severe voltage imbalance may even result in motor collapse.
 Reduce Motor Life: Heat generated by Unbalance Voltage may also reduce the Motor life
 Reduce Efficiency: In induction motors connected to unbalanced supply, the negative sequence currents
flow along with positive sequence current resulting in decreased percentage of productive current and poor motor
efficiency. Any unbalance above 3% hampers the motor efficiency.
Motor Efficiency %

Voltage Unbalance
Motor Load % Full
Nominal 1% 2.5%

100 94.4 94.4 93.0

75 95.2 95.1 93.9

50 96.1 95.5 94.1

 Assume that the 100-HP motor tested was fully loaded and operated for 800 hours per year with an
unbalanced voltage of 2.5%. With energy priced at 23Rs/KWH. the annual energy and cost savings calculation
are
 With Normal Voltage
 Annual Energy Consumption=100HPx0.746X800X(100/94.4)x23=1454068Rs
 With Unbalanced Voltage
 Annual Energy Consumption=100HPx0.746X800X(100/93)x23=1475957Rs
 Annual Cost Savings = 1475957-1454068=21889Rs
 Overall savings may be much larger because an unbalanced supply voltage may power numerous motors
and other electrical equipment.
 Tripping of Motor: Negative phase sequence current flowing due to unbalance can cause faults in the
motor, resulting in, tripping or permanent damage of the electrical equipment
 Reduce Capacity: For motors, an unbalance of 5% will result in capacity reduction by 25%.
 Tripping of VFD Drives: The variable frequency or speed drives connected to an unbalanced system can
trip off. VFD treats high level unbalances as phase fault and can trip on earth fault or missing phase fault.
 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power
Active Power
Definition: The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit is called True
power or Active Power or real power. It is measured in kilo watt (kW) or MW. It is the actual
outcomes of the electrical system which runs the electric circuits or load.

Reactive Power
Definition: The power which flows back and froth that mean it moves in both the direction in
the circuit or react upon itself, is called Reactive Power.The reactive power is measured in kilo
volt ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.

Apparent Power
Definition: The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is known as
Apparent Power. This power is measured in kVA or MVA.

It has been seen that the power is consumed only in resistance. A pure inductor and a pure
capacitor do not consume any power, since in a half cycle whatever power is received from the
source by these components, the same power is returned to the source. This power which returns
and flows in both the direction in the circuit is called Reactive power. This reactive power does
not perform any useful work in the circuit.

In the pure resistive circuit, the current is in phase with the applied voltage, whereas in pure
inductive and capacitive circuit the current is 90 degrees out of phase. i.e If the inductive load is
connected in the circuit the current lags voltage by 90 degrees and if the capacitive load is
connected the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.

Hence, from the above all discussion, it is concluded that the current in phase with the voltage
produces true or active power, whereas, the current 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage
contributes to reactive power in the circuit.

Therefore,

 True power = voltage x current in phase with the voltage

 Reactive power = voltage x current out of phase with the voltage

The phasor diagram for an inductive circuit is shown below

 Taking voltage V as reference, the
current I lags behind the voltage V by an angle ϕ. The current I is divided into two components

 I Cos ϕ in phase with the voltage V

 I Sin ϕ which is 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage V

Therefore, the following expression shown below gives the active, reactive and apparent power
respectively

 Active power P = V x I cosϕ = V I cosϕ

 Reactive power Pr or Q = V x I sinϕ = V I sinϕ
 Apparent power Pa or S = V x I = VI

Active component of the current

The current component which is in phase with the circuit voltage and contributes to the active or
true power of the circuit is called active component or wattfull component or in-phase
component of the current.

Reactive component of the current

The current component which is in quadrature or 90 degrees out of phase to the circuit voltage
and contributes to the reactive power of the circuit is called reactive component of the current.