The ASN T

PERSONNEl TRAININ

PUBLICATIONS

ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING
CLASSROOM TRAINING BOOK

The American for Nondestructive

 T he ASNT
PE RSONN EL T RAIN I NG

PUBLICATIONS

ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING
CLASSR()OM TRAINING BOOK

Written for ASNT by

Hussein Sadek
.hnologies Consulting
International, Inc.

The American for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518

Copyright © 2006 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing , Inc. All rights reserved . ASNT is
nm responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of infoml1.tt ion herein, and puhlished opinions or statements
do nOl necessaril y reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or se.rvices that are advertised or ment ioned do
nut carry the endorsement or re<.:olIunendation or ASl\'T.

lRRSP. Materials EvaluatiulI, NDT Handbook . Nondestructive Tl~Stil'lg Handbook. The NDT Tech nician and
<www.asnt.org> are trademark s of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Inc. ACCt>. ASNT.
Level III Study Guide, Research in NondestrZl ctive Evaluation and RNJ)£ are registered trademarks of
The American Soc iety for Nondes tructive Testing. lnc.

ASNT exiS I ~ to create a safer world by promoting the profe~~ion and technologies of llondestnJctive testing .

rSBN-IO: 1-57117- 122-3

ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-122-1

Printed in the United States of Ame rica

Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data

Sadek, Hussein.
Electromagnetic testing class room tra ining book I written for ASNT by Hussein Sadek.
p. cm. -- (Personnel training publications serie s)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-I O: 1-571 17- 122-3
ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-122-1
1. Electromagnetic testing. 2. Eddy current testing. 1. American Society for Nondestructive Testing.li.
Title.

TA4I 7.J.S23 2006

620. 1' 127--dc22
2006039336

First printing D ecem ber 2006

ii
 Acknowledgments

A special Lhan k YOll goes to the fo llowing technical editor who helped with this pub lication:
Dave Russe ll. Russell NDE Systems, Tne.

A special th ank you goes to the following reviewers who helped wi th this publ icati on:
Ri ck Cah ill. GE inspection Technologies
Jim Cox, Zetec
Nat Faransso . Kellogg, Brow n & Root. Inc.
Darrell Harris, ASRC Energy Services
Don Locke, Karta Technologies
Michael McGloin. Hellie r
Mike Mester, Consullant
Alan Pardini, PacHk North west National Laboratory
Frank SaltIer, Sattier Consultants. Inc.
Roderick Stan ley, NDE infom, .. ion Cons ultants
A.M. Wcnzig, Jr., Industrial Testing Laboratory Services. LLC

The Publications Review Committee includes:

Chair, Sharon 1. Vukelich, University of Dayton Research Tnst itute
Mark A. Randig. Cooperhcat-MQS.lnc.
Joe Mackin , lnlernalional Pipe inspectors Assoc iat ion

Ann E. Spence
Educational Materials Editor

iii
 Foreword

The American Soc iety for Nondes tructive Testing, Inc . (AS NT) has prepared thi s series of
Personnel Train ing Publicalivm to present the major areas in each nondestructive lesting
method. Each classroom training book in the series is organi zed to fo llow the Recommended
Training Course Outl ines found in Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC- I A . The Level l and
Level 11 candidates should use [his classroom training book as a preparation tool for
nondestructive testing certification. An ASNT NDT Level Tor Level 11 may he ex.pected to know
additional information based on industry or employer req uirements.

iv
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgments .............. .. .... . ..... . .. . . ... . ......... . ..... .iii
Foreword
Table of Contents . ... .. ............ ... . . .... .. ........ . .... . .. .... ... v

Level I Electromagnetic Testing ................. . ....... . ......... 1

Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electromagnetic Testing ... . . ....... . ......... 3
Early Observations of Magnetic Attraction ..... . ....... . .. . .. . . . ... . ..... 3
Development of Induced Currents ...... . ............. . . . ....... . .... 3
Oersted's Discovery ............................... . ...... . ... . ... .4
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction ......... . ....... . . . ....... 5
James Clerk Maxwell . .................... . ... . .. . .... ..... . ..... . .5
Pried rich Forster ............................. . . ........... . ..... .. 6
Basic Principles of Eddy Current Testing ..... ........ ...... . ....... . .... 6
Principles of Flux Leakage Testing ........ . ...... . .... . ................. 7
Personnel Qualification ............................. . . . .. . ........... 8
Levels of Qualification . . . . . . . . ..... . ....... . .. . ....... . .... 9
Qualification for Level I ..... . .... . .. . ..... . . . .. . . . . .. . ........... 9
Qualification for Level IT ..... . .. ... .. . .. . .... . .. . .... .. ... .. . ... .9
Qualification for Level III . ....... ... . ............... 10
Challenges .................. . .... . .. . .. ... . . . .... . ...... . . . .... 10
Personnel Certification ........... .. . . .. . ...... .. . . .......... . .. . ... 10

Chapter 2 - Eddy Current Theory ... .... . ... . ............ . . . . .. . .. . . .. 13

Generation of Eddy Currents .... ... ....... . ..... . . .. ...... . ......... 13
Electromotive Force ...... .. .... . . . ....... . .... . ....... . .... . .... . .. 14
Resistance ....................................... . ... .. . . .. .. . .. . .15
Alternating Current ............. . ........... . ....... . .. .. . .. . .... 16
Sine Wave ............... . . .. ...... . . . . .... . ....... . . . .......... 16
Frequency .......... .. .. .. .... . . . . . .. .......... . ....... . . ....... 17
Self Inductance .................. . ....... . . . . .. .. . ....... . . . . .... 17
Inductive Reactance ....... . .... . ... . .. . . . .. . .. . .... . ...... . . ...... .18
Impedance ............. . . . ...... .. ....... .. ...... . .... . ....... . .. 18
Arctan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ............ 20
Resistance ............. . .... . . .. .. ... . .. .. ..... . ................ 20
Inductive Reactance ............................. . . .... .. .. .. .. . .. 20

Chapter 3 - Eddy Current Instrumentation ..... .. . . .................... 21

Introduction ....... . . ... ............ ... ..... . . . . . . .. . .. . .... . ..... 21
Eddy Current Instrument Circuits .......................... . .... . . . ... 21
Impedance Bridge Circuit (Wheatstone Bridge) ... .... ... ..... .... .. ... 21
Internal Functions of Eddy Current Instrumentation .... . ....... . ..... .. .23
Signal Excitation .. .. ........................... . ....... . .. . ..... 23

v
 Signal Modulation .............. . ..... . ..... . . . ........ .. ........ 23
Signal Preparation . . . . ..... .. ...... .. ... . .......... . .... . . .. ..... 24
Signal Demodulation and Analysis .... .. .......... .. .......... . ..... 24
Signal Display ... . ... . .... . ..... . . . . . . ......... . .... . .... ... . ... .24
Signal-to-Noise ratio ... .... ... . . . ......... . ... .. . . . . . ... ... . ...... .24
Improving Signal-to-Noise Ratio ................................... .24

Chapter 4 - Readout Mechanisms ......... . ........... ... .. . .. . . . .. . .. 25

Introduction ......... ............ . .... ..... , ...... .. __ . _ . ......... 25
Analog Meters ............. .. . ...... .......... .. . ........ . . . . ..... 25
Audio Alarms ....... , ....... . .... , .. . ........ .. .. .. .. .... . . . . ... 25
Strip-Chart Recorders. , . ... , ...... . , .............. _.. _. _.......... 25
Digital Displays . ... . . . ... .. , . . .. . .. , ............ . ... . . . . .... . . .... 26
Cathode Ray Tubes ........................ , . ......... .. . . .. ..... .26
Digital Data Storage ..... . . ..... . ..... . .. . . .. .. . ................ . .26
Digital Mixing .... . .... . .... . .. . .... _ ............... . .... . . . . ... 26
Liquid Crystal Display ... ....................... ..... ............ .27

Chapter 5 - Eddy Current Sensing Elements .... ...... .. . . .... . . . .. . ... .29
Introduction ......................... . .. .. .... . .. , .............. .. 29
Surface Coil . ... . ....... , .. ... ... . ...... . .......... .. .. . . . . . .... 29
Applications ... ... . .................... .. . .......... . .. .... . .. 30
Encircling Coil ........... . . .. ... . . . . . . . ...... _........ ... .... . .. 31
Applications ... . . .. .. ................... . . . .. . ... .. . . ... . ..... 32
Internal Co il .......... . . . ........... . ........................... 32
Applications ..... . , ... . , . ..... . ..... . .. . ... . ....... .. .... . .... 33
Test Coil Arrangements . .. ... , . ...... , .... .. ..... . . . . . . . ... ......... 33
Single Co il (Absolute Arrangement) .. , ... .. ................... . . . ... 33
Double Coil (Absolute Arrangement) ., .... , . ... .. ................... 33
Differential Coil (Self-Comparison Technique) ............. . ........... :14
Differential Coil (External Comparison Technique) ............. . ....... 35
Hybrid Coil Arrangements (Th rough Transm ission) ..... . . . _ .. .. ..... _.. 35
Factors Affecting Choice of Sensing Elements .... . .. . ................ . .. 36
Frequency ........... . . . ....... . ........... . .. .. ...... _.... . ... .36
Excitation ..... . .... _.. ____ ...... .. ....... . ........... ..... ..... 36
Gain Linearity ... . ... . ........ _........... . . .... . . ... . . . ..... . .. :16
Horizontal and Verti cal Deviation .. . . ............ , . ..... , .. . ..... . . .36
Quad ratu re Accuracy . .... ... ................ . .... . ... . ... . ... .... 37
Digitization Rate ... . ..... , . ...... , ....... , ..... . .. . .. . . . . . . . . ... 37
Sample Rate , ...... . , .... , . . .......... , .... _ .... __ . __ ........... 37
Bandwidth ....... .. .... . . . ... ... , .... , . .. . ... . . . . .. . . .. ........ 3 7

Chapter 6 - Flux Leakage Theory ...... . , .... , ....... . _. _. . _........... 39

Introduction ... . ... , . ...... .. ..... . .... . , .............. . . . . . . ..... 39
Band H Curve ..... , . ...... .. .................. .. ... . ............. 40
Lines of force ...... _...... . .... . ............. . .. ............... . .. 42
Law of Magnetism ...... . ....................... .. .. . .. .... .. . ..... 42
Flux Density ... . ............ . . .. .... . . . .................. . ..... . .. 43
Right Hand Rule . .. .. . . .. . . . .... .. .... ... .. .. .... . . .. .. . . . .. . . .... .43

vi Personnel TrainiuJ!, Pllblicaf;ol1.\·

 Magnetic Properties of Materials ...... .. . .... . .. . ........... .. ... .. ... 44
Magnetic Domains .. .. .... .. ..... . . . ... ..... .. . . . . .. . . .. . ..... .. .44
Magnetic Hysteresis ..... . ... .. . . ..... .. ........ . .. . .... .. ... . ... .45
Magnetic Permeability .................... . .. . .... ..... ... . .. ... .. 47

Chapter 7 - Flux Leakage Sensing Elements ...... ... ..... ... .. .. ... .. . . .49
Inductive Coil Sensors .... .... .... .. ......... . ... . ... . ...... .. . . ... .49
Hall Effect Sensors ............. .. . .. ..... ... . ....... . . .. ... . .. . .. 50
Flux Gate Magnetometer . . .. .. .. .. .... ... ... . . ... . ... . . ...... .. ... 51
Magnetodiode .. . ... . . . . . . ... . . ......... . .. . . . . . . ...... . .. ....... .5 1
ApplicatiOns of Magnetodiodes ......................... . . . . .. . . . . .. 53
Other Methods of Magnetic Leakage Field Detection ... . .. . .... .. . . .... .. 53
Magnetic Tape System .... . ................ . . . .... ... . .. ..... . . . . .53
Magnetic Particles .. .. .. .. . . . . .. . . . ..... .. .. ... . .... . . ..... ..... .54
Magnetic Resonance Sensors ........ . ... ... . . .. .. ... .. . .. .... . . . ... 54

Level II Electromagnetic Testing . . . .... .. .... .. . .... . .. .. ... . . . . .55

Chapter 8 - Coil Impedance ........... . ......... ... . ... . . . . . ......... 57
Test Object ... . ... ... ... . .. .. .... . ..... . ..... .. .. . .... . . .. . . .... .. 57
Conductivity ........ .... .................. . ................ . . . .57
Factors Affecting Conductivity ... . ..... . . .... . ..... . . .. . . . .... ... 58
Alloy Composition .... ............ . . . . .. . . . ...... .. .. ....... . ... .58
Hardness ....................................... .. ... .... .... ... 59
Temperature and Residual Stresses ....... .. ... . . . ... . . . . . . .. . ....... 60
Conductivity Coatings . . ....... . .... ... ....... . . . ... ... ... . . . . .... 60
Edge Effects . . .... . ... .. .. . . ....... . ............ . .... .. . . .... .. .60
Skin Effect . .. . . .... . .. ... . . ..... ........... . ........ . .. . . .... ... 61
End Effect ......... ... ..... .. ... .. .. . . . . .. ... . . ......... . .. . .... 62
Permea bility Factors .. . . . . ... . ... ... ... . ........ . . . ... . ............. 62
Dimensional Factors . ....... . ............. ... . . .... . . . ... . . .. . ..... 62
Test Object Shape an d Thickn ess . ... ...... . . . .. .. ....... . ... . . .... .. 63
Discontinuities ..... . ... ... .. .. .......... .. .. ... .. . . . ... . . . . ....... 63

Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Test Systems and Analysis .. . .. . .... . .. . . .... . .65
Impedance Test ing Systems .... ........ . . . . . .. .... ...... .. . . ......... 65
Phase Analysis Systems ........... .. .... .. ........ . . . ..... . . .. . .. ... 65
Conductivity on the Impedance·Plane Diagram .. ..................... 65
Effect of Frequency on Impedance-Plane Diagram ..... . . .... . ....... . . .68
Effect of Material Thickness .. .. ... ..... ... ..... . .......... .. .. . .... 70
Effect of Frequency on Thickness Measurements ... . . .. .... .. ...... .. . . 71
Suppression of Nonrelevant Variables .... . . . .. . ...... . ... . ..... .... . . 72
Suppression of the Lift-Off Variable .. .... ... . .. .... . .. ....... . ...... 72
Suppression of the Conductivity Variable . . ........ . . .. .. . .... ..... . . . 73
Conductivity and Permeability ........... .. . . ... .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . .... 74
Cathode Ray Tube Methods .. ... . ....... . .... . . . .... .. . . . .. . . . ..... . 79
Cath ode Ray Tube Vector Point Meth od .. .... . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . 79
Cathode Ray Tube Ellipse Display Meth od .. .. . .. . . . .. .. . . ... .. .. .. ... 80
Modulation Analysis ... . . . . . ... .. ....... . . .. .. . . . . . . . ..... .. ....... 80

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing vii

Chapter 10 - Selection of Test Frequency ......... . .. ... .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. 83
Test Frequency .... . . .. ... .. . ...... . ... . .. . .. . . .... ....... . . .... ... 83
Depth of Pen etrat ion ... ... ......................... ..... . . ... . ..... 83
Single Frequency Systems .... . ..... ...... . ... . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .... 86
Multi-Frequency Systems . ... .. . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . ...... . ............. 86

Chapter 11 - Coupling . .. . ..... . . ... . . . . ... ... . . ... . . .. .. . . . .... ... .89
Lift-Off and Fill f actor . .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .... .... ... ... . .. . . ... .. . . . .89
Lift-Off .......... . . . .. . ....... . .. . ......... ... . .. .. . . . .. . . ... .. 89
till factor .... ... ...... . ..... . ... .... .. . . . .... .. .. . . . ...... ..... 89
Calculation of Fill Factor .. .......... .... .. . . . . ... . . ... . ..... .... 90

Chapter 12 - Electromagnetic Testing Applications .. . .. . .. . .. . . . .... .... 91

Eddy Current Applications . ... .. ...... . ..... . .. .. .. . . . . ............ .91
Aerospace Applications . . ... . ....... . .... . ..... . .... ....... .... . .. 9 1
Meas urem ent of Metal and Coating Thickness ...... . .... . .. . .. . ... . .91
Reference Standards for Thickness Testing ....... . ..... . .... ... ... . . . ... 92
Metal Thickness . .. . . . ........ .. ....... ... . .... ..... .. .. . . . ...... 92
Conductive Coating Th ickn ess ................... . . ...... . ..... ... .92
Metal Spacing ..... . . .... . . ... . . .... .. ... .. ......... . . . . . ... . .... 92
Tests of Metal Conductivity ........... . . .. . .. ... ... ... . .. . ... . . ...... 93
Testing of Bolt Holes .... . ... .. .. ..... . ....... . . . . .. ....... .. . . . . .93
Testing of Aircraft Structures ... .. . . .. . . . .. .. ... . ....... . .. . . . ..... .95
Testing of Jet Engines . .................. . ... .. .. . . .. .. ......... .95
Surface Tests .. . . ..... . . . ...... . . . ... .. ... . .. ....... .. .. . ...... ... .9S
Chemical and Petroleum ApplicatiOns ... ... .. ...... .. .. ... . . .. . . .... .. 96
Electric Power Appli cations . . ....... ... . ... .. . . .. ..... . . .. ....... .. . .96
Steam Generators ... .... ... . ..... ... . . ..... . .... . .............. .. 96
Balance-of-Plant Heat Exchangers .... .... .... . ..... . .... . . .. ... . . . .. 97
Industrial Air Condition ing Chi llers Applications .... . .......... . ...... 97
Material Sorting Related to Co nductivity ...... . . . .... ... . . .. ... ...... 98
Electromagnetic Testing in Primary Metals Industries .... . . .. . . . .... . . ... .99
Testing of Hot Rolled Bars .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ...... . ...... . . .. .99
Testing of Square Billets .. .. ....... . ... . .... . ........ . . . ........... 99
Testing of Hot Steel Rods and Wires . .... . .... ... . ... .. ..... . .. . . ... 100

Chapter 13 - Factors Affecting flux Leakage Fields .... .......... .. . . . . . .101

Defect Geometry, Location and Orientation ....... . .. . .. . . . . .. ........ 101
Subsurface Discontinuities ...... . .. . . . . . . . ... . . .. .. .... ..... . ... . . 102
Degree of Initial Magn etization ..... . .................... . . . . . ..... 103

Chapter 14 - Selection of Magnetization Method .... .. . . . . ... .. .... . .. .105

Introduct ion ... .. . . . . ............... .. . ... ... ..... .. .. . .. . . .. . . . .105
Permanent Magnets ..... . ....... . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ..... . .. .105
Electromagnets . . ... . ........ . .. . ..... .. ............. .. .... . . . . . 105
Magnetizing Coils ...... ... . ... . .. .. ............ . . . . . .. . ... . . . . .106
Testing in Residual Field ... . . . ..... ... . . . .. . ....... . ....... . ... 107
Magnetizing by Direct Current ...... . ........ ... .... ...... ......... 107
Magnitudes of Magnetic Flux Leakage fi eld s ... . . ... . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. 108

viii Persunnel Training Publica/ions

Chapter IS - Flux Leakage Applications ............... .. . . ...... . ..... 109
Introduction .... . ............ ... . .. ............ . ...... . .......... 109
Heat Exchanger Tubing Applications ........ . ....... . .......... ... . 109
Wire Rope lnspection ............. . .............................. 110
Round Bars and Tubes .......... ... .... .. ...... . ........ .. . .. .... 111
Petroleum and Gas Pipelines ... . ............................. . .... 111
Billets .. ..... ..... . .......... . ........... . . ......... .. . . .... .. 112
Installed Heat Exchanger and Boiler Tubes . ..................... . .... 113
Above-Ground Storage Tank Floors ...... .. .. . . . ... ... .. ............ 113

Chapter 16 - Remote Field Testing ............. . ........... .... ....... 1l5

History . .... . . ....... . ................. .. . ........ . .. . .. . .... . . . 1l 5
lnstrumentation ............... .... .. . .... ... . . . . . ... ... .... . . .. .. 115
Probe Configuration .......... .. . ..... . .. . ....... . .............. 116
Effects of Probe Speed ...... ... ......... . .. .. .. . .. ... .. . .... . .... 116
Frequency Selection . ....... ... ... ........ . ....... .. .. . ...... . ... 1l 7
Features of Remote Field Testing ..... . ............... . ............... 1l7
Applications .................... . ...... . .. . . ..... . . . . ... . .. . . . . 117
Sensitivity ............... . . .. ......... ... ....... . .............. 117
Signal Analysis and Data Presentati on .. .... . . ... ..... ... . .. . ..... . .117
Reference Standards ............. ....... ......... . ...... . .... . . .... 120

Chapter 17 - Alternating Current Field Measurement . ... . ....... . ...... 121

History ............ . . . . . .. . . .. ..... .... ...... ................... 121
Principle of Operation .... . .......................... . ............. 121
Probe Configurati on ... . ....... . .... . .. . .......... ... . . ......... 123
Advantages and Disadvantages .... .. . . ........... . ....... . ... . . . .... 123
Advantages ............. . ............ . . . . . . . . .. . ..... .. ....... .124
Disadvantages .. . . ... ... .......... . ..... . . . .... . . ... .. . .. . . ... . . 124
Alternating Current field Measurement lndications .. . . . . .... • .......... 124
I-'atigue Cracks ... ... .......................... .. ........ . . . ... 124
Stress Corrosion Cracking ... .. .. . .. . ........... .. ....... . . . .. .... 124
Hydrogen Induced Cracking . . ...... . ..... . .. .. . . ......... ........ 125
fatigue Cracks in Rail Heads ....... .. .. . ...... . .. .. . ... ...... . ... 125
CorrOSion Pitting .... ... . ... . ..... . ..... . .. .. ................ . . 125

Chapter 18 - Electromagnetic Testing Standards and Procedures ...... . ... 127

Introduction ......... . .......... .. ... . .... . .. . ................... 127
Calibration Standards ..... . ........ . . . . . . . ...... . ..... . ...... .... . 127
Reference Standards .. . . . ..... . ......... ... . .. ... .... . . ......... . .. 128
Conductivity Reference Standards .......... . ........ .. ............. 128
Coating Thickness Reference Standard s .. . .. .. ........ . ... . .. . ... . . .129
Discontinuity Reference Standards ............. . .. . ......... . . . .... 129
Natural Discontinuity Reference Standards .................. . . . . ... 129
Artificial Discontinuity Reference Standards ..... ... ........... . . . . . 130
Lift-Off Reference Standards ......... . ... . .. . ... .... . .. . . . ...... 130
Sorting Reference Standards ........ . ................... .. ....... 13 1
Standards and Specifications .......... . . .. . . .. . ....... . . . . .... .. .... 132
Standards and Industry Specifications . ...... .. .. . ........... ....... 132

Classroo/}/ 'Jj-ainin g Series : Electromagnetic Testing ix

 The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) .. ... . ... ......... 132
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) .. . .. ... .......... 133
Military Standards (MIL-STD) ...... . ............... . . ... . . .... .. 133

Glossary ............ . .... ...... .... . ...... . ....... . ............... 135

Appendix - Units of Measure for Electromagnetic Testing ... .. . .. . ....... 145
Bibliography . . . .. . .. . ...... . ....... . .. . ....... . . ... .. .. . . . .. ...... 148
Index . ... ........... .. . . . . .. . .. . .... . . . ............ .. ........... 149

x Persollnel Training Publications

 The ASNT
PERSONNEL TRAININ

PUBLICATIONS

LEVEL I

1
 Chapter 1

Introduction to Electromagnetic Testing

EARLY OBSERVAnONS OF MAGNETIC ATTRA CTION

Electromagnetic tesling is one of the oldest nondestructive testing

method. Thales of Mi1et us (GOO S .C.E.) first recorded th at rubb ing
amber induced a state in which the ambe r would aUract other light
objects. The Greek word for amber is electron. Thales also
mentioned the remarkable powers of lodestone (iron oxide) . also
known as magnetite .
Democritu s (400 S .C.E.) provided concepts of an alomic
structure or matter. Demoeritus' fifth principle states that , "varieties
of all things depend on the varieties of their ato ms, in number, size
and aggregatioll." Many electromagnetic lests intend to identify the
specific atoms in materials and the discontinuities that occur in these
materi als when needed atoms are missing or separated from their
neighbors.
By 1200 A.D., the use of the magnetic compass was reported in
China. At about the same time, Englishman Alexander Neckam also
repOIied the use of the compass in navigation. Tn the year 1600 , the
physician William Gilbert wrote a com prehe nsive descrip tion of his
18 years of expel;ments and hi s theory of magnctism in the book
De Magnete.

Development of Induced Currents

Electromagnetic induction had not been ob~erved nor explained
before the nineteenth century. James Clerk Maxwell, shown in
Figure 1.1, sUlllmarized the first 50 years of e.lectromagnetism in the
book, A Treatise 011 Electricity and Magn etism.

Figure 1.1:
James Clerk
Maxwell.

3
 Oersted's Discovery
Max well explained that. conjectures had becn made as to the
relationship between magnetism and electricity, but the laws of these
relationships remained entirely unknown. Hans Ch ristian Oersted
(shown in Figure 1.2) observed that a wire connecting the ends of a
voltaic hattery affected a compass in its vicinity. In hi s published
account in 1820, he explained that the current itself was the cause of
the action. and that the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner;
that is, a compass placed near a wire transmitting an electric current
tends to set itself perpendicular to the wire, and always points
toward the wire as the compass is moved around the wire. The space
in which these forces act may therefore be cons idered a mag netic
field (shown in Figure 1.2b).
Oersted's discovery meant that the Jines of magnetic force are at
rig ht angles to the wire, and are therefore ci rcles perpendicular to the
wire.

Figure 1.2: Hans Christian Oersted: (a) with stude nt Oersted

d iscovers electri c current's magnetic effect on compass when
circu it is completed; and (b) Oersted's observation that
compass needle near electric current moves to position
perpendicular to direction of current.

(a)

(b)

4 Personnel Training Publications

Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Elccrron1agnetic testing originated when Michael Faraday
discovered the effect of electro magnetic induction while
experimenring wi th coi ls of wi re and a bauery. He noticed that by
connecting one coil to a battery, there was an instant electrical
CUlTen! through a second coil placed ncar the first coil whe n he
sw itched the battery on and off. He also concluded that the second
cu rren t was in the opposite direction of the first c urrent .
Similarly. Faraday found that moving the secondary circuit
toward the primary induced a CUlTent opposite to the primary current
in the prim ary coi l. A lso, moving the secondary c irc uit away from
the primary induccd a cutTent in the same direc ti on as the primary
current in the primary coil. Max well explained that , "the direction of
the secondary ClllTcnl is such that the mechanical action between the
two conductors is opposite to the direction of motion, being a
repulsion w hen wires are approaching! and an attraction whe n they
arc receding." This electromotive force was observed by Faraday but
was given more systemat ic treatment by Heiru-ich Lenz .

Figure 1.3: Electromagnetic induction in a direct current circuit.

Switch
•
-L
-
- --- Primary Secondary
Battery ---
-
-==- coil ~
~
coil t Ammeter

David E . Hughes pelt'onned the first recorded eddy CUITent test in

1879 . He was able to d istinguish bctween different metals by
observing and noting a change in excitation frequency resul tin g from
effects of a test material's resistivity and magnetic permeability.

James Clerk Maxwell

James Clerk Maxwell conceived and published the
compre hens ive group of relations to the electromagneti c fi eld known
as Maxwell's equations, which mathematically represent the entire
present knowledge of the principles of electromagnetic testing.
Maxwell's remarkable ach ievement of imegrating the available
knowledge conceming electromagneti c circuits and fields provides
the basis for analysis of al l basic eddy cutTent and electromagnetic
induction problems and most of the modern electromagnetic theory.
Several ideas Cor electromagnetic methods of detection emerged
in the 1930s, but most of these relied on inductive measurements of
the leakage field. This required either a high frequency magnetjzing
current. \vhich limited the technology to near-surface disconti nu.ity
detection, or coi ls moving at constant ve10city over the surface.
which was too cumbersome for the technology of that time.

Classroom Traininx Series: Eleormnagncric 'testing 5

 [n 1946, the first pract ical system fo r the automatic.
electromagnetic measurement of flux leakage fields was designed by
Hastings . Hastings demon strated that he could detect both surface
and subsurface discontinu ities near the bore surfaces of steel tubes .
He also noted an empi rical correlation between the amplitude of
leakage s ignals and the depths of su Ii'ace cracks.

Friedrich Forster
The first eddy current instrument was developed in 1926. In
[ 950, Forster developed the first instruments with impedance-plane
signal displays. which we re used to discrimin ate between different
parame ters . The introdu ction by Forster of sophisticated, stable
quant itative tes t equipme nt , and of practical techniques fo r analysis
of quantitat ive test signals on the impedance-plane, were important
factors co ntributing to the rapid development and accepta nce of
electromagnetic ind uction and eddy current tests from 1950 ro 1965.
Since 1965, electromagnetic testing and eddy c urre nt lcsting
appl ications ha ve developed and are in use dai ly in nearly every
tech ni cal industry.

B ASIC PR[NCIPLES or E DDY C URRENT TESTING

Eddy c urre nt testing is a nondestructive testing method that is

based on the principles of electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic simply means that electricity and mag netism are
used. Flow of electricity, under certain circumstances , can cause
magnetism. Magnetism , under certain circumstances, causes the
flow of electricity. Whe n an altcrnating cun'ellt (AC) is passed
thro ugh a coil , a changing magnetic field is generated . As the coi l is
placed near a cond ucti ve tcst object, the magnetic field induces
curre nt (eddy currents) as illu strated in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Basic eddy current test syste m.

Indicating instrum~=:l==;-I;'/"';'\j)
Test coil

Di rection of coil's fiel d

Di rection of eddy current's field

Conductive
material
Eddy currents

6 Personnel Training Publications

 The now of eddy cunems depends on the physical and electrical
characteristics of the test object. As an eddy cunent flows in the test
object, it causes a fluctuating magnetic field of its own . The
magnetic field from the eddy cunems is always in opposition to the
coil 's magnetic field, as illustrated in Figure lA . Thus, when the test
co il is pl aced on a conductive material . the strength of the coil's
lllagnctic field is lesse ned. This change in the magneti c field causes
a change in thc cun-ent flowing through the coil that , in turn , causes
a change in the impedance of the coi l. This change in impedance is
detected by the readout disp lay pl aced ill the test circ ui t.
Eddy cunent instruments measure and displ ay these impedance
coil changes and allow the technician to evaluate val uable
information regarding the properties and condition of the test object.
Eddy cunent testing, like other nondestmct ive test methods ,
in vol ves the application of elec tromagnetic energy to evaluate the
cond it ion of te:=;t objects . The e nergy interacts wit h the 1l1aterial and
the interaction process is analyzed to asceltain the conditio n of the
material. In princ ipl e, electromagnet ic methods cover a wide range
of techniques, in c1uding eddy current testing and magnetic nu x
leakage testing.
Al though all e lectro magnetic methods are governed by
Maxwell 's equations . the distinctive nature of each method stems
from differences in excitation frequcnc ics , the nature of sensors used
and the signal analysis teChniques for characterizing the state of the
test object. For cxamplc. eddy CUlTcnt techniques use excitation
frequencies from aboUl 100 Hz to aboUl 1 Hz, while magnetic flux
leakage uses excitation frequencies near 0 Hz.
As the excitation frequency increases from zero, the undcrlying
physical process grad ually changes . Bel ow abo ut I Hz, the magnetic
field is said to he l)uasistatic, whi ch means that the displacement
current is negligihle. As the frequency increases heyond quas istatic
val ues, the energy propagates in the fo rm of waves into the tes t
material. Di ffe rences in the underlying processes associated with
each freq uency make it possible for electromagnetic techniq ues to
test a wide range of materials.

P RINCIPLES OF F LUX L EAKAGE T ESTING

Magnetic nux leakage testing is an electromagnetic techniq ue

that can provide a quick assessment of the integlity of felTomagnetie
material. Thi s technique involves magnetization of the test object by
a permanent magnet or by passing a direct CUlTent directly through a
co il, creating an electromagnet . The presence of a discontinuity on
or near the surface of the sample disturbs the magnetic n ux lines and
results in a local leakage field arou nd the discontin uity.
The magneti c flux leakage field can be detected using a variety
of tec hniques. Tn magnetic particle testing, the leakage field is
ind icated by dusting the snnace of the test object with magneti c

Classro olll Trainillg Series: ElectromagneTic Testinx 7

pa!1iclcs. These particles can be either dry or wet. Forces exel1ed by
the magnetic leakage field around a crack altracts the parti cles to
line up along su rface cracks . The magnetic flux leakage can also be
detected using no ncontact sensors, such as a Hall effect probe or a
simple ind uction coil.
A Hall effect probe using an element oriented parallel to the
sample surface is sensitive to the normal component of the magnetic
flux leakage field and generates a typical signal . as shown in
Figure 1.5 for a rectangular notch .

Figure 1.5 : Typical leakage field signal.

J
if
Scan position or time (relative scale)

P ERSONNEL Q UALIFICATION

It is imperative thai personnel responsible for electro magnetic

testing are trained and qualified with a technical understanding of
the equipment and materials, the test Object and the test procedures.
The American Society for Nondestructi ve Testing (ASNT) has
published guidelines fo r traini ng and qualifying nondestructive
testing personnel since 1966. Thcse are know n as Personnel
Quali/icarion and Certi/ication in Nondestructive Testing:
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-I A. The Recommended
Practice No. SNT-TC-JA describes the knowledge and capabilities of
nondestructive tes ting personnel in terms of certification levels.
MiNT CP-189 was appro ved by the ASNT Board of Directors in
1989 as a standard for the qualification and certification of
nondestructi ve testing personnel. T he inte nt was to produce a new
docu me nt that provided strict requirements rathe r than simply
guidel ines. ASNT obtained ANSI accreditati on to process thi s
document through a consensus balloting process that would
recognize ASNT CP -l li9 as a national standard. The first successful
consensus doc ument became ANSIIASNT CP-J89- J 991.

Personnel Training Publications

 ANSI/ASlVT CP-1R9 is similar to SNT-TC-IA in terms of training_
experience and exam inations. Several significant differences were
introduced to strengthen the NDT personnel qualitication and
certification program, which include the following.

I. Employer certification requirements and ASNT I\'DT

Level III certification in the method.
2. Instructor for training must meet qualifications of the standard.
a. ASNT Level 1Il celti ficate.
b. Bachelor of Science in engineering, physical science or
technology with knowledge of nondestructive testing
method.
c. NOT Le vel IT with at least ten years of experience .

Levels of Qualification
There are three basic levels of qualification applied to
nondestructive testing personnel anclused by companies that fo llow
Recol1lll1ellded Praclice No. SNT-TC-l A and ASNT CP-189: Level l ,
Level Il and Level TIL
An indi vidual in the process of becoming qualified or celtified to
Level T is considered a trainee. A trainee docs not independently
conduct tests, interpret, eval uate or report test res ults of any
nondestructive testing method. A trainee works under the direct
guidance of certified individuals.

Qualification for Level I

Level l personnel are qualified to perform the followi ng tasks:

1. Perform specific calibrations and nondestructive tests in

accordance with specific written instmctions.
2. Record test results . Normally, the Level l does not have the
authori ty to sign off on the acceptance and completion of the
nondestructive test unless specifically trained to do so with
clearly written instructions.
3. Perform nondestructive test ing job activities in accordance
with written in structio ns or direct supervision from Level TT
or Level 1Il personnel.

Qualification for Level II

Level II personnel are qualified to pelform the following tasks:

I. Set up and calibrate equipment.

2. Interpret and evaluate results with respect to applicable codes ,
standards and specifications.
3. Organize and repon the res ults of nondestructive tests.
4. Exercise assigned responsibility for on the job training and
gui dance of Level J and trainee personnel.
5. Be thoroughly familiar with the scope and li mitations of each
method for which the individual is certified.

Classroom Trailling Series: ElectromagneTic Testing 9

 Qualification for Level III
A Level 111 is responsible fo r nondestructi ve testing operations to
which assigned and for which certified . A Level III must also be
generally fam iliar with appropriate nondestructivc testing methods
other than those for which speCi fically certified, as demonstrated by
pass ing a Level lIT Basic examination.
Level III personnel are qualified to perform the following tasks :

I. Develop. qualify and approve procedures; establish and

approvc nondestructive testing methods and tech niques to he
used by Level I and Lcvelll personnel.
2. Interpret and evaluate test res ults in terms of applicable
codes. standa rds, specifications and proced ures.
3. Assist in establ ishing acceptance criteria where none are
available, based on a practical background in applicable
materials, fab rication and product technology.
4. In the methods for which certified, be responsible fo r. and
capable of, training and examination of Level I and Level U
personnel for certification in those methods .

Challenges
The major challenge facing nondestructive testing personnel is to
lea111 all that can possibly be learned during thc qualifi cation
processes. Another challenge involves developing the mindset that
there is something else to learn each time the nondestructive testing
method is used. There is no substitute for knowledge . ancl
nondestructive testing personnel must be demanding of themselves.
The work performed in the nondestructive testing field dese rvcs
the velY best because of the direct effect of protecting life or
endange ring life.

PERSON NEL CERTIFICATION

It is important to understand the di fferen ce between two tc1111'

that are often confused within the field of nondcstructi ve testing:
qualification and certification . Qualification is a process that should
take pl ace before a person is certified .
According to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC- I A. rhe
qualification process for any nondestructive testing method should
involve the fo llow ing.

I. Training in the fundamental principles and applications of the

method.
2. Experience in the appl ication of the method under the
guidance of a certified individual (on the job training).

10 Personnel Training Publicatiolls

 3. Demonstrated ability to pass written and practical (hands on)
tests that prove a comprehensive understanding of the method
ancl an ability to perform actual tests using the specific
nondestructive testing method.
4. The ability to pass a vision test for visual acuity ancl color
perception or shades of gray, as needed [or the method.

The actual certification of a person in nondestructive testing to a

Level I , Level II or Level III is written testimony that the individual
has been propcrly qualified. It should contain the name of the
individual being certified, identification of the method and level of
certification, the date and the name of the person issuing the
certification. Certification is meant to document the actual
qualification o[ the individual,
Proper qualification and certification is extrcmely important
because the process of testing performed by certifiecl nondestructive
test.ing personnel can have a direct inlpact on the health and safety
of every person who will work on~ in, or in proximity to the
equipment or as sembi ies being tested. Poor work performed by
unqualified personnel can cost lives.
Mouern fabrication and manufacturing projects challenge the
strength and endurance of the materials of construction, Preventive
maintenance activities also present a chaUenge to nondestructive
test ing personnel.
The industries thal depend on nondestructi ve testing cannot
tolerate nondestructive testing personnel who are not adequately
gualified and dedicated to good performance. Too much depends on
the judgments of nondestructi ve testing personnel macle in the work
pCrfOTI11ed every day.

Classroom Tl'l.lininM Series : Eleclromagneric Testing 11

 Chapter 2

Eddy Current Theory

GENERATION Of EDDY CURRENTS

The principles of eddy cunenttesting depend on the process of

electromagnetic induction. This process includes a test coil through
which varyi ng or alternating current is passed. A varying CUITent
flowing in a test coil produce~ a varying electromagnetic field
around the coil. This field i ~ known as the pr;lIIwy field.
Figure 2.1 presents a ~chemat ic view of an exci ted te~t coil. The
electromagnetic field produced arou nd the unloaded test coil can be
de~cri bed as decreasing in intensity with distance from the coil and
also varying across the coiJ"s cross-section. The electromagnet.ic
fiel d is most intense near the coil's surface.

fig ure 2.1: Electrom agnetic field produced by alternating

current.

Generator

The field produced around th is coil is directly proportional to the

magn itude of applicd current , rate of change of cunent or frequency
and the coi l parameters. Coil parameters include ind uctance,
diameter, length. thickness , number of tum s of wire and core
material .
Electrical Clln'ent i~ defined as the movement of electrons
through a cond uctor. T he unit of current is the am pere. Its
quantitative val ue is established as the tlow of 6.25 x J018 el ectron~
per second past a given point in the circ ui t.
Electrons are negati vely charged panic les that are part of the
basic building blocks of any material (the atom). A conductor i ~ any

13
 material that is capable of carrying electrical currem . Some materials
are conductors. others are not. Whether a material can conduct
electricity or not depends on the structure of the individual atoms in
the materiaL

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Faraday's major contribut ion was the discovery of

electromagnetic induction. His work can be summarized by the
example shown in Figure 2.2. Coil A is connected to a battery
through a switch S. A second coil B connected to a galvanometer C
is nearby. When switch S is closed producing a current in coil A in
the direction shown, a momentary current is induced in coil B in a
direction (___ a ) opposite to that in A. If S is now opened, a
momentary current will appear in coil B having the direction of
C- b) . In each case , currem flows in coil B only while the current
in coil A is changing . I = current flowing in coil.

Figure 2.2: Induced current.

- b
a G

~
R
-Ih

Electromagnetic force is the electrical energy derived from

mechanical , chemical or other form of energy that must be applied
across the material to force the electrons to mo ve . The unit of
measurement of the Electromagnetic force is called the volt.
Some materials, due to the ir molec ul ar structure, require more
energy than others to cause electrons to move. These are said to
have more resistance to the flow of electrical current. The amount of
resistance in a material is the factor that limjts the amount of current
that tlows through the material for a given applied electromot ive
force.
The electromagnetic force (voltage) induced in coil H of
Figure 2 .2 can be expressed as follows :
N/),cfJ
Eq.2.1 E = - -
K/),t
where E is average induced voltage t N is number of tun1S of \vire in
coil B , /),cfJ / /),/ is rate of change of magnetic lines of force affecting
coil B , and K is lOR.

14 Personllel "hainillg Puh licarions

 RESISTANCE

In an alternating current circuit containing only resistance , the

resistance simply limits the amount of current that /lows through the
circuit. It does oat change the phase relatio nship between the voltage
and the current. T he current is exactly in phase with the voltage.
Resistance is present in all circuits . The total resistance in a c ircuit
includes the resistance of the wiring as well as the resistance of the
coil.
The unit of resistance is called the ohm. Its value is dcfined as thc
resistance through which an electromotive force of I V will producc
a current of 1 amp. Tn a direct current (DC) circuit , tbe voltage,
current and resistance are related to each other through the
mathematical expression known as Ohm's law.
E
Eq.2.2 E=lxR Or 1=-
R
where E is voltage (volt), T is current (ampere) and R is resistance
(ohm).

Example Problem : What is the value of the current flowing in a

5 ohm resistor connectcd across a 10 V battery?

Solution: E = 1 X R
Given: E = 10 V and R = 5 ohm
IO=Tx5
1= 10/5 = 2 amp

The resistance of a coil is dete rmined by the length of wire used

to wind the coil. The specific resistance is determined by the wire
typc and the cross-sectional area of the wi re.
. Specific resistance . Length
Eq.2.3 Reslsianec = - ' - - - - - - - - --"---
Area

where resistancc is in ohms, specific resistance is in ohms/circular

mil-foot , area is in circular mil s, and length is in feet.

Example Problem : The resistance of a 10ft length of 40 gage wire

(area of 40 gage wire = 9.888 circular mils) with a spccific
resistance of 10.4 circular mil-foot at 20° C wo uld be found as
follows:
10.4 . 10
Eq.2.4 R = - 10.518 ohll1
9.888

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing IS

 Alternating Current
When a coil of wire is placed in the open end of a magnet
between the north and south poles and given a spin , electricity is
induced in the coil. The current produced does not travel in the same
direction through the coil at all times. nor is it of a constant value .
Instead the CUlTent starts out at zero, ri ses to a max im um value,
decreases to zero, rises 10 a maximum value in the opposite direction
and then returns to zerO. This cycle repeats itself as long as the coil
keeps spinning. Note that one revolution of the coil produces one
cycle of current (Figure 2 .3).

Figure 2.3: Induction by m ovem ent of a coil through a

magnetic field.

Axis of rotation

iVlagne[ic field
(lines or rorce)
Magnet _ _ _
J

Sine Wave
A sine wave is the form commonly produced by alternating
etment generators. Since one turn (360 0 rotation) of the generator
coil produces one cycle of the sine wave . the sine wave can be
marked into corresponding degrees of rotatio n, as shown below in
Fi gure 2.4. This method of des ignating posi ti ons on the sine wave
serves as an excellent way of show ing the timing between specific
occurrences.

Figure 2.4: Gen erator coil position versus curren t produced .

-;-r / j I 's
~tl}
Generawr
coil pos ition ~ 21/1..::.
Max +0
8tII
180 360
I I
I I I
o f-------~--------~~------~--------~­
I
I
--,
Max -

16 Personnel Tl'uining Publications

 Frequency
The frequency of an alternating current is defined as the number
of cycles of current that occur in one second. One complete cycle is
shown in Figure 2.4. Its unit is the hertz, I Hz being one cycle per
second. Current at 60 cycles per second has a frequency of 60 Hz.

Self Inductance
When working with the induction of current in a secondary coi l,
Henry went even fUl1her than Faraday in that he discovered that the
changing magnetic field also induced a current in the primary co il
that opposed the original currcnt. Thi s opposing current was the
result of the magnetic field cutting ac ross windings in the primary
coil. The magnet ic field created by each tum of wire in the coil
affected all of the other turns in the same coil. This is known as the
principle a/self inductioll.
Figure 2.5 shows an alternating current source connected to a
coil. A voltmeter is provided to measure the voltage applied LO the
coi l, and an ammeter is provided to measure the current thro ugh the
coi l. If the instantaneous values of voltage and current are plotted on
a graph, the cu rrent is found to lag behind the voltage in Lime as
shown in the lower portion of the figure. The angle between the two
curves is called the phase QlIgie or phase lag.

Figure 2.S: Alternating current voltage and current pilot.

A
Ammeter

Alternating Coil
current
source

Max

Classmom Training Series : Electromagnetic Teslillg 17

 I NDUCTIVE REACIAKCE

The opposition to changes in altemating current flow through a

coil is calJc.d indlicTive reactance and is designated by the letters XL'
The inductive reactance of any coil is also a fu nction of the
frequency of the alternating current. Since the higher frequencies
cause the magnetic field to change more rapidly, the inductive
reactance increases as the frequency increases (assuming a constant
altenulting current voltage) . The increase in the inductive reactance
due to the increase in frequency causes the cun'ent through the coil
to be reduced. thereby reducing the strength of the magnetic field of
the co il and is explained in Eq. 2.5.

Eq.2.5 XL = 2nfL or

where XL is inducti ve reactance (ohm).fis frequency (hcrtz). L is

inductance (henries) and W equals 2:'Tf.

It has been determined that in an alternating current circuit

containing only inductive reactance (no resistance) that the current
will lag behind the voltage by exactly 90'.

Example Prohlem: What is the inductive reactance of a coil with an

inductance of 5 micro-henries at 60 kHz?

Sollltion:XI, = 2JlfL or XL = WL
L = 5 micro-henries
f= 60 kHz
XL = (2 x 3. 14) x (60 x 1000) x (5 x 111000000) ohm
XI. = 1.884 ohm
W = 2Jlf

I'v1PEDANCE

Tn an al[emaring current ci rcuit. impedance (symbolized by the

letter Z) is the name given to the combination of resistancc, capacitive
reactance and inductive reactance. for most testing applications. the
capacitive reactance can be dropped from the eq\lation since most
eddy cu rrent probes have little or no capacit ive reac tance. Impedance
in an alternating current circui t is the total opposition to the cu rrent
flow through the cirenit. The impedance unit is the ohm.
Since the resistance and the inductive reactance cause results that
occur 90° out of phase with each other, they cannot be simply added
together to determine the impedance. The simplest way to combinc
the resi stance and the inducti ve reactance values to obtain the
impedance value is through a vector diagram.
A vector is a line whose length represents its val ue and the
direction represents its phase relationship . figure 2.6 shows

18 Personnel Training Publicarions

resistance and inducti ve reactance vectors 90° apart in direction, By
adding these two vectors together. a rectangle can be constmcted
and the diagonal from comer to comer represents the impedance (Z)
and phase angle, as shown in Figure 2,6b,

Figure 2.6: (a) Voltage·plane diagram; and (b) impedance-

plane diagram,
(a) (b)

9 °

o t xR R

A Greek philosopher named Pythagoras developed what is known

today as the pyrhagorean rheorem, which states that in a right angle
triangle the sq uare of the hypote nuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides. Using Figure 2,6b, it is determined
that:

E q..
26 z' -- R' + X L' or.

Z= J(R' + X,')

The concept that must be understood is what is meant by phase

angle, Refer back to Figure 2,6, The phase angle between the resistance
vector and the inductive reactance vector has been 90°. The Greek letter
alpha (A) is used to denote the phase angle of the impedance vecto!".

Phase angle (A) = arctan Xd R

Example Problem: An eddy curre nt test is carried out at a test

frequency of 60 kHz, The coil resistance is 10 ohm and its
inductance is 5 micro-henries. Calculate the follow ing:

1, The inductive reactance of the test coil.

2, The impedance of the test coil.
3, The phase angle between the toral impedance vector and the
resistance vector.

Solution 1: XL = 2 nIL
XL = 2nx (60 x 1000) x (5 x l)fl 000000 ohm
XL = 6.28 x (60 x 5)/1000 ohm
XL = 1.884 ohm

ChHsroom Trainin g Series: Electromagnetic Te.ftillg 19

 Solution 2: Z = J( R' + X r' )
z = J(]() x ]() ) + ( 1.884 x I .884) ohm
Z =,jI03.5 ohm
Z = approximately ]() ohm

Solution 3: Phase angle (L'1) = arc tan (XdR)

Phase angle ( L'1) = arctan (1 .8 84/10)
Phase angle (L'1) = lOS

Arctan
Tangent is defined as the ratio of the opposite side of a righ t
angle triangle to the adjacent side. This is called the tangent of 9.

tan 9= length of opposite sidelle ngth of adjacent side.

The angle whose tangent is kno wn is written taW I or arctan.

Resistance
With all other facto rs held constant, changes in resistance will
affect the impedance of the ci rcuit. As the resistance increases . the
impedance inc reases and the phase angle decreases .

Inductive Reactance
With all olher factors held constant, changes in inductive
reactance will affect the impedance of the circ ui t. As the inducti ve
reactance increases, the phase angle ancl the impedance increases.
This is illustrated in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: Current vector diagra ms.

I: Current
R: Resistance
XL: R eactance
IX
, L Iz Z: impedance
a: Phase angle

o.~--~---------- oo

20 Persollnel Training Pubfica/;olts

 Chapter 3

Eddy Current Instrumentation

INTRODucn ON

This chapter presents a general description of the principle types

of test circuits that are applicable to eddy current testing, a general
description of the types and arrangements of the coils used, and a
gencral desc ription of the types of indicating instruments (readout
apparatu s) that might be encountered.

E DDY C URRENT I NSTRUMENT CIRCUITS

There are many differe nt types of cddy current instruments on the

market toda y. They are similar in principle, but vary in fu nction and
accessories. All cddy current instruments have somc method of
detecting the impedance or change of impedance in the test coil. lt is
the electronic circuitry that is the greatest variation between
instrume nts,
A basic test circuit consists of an altell1ating current sOllrce
supplying power to the testing coil. A voltmeter is connected across
the testing coil to measure the voltage across the coil. When the coil
is placed on or near a tes t sample, the impedance of the coil
changes. This changc in impedance is reflected by the change in the
reading oftlle meter (Figure 3.1 ).

Figure 3.1: Basic test circui t.

r - -,
I <
Alternating R I
current rv I I V Voltmeter
I I
source I XLI
IL_ __ JI

Impedance Bridge Circuit (Wheatstone Bridge)

The alternating current Source supplies power across the bridge
that consists of two balanced res istors (R l and R 2), the testing coil , a
balancing coil and an ammeter. Thesc units are connected in a bridge
format: the res istor and the testing coil in one leg of thc bridge, a
resistor and a balancing coil in the other leg and the ammeter across

21
 the two legs. When the bridge is in balance (t he impedance on both
sides of the bridge are equal). the meter w ill read 0 amps. W hen the
testing coil is placed on or near a test sample ! there is a change in
im pedance in th at leg of the bridge . T he bridge becomes unbalanced
and the ammeter will indicate a current that is prop0l1ionai to the
imbalance (Figure 3.2). A differential amplifier can replace the
bridge circuit.

Figure 3.2: Basic bridge circuit .

Alternating
current r\...J E----{ A
~
source / )
/ /
/ /
/ /
</ / Balam.:ing
~/ i rnpcdancc

A nother bridge c ircuit consists of two identical coils, one in each

leg of the bridge (if the coils arc ide nt ical , the bridge wiJJ be in
halance) . One of the coils is caJJed a lestillg coil ancl Lbe other is
called a reference coil. If Lbe reference co il is pl aced on one sample
of the material a nd the testing coil is placed on anot her sample of
the material, the meter will show an imbal ance only if there is some
d iffe rence in the two samples (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3: llridge utilizing an inspection coil and a reference standard.

:::::;-3 Tnspecrion
L3 coil

Alternating Test sample

rv current
source
~ Reference
U coil

Reference
impedance standard

22 PersoJlnel Training Publica/ions

 INTERNAL FUNCTIONS OF

EDDY CURRENT INSTRUMENTATION

For an eddy system to provide information to a technician , five

functional steps have to be performed, as shown in Figure 3.4.

I. Signal excitation.
2. Signal modulation.
3. Signal preparation.
4. Signal demodulation.
S. Signal display.

Figure 3.4: Internal functions of eddy current test instrument.

Signal Signal Signal Signal

excitation modulation demodulation

:----T~s; -~bJ;;~; -h~;;dl;~g

,
,

,, ,'
,- - ----- - -- - - -- ~

Signal Excitation
The excitation portion of an eddy current instrument consists of a
signal generator and amplifiers to drive the test coils. The signal
generator (or oscillator) provides sine wave excitation for the test
coil. Single frequency systems have one fixed frequency, whereas
multi-frequency systems can apply several frequencies to provide
multiple parameter options. The application determines the required
frequency and the number of frequencies to be used.

Signal Modulation
Signal modulation occurs in the electromagnetic field of the coils
assembly. It is the magnetic field created by the primary coil that
provides the energy transfer into the test object. This magnetic
energy is modulated by the test object, and the resultant magnetic
field from the eddy currents opposes the primary field and is sensed
by the instrument for processing .

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 23

 Signal Preparation
After modulation , the signal is processed fo r demodul ation and
anal ysis, The purpose of thi s step is to ampl ify the p robe signal and
reject extraneous noise . This part of the instru ment may consist of a
single-ended a mplifier in an absolute or simple dri ver pickup
system, or d ifferential am plifiers fo r a differential bridge or a more
sophisticated system of dri vcr and pickup. The bandpass filter is
selected to dctect d iscontinui ties at the inspection speed and could
be called a speed jiller,

Signal Demodulation and Analysis

Tn this step and after the sig nal has bee n demod ul ated, the signal
can be analyzed by many means, The signal may be dirccted to an
analog mete r or bar graph for cUsplay or it may be dig itized fo r
fu rthcr man ipulation and analysis ,

Signal Display
The signal display section is the key link between the test
equipment and its inte nded purpose, The signal can be d isplayed
many d iffe re nt ways , Common d isplays incl ude mete rs , cathode ray
tu bes (CRTs), liquid crys tal display (LCD) or computer screens ,

SIGNAL-TO-No ISE RAllO

Sig nal- to-noise ratio is the ratio of signals of interest to un wa nted

Sig nals, Common noise sources are tes t object variatio ns of surface
rough ness , geometry and homogene it y. Other electrical noises can
be caused by external sources , such as welding machines , e lectric
motors and generators, Mechanical vibrations can increase test
systcm noise by p hysical moveme nt of the test coil o r test object. Tn
other words, anything that interferes w ith a test system's abil ity to
define a measureme nt is considered noise ,

Improving Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Signal-to-noise ratios can be improved by sevcral methods. If a test
ohject is dirty or scaly, the signal-to-noise rat io can be improved by
cleaning the test object via shot blasting, pickling in acid, wire blUshing
or light abrasive belts. Electrical interfe rence can be shielded or isolated ,
Phase discri mination and fil tering can improve the signal-to-noise ratio,
It is com mon prac ti ce in nondestructive testing to requi re a
mini m um signal-to-noise ratio o f 3: I, This means tha t a signal of
interest must have a respo nse at least three times that of the noise at
that point.
T he absolute noise level and the absolute stre ngth of a signal
from a discontinui ty depcnds on several fac tors . such as the search
coil ty pe a nd size, the freq uency, thc inspection path and distance,
object surface CDndition and mi crostr uctu re, in add iti on to the
discontinuity size , loc atio n and orientat io n,

24 Personnel Training PublicatiOJls

 Chapter 4

Readout Mechanisms

I NTRODUCTION

An imp0l1ant par1 of the eddy current test system is the part of

the instrume nt that quantifies the change in impedance . There are
several different ty pes of devices used . The device may be an
integral pat1 of the test set; it may be a module that is plugged into
the test set; or it may be a separate un it connected to the test set with
a cable. The indicating device used should be of adequate speed ,
acc uracy and range to meet the require ments of the t.est system . Test
reco rds may require storage on large in service components so that
corros ion or disco ntinuity rates of change can be monitored and
projected .
The displays of analog instruments are relatively simple, enabling
the user to view and perform simple manipul ations of raw data.
Generally. controls for phase. gain, alarm levels and some filtering
arc available. Analog recording of data via magnetic tape and strip
chan recorde rs was common in the 20th century, but has largely
been replaced by di gital data storage. Analog instrume nts arc uscd in
a few niche ap pli cations.

A NALOG M ETERS

An analog meter is an indicating dcvice whose visual outp ut

varies as a continu ous funct ion of the input to the meter. A meter has
a needle that moves in respo nse to the input. The response is
immediate, and scales can usuaJly be calibrated to read spec ific
values directly.

Audio Alarms
Audio alarms only indicate an abnormal condition. Alarm lights
and audi o alarms arc commonl y incorporated in eddy current test
equipment. The indicator light and audio alarm give only qualitative
info rm ation about rhe item , whether a condition is prcsent or not.

Strip-Chart Recorders
Snip-chan recorde rs providc an analog recording of values at
reasonably high speeds. The strip-chan reco rde r is one method that
produces a pel1lHlIlent, fairl y accurate record. Several chan nels can
be recordc·d at the Same time. Strip chart recordings are CO llll11on in
testing tubi ng where the discontinuilY's location down the tubc is

25
 cri tical. The strip chart length is indexed to time or distance and
indicates nonnal or abnonnal conditions. Although useful, strip
charts can qui ckly acc umulaIe and create storage problcms.
Computcr memory is replacing strip charts.

D IGITAL DISPLAYS

A digital meter is one whose visual output is shown in di screte

steps in ti mc. The meter measurcs the input at a given moment, and
the value of the measurement is displayed in llumerical form. Since
the readout is in num bers, the chance of tech nician en'or is less than
when analog meters are used, but the output is relatively slow.
Digital meters prov ide greater accuracy and range than analog
meters.

Cathode Ray Tubes

Cathode ray tubcs (CRTs) can be used to displ ay the output of a
test. circuit. They give instantaneous, contin uous presentation; are
highly accurate; provide calibrat ion capabilities so that val ues Illay
be read e1irectl y; have a broad range; anel presentation is adj ustable
and stored so that parameters of particular interest may be studied
more closely.

Digital Data Storage

Digital e1ata are generally displayed in a complex plane
presentation with supporting suip chali and C-scan displays , as
required by the application. The point described by the in-phase and
out-of-phase compone nts of the signal is displayed as a flying dot,
and the digital capabllities of the in strument allow variable
persistence, centering of the dot , rotation of the signal and scaling of
the display. D igltal systems allow setup of cal ibration curves
constructed from stored data and automated analysis of sig nals as
compared to these curves.
Digital conductivity meters, calibrated fro m conductivity
refe rence standards, feed suhsequcntl y acquired data into algo ri thms
that calculate conductivity and thcn dis play in a numerical format.

Digital Mixing
The comb ination of components from different test frequencies
allows the suppression of unwanted paramcters or signals from
structures, suc h as support plates in tubing applicat ions, while
retaining the signature of discontinuities beneath those structures.
Alanm can be constructed digitally in any way, for example as
amplitude levels, boxes or ellipses, for rejection or accepta nce of test
objects. Alarms from various frequcncies or coi ls can be tagged to
allow discrimination of differe nt test Object conditions .

26 Persollnel Training P"blication s

Liquid Crystal Display
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made
up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of
it I ight source or reflector. It uses very small amounts of electric
power, and is suitable fo r battery-powered electronic devices,
Important fac tors to cons ider when evaluating a LCD monitor
include resolution, viewable size. response time, matrix type ,
viewing angle, color support luminos ity, contrast ratio and input
ports (for example, DVI or VGA). A computer screen is a typical
LCD that is widely used in state of the an eddy CUITem instruments.

Cla .rsroo/'H Training Series: Electrumagnet;c· Te stillg 27

 Chapter 5

Eddy Current Sensing Elements

INTRODUCTION

Inspection coils arc available in a variety of form s and can be

an'anged in a variety of ways. The choice of the arrangement of the
inspection coil depends on the test situation. There are three types of
inspection coils related to their physical structure, arrangement and
testing they perform.

I. Surface coil (probe).

2. Encircling coil (through).
3. Bobbin coil (internal).

Surface Coil
SI/rface coil , probe coil,flat coil or pancake coil are all common
tenns used to describe the same type of test co il. Probe co ils provide
a convenient method of examining the surface of a test object.
Figure 5.1 is an illustration of a typ ical surface probe . View A
shows the coil mounted in a probe, while view B shows the coil
mounted in a spring loaded housing . The spring load in g ensu res that
a constant pressure is applied at all times to prevent separation (lift-
oft) of the coi l from the surface of the test object. The surface probe
may be hand-held Or may be mounted in automated scanning
equipment. The coil, mounted in the end of the probe, is provided
with a protective coating of epoxy to serve as a wear surface. The
magnetic field produced by the coil is app rox imately the size of the
coil.
Probe coils and probe coil form s can be shaped to fit particular
geometries to solve co mplex testing problems. As an example, probe
coils fabricated in a pencil shape (pencil probe) are typically used to
lcst threaded areas of mounting slllds and nuts or serrated areas of
turbine wheels and turbine blade assemblies. Probe coils with added
coil shielding may be used where high resol ution is required.
A variation of the surface probe is shown ill Figure 5.2. The coil
is mounrcd in a holder shaped and sized to serve that special
func tion. Holders may be designed to serve any particular
requirement (such as the round surface of a lUbe. or bar), or position
the coil at a particular place (such as the leading edge of a turbine
blades). Spring loading ensures that constant pressure can be
obtained and preve nts separation.

29
 Figure 5.1: Surface probes.

Cal Coil leads

Coil recessed and

epox y rilled

Figure 5.2: Hole probe.

L Cad recessed and epoxy filled

(II'" - -
C---I- Coil leads

f' I c~:'j,\
r@ J==·f~ ~
~----'lfi-~====JI-==~ ~
\ Depth adjust collar

Applications
When using a high-resolution probe coi I. the test object surface
must be carefully scanned 10 ensure complete test coverage. This
careful scanning is very time consuming . For this reason , probe coi l
tests of large objects are usually l imited to critical areas. Probe co ils
arc used extensively in aircraft testing for crack detection near
fa steners and fastener holes. In the case of testing fa stener holes
(bolt holes, rivet holes) and critical areas of heat exchanger tubes.
the probe coil is spinnin g whil e being withdrawn at a uniform rate.

31) Personnel Traininx PublicatioJls

This provides a hel ical scan of the hole using what is referred to as a
spinning prohe technique.

Encircling Coil
Encircling coil . outer diameter coil andjeed-lhroufi" coil are
terms commonly used [0 describe coi ls that are used primarily to tes t
outside diameter surfaces of objects that pass through the coil.
Although the coil is the same in encircling and inside diameter
probes , the field distribution is somewhat different . The flux den sity
gradient tends to be more un iform inside the coil and decreases to
zero at the center of the tested material.
The width of the coil (Figure 5.3) is a function of the appl icatio n.
Wide coils cover large areas, so they respond mostly to bulk effects.
e .g., conductivity; whereas, narrow coils sense small areas and so
are more respo nsive to small changes produced by disco ntinuities or
small thickness changes. The magnetic Ileid of the coil extends
slightly beyond the ends of the coil.

Figure 5.3: (a) Wide enCircling coil; and (b) narrow encircling
coil.

(a) (b)

'-----iI~Ir----'

fig ure 5.4 shows the eddy currents produced in a test rod by an
encircling co il. Since the primary magnetic field intensity in the coil
is normally cons idered to be constant across the diameter of the coil,
it might seem reasonable to expect that the density of the eddy
currents induced wou ld also be constant across the rocl. This is not
true.

Figure 5.4: Eddy curren ts produced by an enCircling coil.

Encircling coil

Eddy
current
paths

Classroom Trainillg Series: EleClrm11l1l<lleric Testing 31

 The eddy cun'ent', ~trength is greater near the surface and
decreases toward the center of the rod. If the diameter of the rod is
large e nough , there is no curre nt at the center. The phenomenon is
known as the center effecr and is the result of the opposition of the
eddy current fie ld . The eddy current magnetic fi eld at the surface
opposes the primary field and reduces it . Thi s reduced field is aga in
reduced by eddy currents just below the sUlf·ace. Ultimately the
strength of the primary field is reduced to zero, and no additi onal
eddy currents are induced. Note that the eddy currents flow in the
same plane as the currents flow in the co il; i.e., around the
circumference of thc rod. Thus the enc ircling coil is espec iall y
adapted to locating discontinuities that are parallel or longitud in al to
the length of the rod.

ApplicatiOns
Encircling coils are primarily used to test tubular and bar-shaped
products. The tube or bar is fed through the coil (feed-through) at
relatively high speed. The cross-section of the test object within the
test coil is simu ltaneously interrogated. For this reason,
circumferential orientation of di scontinuities can not be detected with
thi s application .

Internal Coil
Bobbin coil, inner diamerer coil and inside probe are terms that
descri be coils used to test from the inside diameter or bore of a
tub ul ar test object.
Fi gure 5.5 illustrates a type of coi l that can be inselted into
tubing to test for discontinuities and thi ckness changes in the tu be .
The internal coi l induces currents that encircle the entire
circumference of the tu be so that the entire section surrounding the
coi l is tested.
Because the CUITents induced in the material arc strongest near
the coil, the internal coi l is more sensitive to discontinuities lying on
or ncar the inner suti-ace of tubing . while extern al coils are more
sensitive to discontinuities lying on or near the outer surface. The
intemal coil may he either wide or natTOw, and the magnetic fiel d
extends slightly beyo nd the ends of the coil . The coil may be
shielded or unshielded.

Figure 5.5: Internal coil.

32 Personnel TraillllllS PliblicGriolts

 Applications
Intemal coil s are primary used to test tubular prod ucts from the
inside diameter or the bore of a tubular test object; fo r example,
tubes examined in heat exchanger applications.

T EST COIL ARRANGEMENTS

There are three bas ic co il arrangemem that can be applied in

surface, inlema1 and encircling co il s.

1. Absolu te coil arrangement.

2. Differential coil arrangement.
3. Hybrid coi l arrangement (through transmission).

Single Coil (Absolute Arrangement)

Figure 5.6 illustrates the single coil arrangement. Tn this
arrangement, the same coil is used to ind uce eddy currents in the test
Object and to sense the test object's reaction to the eddy currents.
The single coil will test only the area under the coil and does not
direct reference or compare itsel f to a reference standard. Because it
tests the object without a com parison, it is called absolUTe.

Figure 5.6: Single coil - absol ute arrangement.

f---{rv}---I

Indication

Double Coil (Absolute Arrangement)

Figure 5.7 illustrates the double coil absolute arrangement. In thi s
it is possible to use two co ils; one to cst.ablish the magnetic field and
induce eddy currents into the test object, and another to detect
changes in eddy cu rrent flow. Note that the secondary coil has the
indicating clevice connected across the coil and it is not connected to
an alternating current source. Normally the secondary coil is located
inside the pri mary coil. and the t.wo coils are referred to as double
co;l.
This double coil alTangement may appear in all three of the coil
cl asses: surface, inside and encircling.

Classroom Training Series: Eleclromagnetic TestiUM 33

Figure 5.7: Double coil- absolute arrangement.

Indicator Primary' coi l Secondary coil

Note: secondary
coi l i~ located inside
primary coil .

Differential Coil (Self-Comparison Technique)

The differential coi l arrangement shown in Figure 5.8 illustrates a
means of balancing out effects that are the same . The two coils are
wound and electricall y connected so that the output of one coil
cancels the output of the other coil (oppose each other). This occurs
whe n the test object properties are the same under both coils. In
other words. so long as there is no difference in material properties
under coils, there is no indication on the indicating device; but when
a discontinuity or inhomogene ity is located under either one of the
coils, an imbalance OCCurs which is indicated on the indicating
device. This differential coil arrangement is know n as the self-
comparison technique.
The self-comparison tech nique is insensitive to lest object
variables that occur grad ually. Variables such as gradually changing
wall thickness, diameter, temperature or conductivity that affect both
coi ls are not detected with the self-comparison differential coil.

Figure 5.8: Double coil - differential arrangement .

cCf---\-=-16
I I Self
I------II'.[A:--.It-------l comparison
,=-,
L----11 Indicating 11-__-1
I inslnlment I

34 Personne.l Training Publications

 Differential Coil (External Comparison Technique)
The coi l arrangement illustrated in Figure 5.9 is exactl y the same
as the self-comparison , except that the differential coil arrangement
is set up on an external reference standard and the test object. A
carefully chosen, discontinuity-free test reference object is held
stationary in one coil while the test object moves through the other
coil.
Here coil C2 and the discontinuity-free test reference standard or
object are set up as a reference standard. As the test object passes
through coil C/, a compari son is made with the reference standard.
No indication is observed unless a discontinuity or other change
such as thickness , permeability or conductivity appears in the test
object. If a discontinuity passes through coil C/ , the output of the
coils become unbalanced and an indication is obtained.
Thi s differential coil arrangement technique is used to detect
differences between a calibration standard and test object. It is
mostly used to compare conductivity, permeability and dimensional
measurements. The problem with this method is the large number of
calibration standards required and the tolerances that exist in
diameter and metallurgical composition.

Figure 5,9: Differential arrangement - external comparison technique.

Ct
Test object \
\

External comparison
Indicating device

Reference standard

Hybrid Coil Arrangements (Through Transmission)

Hybrid coils mayor may not be the same size and are not
necessarily adjacent to each other. Common types of the hybrid coil
are driver/pickup, through transmission or primary/secondary coil
assemblies. The through transmission technique involves inducing
eddy currents into the test object by a transmitting coil placed on
onc side of the material , and the presence of eddy currents is sensed
by a recei ving coil placed on the opposite side of the material , as
shown in Figure 5.10. This arrangement requires that the two coils
be placed exactly opposite each other. The voltage developed in the

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic TesTing 3S

 sensing coil is a function of the current magnitude and frcquency
applied 10 the excitation coil, coil parameters of the exciting and
scnsing co ils , and the test object characteristics. Only thin materials
may be tested with through transmission coi ls.

Figure 5,10: Through transmission arran gement.

Transmitting circuit

A Itemming current Transmitting

source coil

M aLerial

Receiving
co il

Receiving circuit

FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE O F S ENSING ELEMENTS

Several critical factors and specifications must be carefully

considered when selecting eddy current sensing elements.

Frequency
The frequency determines eddy current depth of penetration and
the ampli tude and phase of a di scontinuity response .

Excitation
The amplitude of the exc itation signal detennines the ampl itude
of the response . It should be well controll ed and its frequency
respo nse should be specified.

Gain Linearity
The amplitude and phase characteristics of gain stages must be
qualified for adherence 10 a standard or specification appropriate to
the appl ication .

Horizontal and Vertical Deviation

Gain of the in-phase and out -ot~ p hase components of a signal
must be controlled to prevent unwanted distortion of a signal. In a
typical heat exchanger test, a flattened appearance would cause
misrepresentation of the data whereas, in the rolating test of a rivet
hole for surface breaking cracks, it can be used to minimize lift-off
noise and accentuate a crack signal.

36 Personnel Tl'oillill}: Publications

Quadrature Accuracy
The phase of reference signals mUSI be well conIrolled andlhe
response of the display mUsl be designed 10 ensure that Ihe in-phase
and oul-of-phase components are truly al 90" electrically and Ihey
are displayed orthogonally.

Digitization Rate
The digiti zalion rate for a digital system is the number of samples
per unit of probe travel. Thi s rate is critical for determ inin g the
response to a disco nti nuity. Digit ization rate must be determined
li'om the application cri teria.

Sample Rate
The sample rate for a digital system is the number of
interrogations per unit time, often give n as samples per second. To
calculate the required sample rate for a test, the probe speed is
multiplied by the desired digitization rate.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth governs the response of the syste m as a function of
frequency and is measured in hertz. A variable frequency, external
modulator is often used to measure anel characterize bandwidth
through all stages of an instrument.

Classroom Training Series: eleCTromagnetic Te,\'ring 37

 Chapter 6

Flux Leakage Theory

I NTROUUCTION

Magnetis m is a property pos sessed by certain materials by which

these materials can exert a mechanical force on other like material.
Magnetic tl ux leakage testi ng is an electromagnetic tech11 ique th at can
provide a quick assessment of the integri ty of felTOmagnetic material.
This teclmique involvcs magneti zati on of the test object by a
permanent magnet or by passing an excitation cun'em directly through
an electromagnet. Thc presence of a discontinuity or thickness change
on or ncar the surface of the material di sturbs the magnetic nux lines
and rcsults in a local leakage fie ld around the discontinu ity.
The magnetic flux leakage can be detected using noncontact
sensors, such as a Hall cffcct probe or a simple inducti on coil. A
Hall effect probe using an element oriented parallel to the sample
slllt'ace is sensiti ve to the normal component of the magnetic flux
leakage field and generates a typical signal, as shown in Figure 1.5
in Chapter I for a rectang ular notch.
A leakage field at an air gap in a longitudinally magnetized test
object is shown in Fi gures 6.1 and 6.2. This disruption is produced
by the al ignme nt of magnetic domains in the stretched mctal crack
site. For this reason, cracks in the formatio n state are highly
detectable and normally produce sharp. well-defined ind ications.
Open cracks that havc been subject to large thermal, chemical or
mechanical forccs may have had their magnetic fie ld disruptio n
characteristics greatly or entirely reduced and may not be detectable
using magnetic particlc testing.
For high detectability of fom1ing surface cracks, magnetic particle
testing uses induced altemating field magnetization techniques as the
primary method to test ferromagnetic objects in service. Using wet
alternating current fl uorescent techniq ues will generally produce the
highest sensitivity obtainable with this tech nology.

Figure 6.1: Leakage field at an air gap in a longitudi nally

magnetized test object.

Leakage field ~..,..:;:::::", Test

39
 Figure 6.2 : Magnetic particles attracted by a leakage field from
a subsurface discontinuit y.
Particle buildup at leakage i

BAND H CURVE

To understand the operation of magnetic flu x leakage, it is userul

to consider the physics of permanent magnets. A permanent. magnet
can be conside red an agglomeration of do mains. These domains are
elementary magnets obtained as a result of the dipole moments of
uncompensated electron spin s contained within the domain that arc
held parallel. In the demagnetized Slate, the domain s orient
themselves randomly (Figure 6.3a) so that closed paths for the
mag netic flux ex ist in the material. The m agneto~ tatjc energy under
the condition is a minimum . This state is indicated by point 0 on the
hysteresis loop (Figure 6.4).
When an extern al magnetic field is appl ied. the domains tend to
al ign with the direct ion of the applied field . thereby increasing B.
The operating point now moves into region OA in Figure 6.4. The
size and orientation of the domains arc affected by the potential
energy arisi ng out of the interaction bet.ween neighboring atoms ,
as sociated with the anisotropy energy and associated with external
field energ y.
As the external magnetic field is increased , the operating point
moves into region AB of Fi gure 6.4. The domain walls start shifting
and ultimately reach a state when each crystal represents a single
domain. FUlther increases in the magnetic ficld intensity results in
magnetic saturation . a state in which the domains rotate against the
forces of ani sotropy until all the do main s get aligned in the direction
of the applied fie ld (Figure 6.3b). Thi s state is represented by the
region Be on the curve of B vers us H (Figure 6.4).
If the applied magnetic field is then withdrawn, the doma ins
relax. As a res ult , the parallel alig nment of the domains is disturbed
(Figure 6.3c). The residual flux B represents a new minim um energy
at point D where magnetization H equals O.
If a gap is then introduced as shown in (Figure 6.3d) , the material
self-demagnetizes. The imbalance created by the gap res ults in a
realignment of the domain s closest to the gap.
These domains take up orientations that are 180" from the
original ori entation. The mechanical energy injected into the system
to introduce the gaps is used to transfer the operating point from D

40 Persolllll:1 Training Publicmiol1s

Figure 6.3: Physics of permanent magnets : (a) random orientation of domains in
un magnetized state; (b) domain s aligned in direction of applied field; (c) relaxation of
parallel al ignment of domains when magnetic field is removed; (d) self-demagnetization of
material after magnetic field is removed; and (e) reversion of do mains to random
orientation when gap is removed. See Figure 6.4 for characteristic curve .

(a)

Ili{~,~
,B

.
(b)
1:~"'-- _-
.............
I 2
c

I C-- + H L Lq 0 H
I -+

D
7
(c) (d)
I:' -. , . . - c
_ T

L
j
.r~

I
'-
..,

... ~+ 0 H
~I:-:;::. ~ ;:11
1 ,/tZ
0 H
c

(e)

~ c
~
, "-./

/ G
H 0 H
Legend
B; magnetic flux densi ty (relative scalel measured in gauss (field strength)
H= magnetic field intensity (relative sea e) measured in oersteds (force)

Figure 6.4: Typical characteristic curve of magnetic flux

density B versus magnetic field intensity H.

Legend
B = magnetic flux den sity (relative scale) measured in gauss (field strength)
H= magnetic field inten si ty (relative sca le) measurea in oersteds (force

Classroom Training Series: Eleclromagnetic Testing 41

 to E.lf the air gap is then reduced to zero . as shown in Figure 6.3e.
the operating point moves along the m inor or recoil loop to F and
the domains revert back very nearly to the same orientation as
before. If the gap is once again restored , the operating point then
moves toward E along the recoil loop FOE. Repeated cycles of
opening and dosing the gap cause the minor recoil loop to be traced.

LINES OF FORCE

If a bar magnet is covercd with a sheet of paper and iron filings

are scaltered over the paper, the filings al ign themselves along
definite lines that pass from the poles of the magnet, as shown in
Figure 6.5.
The alignment of the iron particles indicates that these lines form
a field around the magnet, and any mag netizable material that enters
this field is attracted to the magnet. For this reason the lines are
called lines afforce.

Figure 6.5: Magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet.

L AW Of MA GNETISM

When like poles of magnets are brought togcther they repel each
other. but whcn unlike poles are brought together, the magnets
attract each other. Since the lines of force around a magnet seem to
flow [rom the north to the south pole, they are often callcdjlLLx lines.
Flux is defined as a !low or l1owing.

42 Personl1el noininx PublicaTio1ls

 FLUX DENSITY

The flux lines that surround a magnet are close together ncar a
bar magnet. Figure 6.6 shows where the magnetic force is strongest.
When spread fUl1her apart away from the magnet, the magnetic field
grows weaker. Thus the density of the flux in a particular area
dete rmines the strength of lhe field in that area.
The flux density can be determined by measuring the strength of
the field in that area. Flux density is defined as the number of lines
of force that pass through a given area at right angles to the lines of
force. The unit is the gauss . One gauss is one line of force passing
through an area of one square centi meter.

Figure 6.6: Distribution of flux arollnd a magnet.

__ ~ Lines of force

---~
---- --.....
-- -
-~-

RIGHT H AND R ULE

It was discovered that when an electrical current flows through a

wire . a magnetic field exists arouncllhe wire . The direction of the
magnetic field around the wire depe nds 011 the direction of CUlTent
flow tllrough the wire. This relationship may be determined by the
right hand rule. as illustrated in Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7: Magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet.

Field direction

\\Tire

Current direction

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 43

 If the wire is grasped in the rig ht hand with the thumb pointing in
the direction of current flow. the fingers will point in the direction of
the magnetic field.
If st raight wire lS wound into a coil. the lines of force encircl ing
the wire form the magnetic field inside and outside of the coil, as
illustrated in Figure 6.8. This field th us created is simi lar to the field
of a har magnet. The strength of the magnetic fie ld is dependent
upon two factors : the number of turns in the coil. and the magnitude
of the current. Increasing either one increases the strength of the
magnetic field.

Figure 6.8: Magnetic field of a co il.

Lines offorce ~.,- -~-_,

(,I. ------
-'h
F.l +-
-j
_ r;r) )
+-1 t-,,::-
___ 1-:--:\
f ,"
~ t.. ... ) .....
, - - -_- - J
- .... -.....---'"
t - Coil

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Electric current can be used to create a magnetic fie ld in materials. If

a coil is wrapped around a bar of iron and direct ClIITent passed through
the coil, a mab~letic field is established in and around the bar due to the
magnetic field caused by the curren! flowing through the coil .
Materials like iron that are magnetizahle are calledferrol11{fglletic
materials. Ferromagnetic materials are capable of retaining some part
of the magnetic field induced in them . With in the feTI'omagnetic group
of materials some are more easily magneti zed than others. Those that
are easily magnetized retain relatively little of the magnetic field afle r
the curren! is shut off. Those that are difficult to magnetize retain
more of the magnetic r;eld after the current is shu t off.

Magnetic Domains
Some materials that can be magnetized possess atoms that are
classified as submicroscopic regions. called magnetic domains .
T hese domain s have a positive and negative polarity at opposite
ends hecause of internal magnetic alignment. jf the material is not
cons idered to be magnetized , the domains are randomly aligned,
usually parallel to the crystall ine axis of the material. When the
material is subjected to a magnetic field, the domains align
themselves parallel 10 the extemal magnetic fie ld. The material then
acts as a magnet. Figure 6.9 illu strates the domain alignment in
nonmagnet.izecl and magnetized material.

44 Persolln el 'fj·oining Publications

Figure 6.9: Alignment of magnetic domains: (a) in an unmagnetized material; and (b) in a
magnetized materia l.

(a) (b)

s0B;;>.ct>0 s0 100 0 01 '~BNBsB'B'B"B'BBB

N s
0B000ct>000B
s BBBBBBBBBB

Magnetic Hysteresis
All ferromag netic materials have certai n magnetic properties that
are specific to that material. Most of these properties are described
by a magnetic hysteresis loop. The data for the hysteresis loop are
collected by placing a bar of ferromagnetic material in a coil and
applying an alternating current or direct current. By increasing the
magnetizing field strength H in small increments. and measuring the
flux density B at each increment, the relationship between magnetic
fie ld strength and flu x density can be plotted.
The relationship between magnetic field strength and fl ux density
is not li near for ferromagnetic material s. A specific change in H may
produce a smaller or larger change in B, as shown in Figure 6.10 ,
the initial curve for an un magnetized piece of steel. Starting at point
o (zero magnetic field strength and zero magnetic flu x) and
increas ing H in small increments, the flux density in the material
increases quite rapidly at first, then generally slows until point A is
reached. At point A, the material becomes magnetically saturated.
Beyond the saturation point, increases in magnetic fie ld strength do
not increase the flu x dens ity in the material. In diagrams of full
hysteresis loops, the curve OA is often drawn as a dashed line since
it occurs only duri ng the initial magneti zation of an unmagneti zed
materi al. It is referred to as the virgin curve of the material.
When the magnetic field strength is reduced to zero (point B in
Figure G.l ~b), the flux density slowly decreases. It lags the field
strength and does not reach zero. The amou nt of flux density
remaining in the material (line DB) is called residual magnetism or
remanence . The abi lity of ferromagnetic materials to retain a certain
amount of magnetism is called retentivity.
Removal of residual magnetism requires the application of a
magnetic field strength in the opposite or negati ve direction (see
Figure G. IOc). When the magnetic field strength is first reversed and
only a small amount is applied, the flux density slowly decreases. As
additional reverse field strength is applied, the rate of reduction in
flu x density (line BC) increases until it is almost a straight line
(point C) where B equals zero .

Classroom 7i-aining Series: Eleclromagnetic Testing 45

Figure 6.10: Hysteresis data for un magnetized steel: (a) virgin cu rve of a hysteresis loop;
(b) hysteresis loop showing residual magnetism; (e) hysteresis loop showing coercive
force; (d) hysteresis loop showing reverse magnetism; (e) hysteresis loop showing reverse
residual magnetism; and (f) complete hysteresis loop.

(a) (b)
B+ B+
Zero flux density
,. ~ _A ___-~=A
Residual magneti sm ,.
Saturation Saturation
" "
Zero magnclic \
fi eld strength
I
/
/ point
'\ B I
I
I
I
/
point

H- I H+ H---------------'/''-------------H+
o o

B- B-

(C) (d)
B+ B+
__ A
A
,. ,.-

/
/
,-
, I
I
" -- point
Saturation

C /
/ ,,
H- H+ H- --------~~-f~
' ------------H+
0 o
/
Coerc ive rorcc Reverse
magnetization
saturati on point
B- B-

(e) B+ (0 B+
___ ~- A

I
,, " Saturation
point
I
I

H- ------------~4f'--------------H+ H - ----------~~_+~--------H+

l~ Residual magnetism
D .-;:;...-- D"":::::"'--
Reverse 8- Reverse residual B-
magnetization point point

46 Personnel Training Publications

 If the amount of magnetic fie ld stre ngth is increased beyond
point C, the mag netic fl ux changes its polarity and initi ally increases
quite rapidly. It then graduall y slows until point D is reached
(Figure 6.lOd). This is the reverse polarity saturation point, and
add itional magnetic field strength will not produce an increase in
flux density. When the reversed magnetic field su·ength is reduced to
zero (point E in Figure 6.1 Oe) the flux densities of the residual
magnetis m from the straight and reversed polarities are equal (line
OB is equal to line OE).
Removal of the reversed polarity residual magnetism requircs
application of magnctic field strength in the original direction. Flux
density drops to zero at point F in Figure 6.lOf with the application
of coercive force OF. Continuing to inc reasc the field strength results
in the magnetic polarity changing back to its original direction. This
completes the hysteresis loop ABCDEF (note that the curve CDEF is
a mirror image of CUrve ABCF).

Magnetic Permeability
One of the most important properties of mag netic materials is
pcnneability. Penneability can be thought of as the easc with which
materi als can be magnctized. Air is assigned a permeabi lity of one
(I). Permeability is the ratio between the flux de nsity and the
magnetic fi eld strength (BIH). It is also the rate of change of fl ux
density (B) with respect to the magnetizing force (H), and it varies
wi th position around the Band H curve.

Eq.3.1 i' ~ BlH Or B ~ Jt H

where i' is permeability (pronounced "mu"), B is magnetic flux

density and H is magnetic field imensity.
Magnetic properties and hysteres is loops vary w idely between
materials and material condi tions. They are affected by chemical
compositions, microstruct ure and grain size. Fig. 6.11 a is a
hysteresis loop for hardened slcel, and the loop is typical of a
mate rial with low permeabi lity, high reluctance, high retentivity and
high residual magnetism. That requires high coercive force for
removal. Figu re 6.1 1b is the hysteresis loop for an annealed low
carbon steel. It is typical of a material with high penneability, low
reluctance. low retenti vity and low residual magnetism that requires
a low coercive fo rec for removal.

Classroom TraiJlinx Series: Electromagnetic Testing 47

 Figure 6. 11: Positive field strength hysteresis loops:
(a) hardened steel hysteresis loops; and (b) annealed low carbon
steel hysteresis loop.
(a) (b)

Residual Residual
?;- magnetism
"§
il
"~
Coerc ive
fI:
force

48 Personnel Training PlIblicm;olls

 Chapter 7

Flux Leakage Sensing Elements

INDUCTIVE COIL SENSORS

In order for an inductive coil to detect perturbations in a static

magnetic field, there must be relative motion between the co il and the
field such that the flux within the coil changes. Ferrites are useful in
pickup coils because they do not only provide support for the wire
turn s but they also concentrate the flux density through the coil
windings by a value equal to the effective permeability of the ferrite.
For small pieces of ferrite (Figure 7.1) where the dimensional
ratio is small , the effecti ve permeability of the ferrite may vary from
the low teens to the thousands. The advantage of using ferrite occurs
not only in thi s application but also in the fact that ferri tes have very
low electrical conductivities, minimizing detrimental eddy current
effects in them.

Figure 7.1: Ferrite cored magnetic flux leakage detector co il systems.

(a) (b)

Input ....----l

';r- 1
0.3 to
, 0
0.5 em
..... J
'd \..1
•....--- 21--~P
I

Magnetized material

It is important to note in the inductive sensor approach that the

flux density must be changing through the coil in order to produce a
signal. It is essential that pickup coils are used to generate voltages
and not currents. Once a current is allowed to flow in a co il, it
creates its own magnetic field - one that can interfere with the field
under investigation. The output of such co ils is therefore generally
fed to a high resistance operat ional amplifier.

49
 Hall Effect Sensors
Hall eleme nts are crystals of semico nductor material. When a
current is passed through them and they are placed in a magnetic
field, a voltage develops across two of the faces of the crystal. The
voltage is prop0l1ionai to the strengtb of the magnetic field.
Bulk Hall elements are generally bismuth doped semiconductors
such as indium antimonide (InS b). These are produced by solid-state
crystal growth technology, cut into small rectangular blocks and
have cu rrent and voltage leads attached before being encapsulated.
Typical size s are as small as O.OB cm (0.03 in.) long by 0.04 cm
(Om S in .) wide by 0.05 cm (am in .) thick.
Vapor deposited Hall elements have been reported for use in the
testing of ball bearings by the magnetic flux leakage technique. In
this application, bismuth was evaporated onto an alum ina substrate.
A newer development is to combine the Hall sensor, its power
supply and an amplifier on one chip. Figure 7.2 and Table 7.1 show
configurations of typical Hall sensors and their specifications.

Figure 7.2: Typical Hall element probes: (a) flat; (b) high
linearity; (e) miniature; (d) subminiature; and (e) axial (see
Table 7.1).
0.2 x 0.5 em (0.08 x 0.2 in.)
(a)

(b) 0.24 x 0.64 em (0.1 X 0.25 ill .)

4!J~~'-1
==~ ?=----]]'?l
UJ Jif
:
. _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_]

..... Brass holder

(c) 0.075 x 0.15 cm (0.03 x 0.06 in .)

0.075 X 0.15 em (0.03 x 0.06 in .)

Cd)
~~~.~ . -~
.. ·~~~!ll!:··::In'm::::::::::::J
..... Epoxy coatcd (with slide protector)

0.06 x 0.2 em (0.025 x 0.08 in.)

(e)

50 Per.wmnel Training Publicalio/Is

Table 7.1: Specifications of typical Hall element probes (see Figure 7.2).
Probe Type Hall Output Nominal Temperature Operating
Voltage Current Control Coefficient Temperature
(millivolts) (milliamperes) (0C) (HC)
Flat or lransverse 340 200 --0. 1 - 65 to 85
High linearity 350 350 --0.1 - 65 to 85
Miniature 200 25 --0.25 - 65 to 85
Subminiature 200 25 --0.25 - 65 to 85
Axial 100 100 --0.1 -65 to 85

Since Hall effect sensors do not depend on motion for their

sensiti vity. they can be scanned at any rate that is mechanically
convenient, which may present an advantage over inductive coil
sensors depending on the application. However, Hall effect sensors
are difficult to fabricate , arc somewhat delicate and require more
complex aux ili ary electron ic apparatus than inducti ve coil scnsors.

Flux Gate Magnetometer

The flux gatc magnetomcter, also referred to as aferro-probe or
Forster probe, is a de vice that measures magnetic field s by utilizing
the non-linear magnetic characteristic of ferromagnetic core
material s as its sensing elcment. A drivc coil and sense coil are
wo und onto an easily saturated core. The corc characteri stics and
drive current are such that the magneti zation changes induced by the
leakage field affect the filter harmo ni c output of the sense coil. In
operation, the ferromagnetic core of the sensor is driven cyclically tc
saturation by means of a periodic current of suitable wave shape in
the dri ve coil wind ings .
In the absence of a signal field , which is usually direct current or
vcry low frequency alternating cllrrent, and is generally a very small
fraction of the peak value of the driving field , the voltage induced in
the sense winding is symmetrical. In other words, it contains only
odd harmonics of the fundamental of the drive current. In the
presence of a signal , the sense winding voltage becomes
asymmetrical. This asymmetry is sensiti vely relatcd to the signal
field and can be detected by various techniques.

MAGNETODIODE

The magnetodiode is a solid-state de vice, the resistance of which

changes with magnetic field intensity. It consists of (p) zones and (n:
zones of a semiconductor, separated by a region of material that has
been modified to create a recombination zone, as illustrated in
Figure 7.3 .

Classroom Trainin g Series: Electromagnetic Testing 51

 Figure 7.3: Schematic of magnctodiodc.
p+ n+

H
Legend
II. ;;;; !nagnc,lic field
1 = IntrInSIC zone
n = nzone
p =p zone. .
r = recomb1l1atlon zone

Active areas typically measure 0.3 x 0.06 x 0.04 em (0.12 x

0.024 x 0.016 in .). and output signals arc generally larger than for
Hall elements. although the response to field intensity is not so
linear for higher fields, as shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7,4: Response of magnetodiode is linear up to about

40 kA ·m- 1 (SOO Oe) at ambient temperature of 2S °C (77 OF)
and potentia l of 6 V.

1.6
1.4
I -I -\
__L
-
----+-
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
I-
-11/ 1 - -

:>
-
0.4
0.2
0
I
I
I I II
I
.:3 - - t-- -
1
&.
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
I
I
I 1---
j;1 - - t--

-0.8
I -l-
-1.0
I/
I Y I I
-1.2
- 1.4
J.....-""
v::: I I
- 1.6 I 1 I I _I
-200 -120 -40 0 40 120 200
(-25) (-IS) (-05) (0.5) ( I .5) (2 .5)

Magnetic fidd in tensit)' H. A-m- 1 (kOe)

52 Personnel 'Ii'aining Puhlications

 Applications of Magnetodiodes
Figure 7.5 shows the use of magnetodiodes for detecting
magnetic flux leakage from discontinuities in tubes. The magnetic
flu x leakage is excited by alternating current electromagnets
arranged to detect either internal or external surface breaking
di scontinuities. The system illustrates the general principles of
magnetic flux leakage testing . Sensors are connected differently to
eliminate signals from the applied field and from relatively long
range variations in surface field strength. This system and magnetic
flux leakage systems like it are used to rap idly evaluate the sUiface
condition with a depth of only om cm (0.004 in.).

Figure 7.S : A magnetodiode testi ng system for tubes: (a) alternating current magnetizing
method; and (b) electrical block diagram.
(b)
(a)
Differential
amplifier

Magnetization
electric source
Sensors
Detection
. ,
.--:""7"",Le-.:akage nux '-;'-~
section
Selc(;{ing
cradle

Hot rolled steel bar

Marker

Pipe Controller

OTHER METHODS OF

MAGNETIC LEAKAGE FIELD DETECTION

Magnetic Tape System

For the testing of flat plates and billets, it is poss ible to scan the
surface with wide strips of magnetic recording tape. Discontinuity
signals are taken from the tape by an array of tape recorders heads.
Scale , dirt or oi l on the test surface can contaminate the tape.
Surface roughness can tear the tape.

Classroom Trainin g Series: Electromagneac Testillg 53

 Magnetic Particles
Magnetic panicles are finely ground high permeabi lity mag netic
material, sometimes dyed for visible contrast with the test surface .
Ideal test conditions occur when a fine spray of particles is
intercepted by a magnetic flux leakage field and some of them stick
to the field. An ad vantage over other forms of magnetic indicators is
that the particles have zero li ft-off from the discontinuity.
A critical facror in successful magnetic particle testing is the
proper choice of magneti zing cu rrent level. With too liltle
magnetizing current , the field gradient aro und discontinuities will
not be sufficient magnitude to hold the pal1 icies in place . On the
other hand, if the magnetizing curre nt is too high. a field gradient
may be strong enough even in flawless areas to attract and hold
particles over the entire surface , thus obscuring genuine
discontinuity indicati ons . For each situation, the opti mum current
levcl must usually be found experimentally. but guidelines put you
in thc general vicini ty.

Magnetic Resonance Sensors

Nuclear magnetic resonanCe magnetometers are based on the fac t
that the characteristi c atomic frequencies also depend on the strength
of magnetic field. In operation , when an atomic nucleu s is placed in
a constant magnetic field and is subjected to a high freq uency
alternating magnetic field. resonance abso rption of energy from the
alternating current fiel d take place .
T he ahsorption always takes place at a fixed rat io of constant
field strength to the alternating field frequency. Hence, if the
freq uency at which nuclear magnetic reson ance take place is
measured , the constant field strength can be determined. Resonance
magnetometers include a large family of devices that can measure
magnetic fie lds of any strength and are subject to wide variety of
appl ications in the engineering field.

54 Personnel Tra iJlillX Publications

 The ASN T
P E RSONN EL TRAINING

PUBLICATIONS

LEVEL II

55
 Chapter 8

Coil Impedance

TEST OBIECT

There are three fundamental properties of material that affect the

eddy currents induced in the test part.

1. The conductivity of the test object.

2. Thc permeability of the test objec t.
3. The dimensions of the test object.

Conductivity
Conductivity of a material is defined as the ability of the material
to carry elec trical current. i.c .. the number of amperes of current that
will flow through a given size (cross-sectional area) of the material
when a given voltage is applied to the material. Thi s del'i nitio n is too
cUlllbersome to use with ease in eddy current testing. Instead, the
Intern ational Annealed Copper Standard (lACS) system is used. The
symbol for conductivity is I (a ) and the units are expressed in
percent lACS.
In the TACS system , the conductivity of unalloyed (pu re)
an nealed copper was selected as the standard , and the conductivities
01' all other materi als are expressed as a percentage of this standard.
Unalloyed annealed copper is assigned a rati ng of 100% and a
material that conducts electrical current only half as well is rated at
50% l ACS . For example , a wire made of alum inum can carry onl y
01 % of the current that can be can'ied by the same size wire made of
pure alloyed copper at a given voltage .
Table 8.1 lists the lACS of several materials. The table ill ustrates
that materials do have different abi lities to cond uct electrical current.
Good conductors include copper and silver, poor conductors
include nickel and steel, and non-conductors include wood and
glass. Differences in the conductivity of di fferent materials are
detectable by eddy current testing due to the effect that the
conductivity of the material has on the magnetic field of the exciting
co il.
Resistivity is defin ed as the ability of mate rial to resist the fl ow
of current. The symbol for resistivity is p (rho) and the uni ts are
expressed in micro-ohm centimeters (JI Qcm). Conducti vity and
resistivi ty work in opposition to each other. Conversions between
conductivity and resistivity can be made using simple divisio n. The
original copper bar used to establish the standard had a direct current
resistance of 0.017241 ohms with a conversion factor of 172.41.

57
 To convert to either un it. simply follow Equation 8 .1.
172.41
E q. 81
. %IACS = .,--____-'--..::-'--..:.---
Resistivity in micro ohm·cm

Table 8.1: Relative conductivity of var ious metals and alloys.

Metal or Alloy Conductivity, % IACS

Silver 105
Copper, annealed 100
Gold 70
Aluminum 61
Aluminum alloys:
6061·T6 42
7075-T6 32
2024-T4 30
Magnesium 37
70-30 Brass 28
Phosphor bronzes 11
Monel 3.6
Z irconium 3.4
Zircaloy-2 2.4
Tiraniulll 3.1
Ti-6AI-4V alloy I
304 stainless steel 2.5
Inconel 600 1.7
Haslelloy X 1.5
Waspaloy 1.4

As resistivity increases. conductiv ity decreases and vice versa.

Example Problem: Convert resisti vity of 5.5 micro-ohm

centimeters to cond uctivity in % IACS.

Solution : %IACS = 172.41/5.5 micro-ohm

= 31.3% lACS

Table 8.2 lists the e lectrical conductivity and rcsistivity of

common metals and alloys.

factors Affecting Conductivity

While the inherent conductiv ity of a pure material is always the
same , there arc intem al fac to rs that can cause what appears to be a
change in the inherent conductivity.

58 Per.wJllI1eI '/i'a;ning Publications

Table 8.2: Electrical resistivity and conductivity of selected metals and alloys.

Metal Conductivity Resistivity

MS'm- 1 (%IACS) Q'm (jtQ·cm)

Aluminum, pure 35.38 (61) 2.83 x 10- 8 (2.83)

Aluminum (99.99%) 37.67 (64.94) 2.65 x 10- 8 (2.65)
Antimony 2.55 (4.4) 3.92 x 10- 7 (39.18)
Bronze, commercial annealed 25.52 (44) 3.92 x 10-8 (3.92)
Cadmium 14.62 (25.2) 6.84 x 10- 8 (6.84)
Calcium 28.25 (48 .7) 354 x 10- 8 (3.54)
Chromium 5. 10 (8.8) 1.96 x 10- 7 (19.59)
Cobalt 16.0 1 (27.6) 6.25 x 10- 8 (6.25)
Copper 58 ( 100) 1.72 x 10- 8 (1.72)
Gold 40.60 (70) 2.46 x 10- 8 (2.46)
Iron, pure 10M (18) 9.58 x 10-8 (958)
Iron ingot (99.9%) 9.05 (15.6) 1.11 X 10- 7 (J 1.05)
Magnesium , pure 22.39 (38.6) 4.47 x 10-8 (4.47)
Molybden um 19.14 (33) 5.22 x 10- 8 (5.22)
Nickel 14.62 (25.2) 6.84 x 10- 8 (6.84)
Selenium 8.35 (14.4 1.20 x 10- 7 (11.97)
Si lver, tin solder 9.63 (16.6) 1.04 x 10- 7 ( 10.39)
Steel, high alloy 1.68 (2.9) 5.94 x 10- 7 (59.45)
Tin , pure 8.70 ( 15 ) 1.15 x 10- 7 (J I .49)
Tin foil 2.44 (4.2) 4.10 x 10- 7 (41.05)
Tungsten 18.21 (31.4) 5.49 x 10- 8 (5.49)
Zinc, commercial ro lled 16.24 (28) 6.16 x lO- 8 (6 .16)

Alloy Composition
Alloys are combinations of other metals and/or chemical
elements with a base metal. Each metal or chemical element has an
individual affect on the conductivity of the base metal.
The conducti vity of the base metal changes to a value relating to
the composition of the alloy. Thus it is possible to identify basic
metals and their alloys by measuring the ir conductivity, but ranges
of al uminum alloys, for example , overlap. Examples include copper
alloys (90-10 Cu-Ni , 70-30) and 300 series stainless steel (304-SS ,
3 16-SS and 316L-SS).

Hardness
When a metal or alloy is subjected to heat treatment , the metal
wi ll become hardcr or softer depending on the material. This change
in hardness is brought about by the internal change in the material
that also affects the conduct ivity and/or permeab ility of the material.
Thi s change can be detected by eddy current test methods. An
improper heat treatment can be detected in this manner.

Classroom Trainin g Series : Electromagnetic Testing 59

 Temperature and Residual Stresses
The ambient tem perature and intemal residual stresses of a test
material al so have an effect on the conductivity of the mate rial .
Thcse changes Can also be detected by eddy current testing. An
increase in the temperaturc of the material nomlally results in a
decrease in the conductivity of the material. Residual stresses cause
an un predictable. but detcctable. change in conductivity.

Conductivity Coatings
The prese nce of a conductive coating on a co nductive material
changes the inherent conductivity of a base meta! just an as an all oy
would. However, if the thickness of the cladd ing varies, the
conductiv ity will vary. Thi s change in thickness can be detected
using eddy current testing methods.
As the test coil is influenced by different conductivities , its
impedance varies inversely to conductivity. A higher conducti vity
causes the test coil to have a lower impedance value . Figure 8. 1
illustrates this concept.

Figure 8 .] : Measured conductivity locus.

t\ I'--
o% i'.. C~nd~ctiLty
( ai r)
I\,
~. \
\
2%
"
si 1\
I 1"1
10% l- l
1
100% tACS I .....
ReSistance

Thc coil's inductive reactance is reprcsented by the Y ax is, and

coil resistance appears on the X ax is. The 0% conductiv ity point , or
air point , is when the co il 's cmpty reactance (X LO) is max imum.
Figure 8. 1 represents a measured conductivity locus. Conductivity is
influenced by many fac tors.

Edge Effects
Edge effects can be demonstrated by moving the eddy current
probe toward the edge of a test sample and observ ing the change in
instrument reading that results. Figure 8.2 is an example of
instrument change resulting from edge effect. Test samples must be

60 PersUlme/1i-aillillg Publicarions
large enough to prevent thi s edge interference or probes must be
shielded to collimate the f ield . In this panicular case, an edge
di stance of 0.5 cm (0 .2 in .) or more must be maintaincd to avoid
errors. If test objects have a narrow width, a centering jig or holder
should be useel lo maintain the probe on center. Edge distance curves
are used to apply correction factors to co nductivity readings on
production pans. The same changes occur as the coil approaches the
end of a tube. Even shieldecl probes have some edge effect.

Figure 8.2: Influence of edge effect o n conductivity m easured

by edd y curren t probe: (a) probe at edge; and (b) signal.
(a) Eddy CUlTonL
/ probe

H
~N"_"""='
0 (+)
A92024 wrought alul~inum alloy,
temper 6

(b) 17.4 (30)

1Vf?j
I / I· ~
-,
E 16.8 (29 ) / I
V,
:2: (/)
~

i;.U
._ <
rl I -
-

>~
.- ~
-g .:....
r
'"s: I -

)~ II
16.2 (2 8
0
I-
I
I I
-I 0 1 234~6 -
H ) (4) (8)( 12)(16)(20)(24)
Distance from edge, mOl (10- 2 in.)

Skin Effect
In many applications , electromagnetic tests are most sensitive to
tcst object vari ables nearest to the test coi l clue to sk in effect. Skin
effect is a result of mutual interactions of eddy currents, operating
frequency, test object conductivity and permeability. The skin effect
(the concentrati on of eddy currents in the test object nearest the test
coil) becomes more evident as test frequency, test object
conductivity and permeahility arc increased.

Classroom Training Series: Elecfromagnetic Tesrillg 61

 End Effect
End effect follows the same logic as skin effect. End effect is the
signal observed when the end of a product approaches the test coil.
Response to end effect can he rcdueed by coil shielding Or reducing
co il length in outer diameter encircling or inner diamcter bohhin
co ils. End elrect is a tenn most applicable to the testing of bar or
tube products .

PERMEAl3ILlTY FACTORS

Permeability origlnatcs fro m the word permeate, meaning to

sp read through. Permeability is the ease with which a material can
beco me magnetized and it occurs mainly in the XL component of Z.
Soft iron and j ron with low carbon content arc very easy to
magnctize and are highly permeable. These magnetic materials
readily conduct thc lines of force. Magnetic materials that are hard to
magnetize have low permeability. Harde ned ferromagnetic steel with
high carbon content is hard to magnetize and has low permeability.
Although hard. femllnagnetic steel has low permeability and is
difficult to magnetize. It will hold some of the magnetism afte r the
magnetizing current is sh ut off. That is how a permancl1l magnet like
thc horse-shoe magnet is made. The magneti sm retained in a magnet
is call ed residual magnetism.
When an energized test coil is placed on ferromagne tic materials,
the field is greatly intensified by the magnetic properties of the material
so that a large change in the impedance of the test coil occurs .
If the magnetic field strength at various locations varies even
slightly, these small variations have a large effect on the impedance
of the coil. These changes in the impedance of the coil are often so
large that they mask all other changes, such as conductivity and
dimensional changes. Thi s effect may be overcome by magnetizing
the Inaterial to sat.uration using a separate coil energized by a direct
current source . Magnetic saturation el iminates or reduces any
variations in thc residual magnetic fie ld caused by magnetic
variables , and thus all ows other variatio ns to be measured. Eddy
cun-ent tests on carbon steel materials where saturation is not used
limits the depth of penetration to very small depths. During
saturation, the slope of the Band H curve is almost horizontal , and
the permeabil ity re lative to air is approximately one (I).

D IMENSIONAL FACTORS

Dimcnsional fac tors of the matcrial that are of concern fa ll unde r

two t.ypes.

1. The dimension and shape of the test object.

2. The presence of di scontinuities in the test object..

62 Personnel Training PlIblicari()I1s

 Test Object Shape and Thickness
Eddy currents do not penetrate throughout thick material but tend
to be concentrated near the surface. Thus there is a finite, or limited ,
depth of penetration. For mathematical reasons , it has become useful
to define the standard depth of penetration as the di stance from the
surface of the test object to the point where the current density is
about 37% of the current density at the surface.
The depth of penetration of eddy currents in a nonmagnetic test
object depends on the conductivity of the nonmagnetic material (the
greater the conductivity, the less the penetration) and the frequency
of the alternating current used to energize the test coil (the lower the
frequency, the greater the penetration).
When the material is thin enough (as shown in Figure 8.3) so that
all of the coi l's magnetic field is not used in creating eddy currents ,
the strength of the eddy currents is reduced. This appears to the test
circuit as an apparent difference in conducti vity from that of the
thicker piece of the material.

Figure 8.3: Effect of material thickness on eddy current tests.

Magnetic
AC Magnetic AC ,-,
fi eld"" / - \ I,... ..... \
tield f / .... \~
source source If/ ~\'
I I 1/-.. . I ~ \\
I' \ I
, : III I I,
I 1,1
"
I \ ';:::.'/1 /1
"
Thick Thin
\
'/
- ,/
''/ /
material material

DISCONTINUITIES

A discontinuity is defined as any interruption in the normal

physical structure or configuration of an object. The flow of eddy
currents within the material is affected by the presence of
discontinuities , such as cracks, pits , vibrational damage and
corrosion. Discontinuities in a test object disturb the normal eddy
current flow and this results in a change in the coil impedance .
The magnitude of the indication caused by a discontinuity is
primarily dependent on the amount of current disrupted by the
discontinuity. In other words, the depth, width and length of a
di scontinuity determines the change in the eddy current flow, as
shown in Figure 8.4.
Discontinuities open to the surface are more easi ly detected than
subsurface di scontinuities. Discontinuities open to the surface can be
detected with a wide range of frequencies; subsurface in vestigations
require a more careful frequency selection.

Classroom Train ing Series: Elecrromagneric Testing 63

Figure 8.4: Distortion of eddy currents by a di scontinuity.
,.- /'
I \ Test coil
lndicating I
instrument
Source ~ _______ _- L_ _____ \
~~,~\ /

'-" Direction o/" coi l's field

Direction of eddy current's field
_ ___ Discontinuitv
---)I ~
-,-'-i-- Eddy CU ITcnts

Persollnel Training P//hlicmiol1s

 Chapter 9

Eddy Current Test Systems and Analysis

I M PEDANCE TESTING SYSTEMS

Impedance testing systems are the simplest to operate. Most of

the portable conducti vity tes ters and di scontinuity detectors s imply
dctcct a change in impedance. They do not detect phase shifts.
Impedance testing , in spite of the many variahles that can callse
changes in impedance, is actually fa irly simple and direct. The most
difficul t task fo r the technician is the abil ity to recognize with any
degree of certainty whethe r a change in impedan ce is due to a
change in li ft-off or due to a change in conductivity.
The presence of discon tinuities in the materi al will also cause
changes in the impedance. Since discontin ui ties arc indicated by
sudden changes in indications as opposed to gradual changes for all
the other conducti vity factor s. the technician has no difficulty in
differe ntiating the two types.

PHASE ANALYSIS SYSTEMS

Because a change in impedance is accompanied by a shi ft in

phase, it is possible to observe the phase shifts rather than the
impedance change to dete rmine the conditions that exist in the
material.
The impedance of a co il may be represented by a vector. whose
length represents the impedance value and whose direction
represents H phase angle (the angle by which the cunent lags behind
the voltage). These vectors may be measured and plotted on a chart
know n as the impedance-plane diagram. The impedance-plane
di agram may be pl aned either by knowing rhe impedance value and
the phase angle o r by knowing the resistive component and the
reactive component.

Conductivity on the Impedance-Plane Diagram

Figure 9 .1 is a typical impedance-plane representation of sever al
impeda nce ~ obta ined by eddy currcnt testing from several different
types of non magnctie metal s with the same test set and at the same
frequency with diffe rent conducti vity . The lag angles and impedance
values ohtained for each of these materials, including the val ues
obtained when the coil was held in air, are shown by their individual
vectors .

65
Figure 9.1: Impedance vectors shown on impedan ce-plan e diagram.
0% lACS

o Coil rcsi,~ tance

In Figu re 9.2. a curve is drawn connecting the impedance value

of each or the vectors. Thi s curve then is the locus of all the
impedances that will result from changes in conductivity. If all other
factors are held constant . a change in conductivi ty of any material
will result in an impedance value that will fan somewhere on this
curve . An increase in conductivity will cause the impedance to move
to the ri ght and down along the curve, while decrease in
conductivity will cause the impedance to move up and to the left.

Figure 9.2: Conductivity locus o n impedance-plane diagram

for no nmagn etic materials.
90'

-
t-
"u
v"" -
~ "u
u
>
V
=>
-
~
l-
e
u I I I I I
0 Coil rcsi.stance

66 Per.wmnel Training P/lblicaliolls

 Figure 9.3 illustrates the locus of all the impedances that will
res ul t as the coil is lifted off the 100% lACS material (all other
factors held constant) . When the coil is held in contact with the
100% lACS mate ri al. the locu s is on the conductiv ity curve . As the
coil is li fted off the material. the impedance moves in the direction
indicted by the dashed line. As the coil is fUlther removed , the
impedance movcs furt her along the dashed line until the material no
longer affect s the coil (the co il is in air). At this point the impedance
is back on the conducti vity curve at 0 % lACS as shown.

Figure 9.3: Lift-off locus on impedance-plane diagram.

90' 0% lACS
(Air)

i
"u Conductivity
u"" locus
~
"
>
<:;
~

]
'0
u
100% lAC
~~~ __~~~~__~__~__- L__-J O'
0
Coil resistance

Figure 9.4 illustrates a family of 1itt-off curves - each one

starting at a differe nt conductivity. Note the angles (A and B ) formed
at the junctions of the lift-off locus curves and the conductiv ity locus
curve. In the areas of low conductivity on the diagram. the angle (8 )
is small. 1n the areas of high conductivity. the angle (A) is larger.
Thus the impedance-plane di agram shows that in materials with
hi gh conductivity. it is e,"sier to detect a change in lift-off. 1n areas
of high conduc tiv ity on the diagram, a change in cond uct ivity is
mostl y a change in the coi l's induc tive reactance (venical). whi le
changes in lifl-off are 1110stl y a change in the coil's resistance
(horizontal). Due to thi s large difference in direction. the effect of
lift-off may be distinguished from the effect of a change in
conductivi ty.

Classroom Trainillg Series: Electromagnetic Testing 67

 Figure 9.4: Family of lift-off loci on impedance-plane diagram.
90 '
0% l ACS

i
Q
V
::
'"
U
"~
">
u Angle A
"::
."

8 100%
lACS
~--~--~--~--~---L __ - L_ _~_ _~ O '
0
Coil resistance •

Effect of Frequency on Impedance-Plane Diagram

Tf thc frequency of the voltage applied to the coil is changed ,
there is a change in the resisti ve and react ive facto rs of the
impedance. If an impedance-pl anc diagram of conductivity is then
prepared at the new freque ncy. the conductivity loc us curve will be
d ifferent than that obtained at the old freq uency. Although the
specific values are different , thc two curves are very simi lar in
appearance. Figure 9 .5 shows three typical conductjvity loci that
might be obtained at three different operating frequencies.
Note that at higher frequencies, the locus of thc point
representing any given material shifts toward s the lower end of the
conductivity curve. Also note that at lower test frequency, coppcr
and al uminum are widely separated on the conductivity loc i curve
whi le at the highe r test frequencies, copper and alumi num are much
closcr together on the lower end of the curve .

68 Personll el Training Publications

Figure 9 .5: Frequency effect o n impedance-plane diagram:
(a) low frequency (20 KHz); (b) med ium frequency (100 KHz) ;
and (c) high frequency (1 MHz).
(a) 90' Ai r Graphite

Bron ze

2024

'0 CU
U '---'-~'-:-;-""""---'_-L-::-'-_-'--.....J O·
o Coil resistance ----"-

(b) 90' Air

t1:l
u"
~

~
~
~
> Bronze
:i
~~

(j
0 Coil resislance~

(e) 90' Air

Graphite
t
~
u
~
~ 304
u
@
">
'B
=>
""
.::
'0
u

0 Coil resistance----+

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnelic Testing 69

 Effect of Material Thickness
Figure 9.6 shows the effect of thickness changes as applied to
brass. The thickness loc i may be plotted by measuring the resistance
and reactance of a very thin sheet of brass and repeating the proccss
for steadily increasing thicknesses. Ultimately the depth of
penetration limit is equaled and the resistance and reactance val ucs
reach the cond uctivity curvc. Further thickness incrcases will havc
110 effcct.

Figure 9.6: Thickness variations of brass on the impedance-plane diagram.

90'

A~ll
\ ~~~=-____~T~hj1ckness

\
\
\

r \
'\
'\
"-
"-
"-"
( "-
//j, "-
o/(. "" 4
'0
u
"-""............................ Brass
120kHz __ AL
Th.ickness in mils CU
L---~~--~-- __ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~ __ ~ ____-L__ ~O '

o
Coi l resistance- - - - -••

Figure 9.7 shows thickness loci for several different types of

metals. Since the eddy currents gradually become weaker and
weaker as they approach the depth of penetration limit, thickness
variations have less and less effect (note how the distance between
po ints on the cu rve become shorter for the same change in thickness
as the material thickens). Hence, the sensitivity to vary ing thickness
becomes less and less as the material thickness increases.

70 Persol1nid Trainin g Publications

Figure 9.7: Thickness variations of several metals on the
impedance-plane diagram.

i
,..
"=
E
'"",..~
>
u
=
--
"=
0
U

"
l20 kHz
Thickness in mils

Coil resistance

Effect of Frequency on Thickness Measurements

Figure 9.8 shows the effect that a change in frequency has on
thickness measurements of brass. Since a changc in frequency
changes the depth of penetratio n, a lower frequency will give a
greater depth of penetration when the conductivity eurve is reached.
The thickness points that are plotted will be located higher on the
thickness curve wi th more distance between them . Raising the
frequency will have the opposite effecL The depth of penetration
will not be as great as the points that are plotted . These will be
located further down on the curve and closer together.

Cla ssroom Trahling Series : Electromu;,:neric TeSTin g 71

Figure 9.8: Effect of frequ ency on th ickness measurements.
Air Air

i
2

60 kH z 120 kH z
Thickness in mils Thickness in mi ls

Coli resistance- - Coi l resistance--+-

Suppression of Nonrelevant Variables

In the type of eddy current equipment where the bridge networks
may be balanced (or nulled) by adjustment of resistance and
reac[ance, the bridge may be set to operate from any point on the
impedance-plane . Figure 9.9 illustrates the basic concept of this
approach.

Suppression of the Lift-Off Variable

Figure 9 .9a shows the selection of test poinls that could be used
10 suppress the lift-off vari able. Suppression of Ihe lift-off variable is
accomplished by simply selecting a tesl poi nt D so that the distances
D-C and D-A are equal. Thus a slight Change in li ft-off will not
affect the overall reading .
The test po int selected could lie anyw here along the line D-E. If
Ihe test point selected is too far away from the conductivity curve it
is poss ible that the meter will be driven off scale , but selecting a test
point conside rably away from the conductivity curve will produce
the best overall results.
If test point D is selected as the lest point and the probe is moved
[rom alloy A to alloy 8, the meter reading will decrease. If point E is
selected as the test point , the meter reading will increase when the
prohe is moved from alloy A to alloy B. It is possible that better
sensitivily can be obtained from a test poi nt located on one side than

72 Persollnel Training Publicariull.'i

on the other. In practice, the best procedu re is to evaluate test points
On both sides . then choose whichevcr gives the best results.

Suppression of the Conductivity Variable

Tn measuring the thickness of nonconducti ve coatings on
conductive materials, it is necessary that the lift-off variable be
measured and that the conductivity variable be suppressed. To
accompl ish thi s, a test point is selected (sec Figure 9.9b) that lies on
a line that is perpendicular to the conductivity curve althe point of
interest.

Figure 9.9: Test point selection.

(a) 90'
I
Conduc tivity
iD
1ft
III
/I I
,II
,I!
II
Lift-off , Alloy B

--''-I-.l- A lI oy A
CI
I
I
EJ
~~~--r---~~~--~--~--~--~ O '
o Coi l resi,tan c e - - - -

90'
(b)

Conductivity

Conductive
,uppresslOns
line
Lift-off
B __ - - -:::'=;-~D
l.-

E
Bare A
--- -
----::.--

metal
0U ---,--,----,C;;;~;,;;;;:;;=~==------,
':- Coi l resistance
O'

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 73

 Conductivity and Permeability
For magnetic material s . the lirt-off and mag netic pe rmeability
loci curves arc virtuall y superimposed (Figure 9.10a) b ut their
res pective values increase in oppos ite direc tions , Figure 9. 11 shows
that the reactance component of the test coil impedance is decreased
by the presence of non mag netic materials. Thi s reactance reduction
occurs because induced cun ents Il ow in the conduc ti ve and
non magnetic object ancl set up a secondary field that panially
cancels the p ri ma ry field of the coil. The opposite is true when a
magnetic material such as iron or feuite is placed within the fiel d of
the coil. This happens because the presence of the magnetic field
intensity of the primary coil field causes atomic mag netic clements
of the magnetic material to become al igned with the field . increasing
the Dux de nsity, The magnetic pcnneabi lity fI is the rati o of nux
densi ty B to magnetic field intensity H:
R
Eq. 9.1 ~ ~ H
where B is magneti c flu x dens ity (tesla) and H is magnetizing force
or mag netic field intensity (A-m- l ).
T he nickel zinc fen-ite cores (F igure 9.IOb) were chosen as
examp les because they have a low conductivity and two different
values for permeability, The effect of the inc reased flux density
gives a greater induced voltage in the test coil that in turn raises the
iIl1pcdance. The increase in impedance is in the reactance direction
except 1,)1' the effect of a smaU amount of energy loss resulting from
hy steresis. The nickel zinc fenite cores may have an initial
penneabil ity of 850, high on the pe rmeability line of Figure 9. 1Oa,
Usually practical engineering materials also have an associated
elecuical conductivity that affects the impedance, as sho wn for
422 steel and 4340 steel in Figure 9.IOb. The relative relationship of
the permeability loc i lines and the conductivity curveS for three
material s are shown in Figure 9. 10c.
The vec tor or phasor va lues of inductive reactance and resistance
fo r different material cond itio ns yield un ique loci or phasor plots on
the impedance-plane at particular operat ing frequencies . The phase
angle of the im pedance vectors wiU change at different frequencies
because the inductive reactance value is a function of inductance and
frequency. Hence vector points may move relative to one another
along the conditional loci curves whe n the operating frequency is
Changed, This shift in phase is shown in Figure 9.12 for the
conducti_vity val ues of nonmagnetic materials. Sim ilar phase angle
cha nges for the permeability of 4340 steel are shown in Figure 9.13
as the frequency changes from 7S to 300 kHz . These changes in
phase sh ift at diCferent freque ncies do not interfe re with impedanee-
plane analysis . provided that the operator is aware of this factor. In
some cases. test results may be improved by changing the freque ncy
to cause phase shifts.

74 Persollnel Trainillg Pllblicmiol1S

Figure 9 .10: Permeabili ty, lift- off an d conduct ivity loci on
im pedan ce-plan e: (al permeability and lift-off locus;
(hl permeability loci for d ifferent m aterials; and (c) loci for
permeability p and con ductivity <5.
(a)
Permeabili ty JI

/
Lift-off
I

lA.ir Magnetic
Nonmagnetic

Copper 25 kHz
Resistance R (ratio)

(b) Nickel zinc (JI = 125 or 190)

JI = 125 (nickel zinc)
Unified N umbering System

~
.J91422 alloy steel casting
Unified Numberin a System G43400
nickel chrome mofy bc1enum alloy steel
Air T·ltanmm
· M .
I .uanetlc
&Brass Nonmagnetic
\' Aluminum
Copper 25 kHz
Resistancc Ii (ratio)

(c)

Nonmagnetic

Legend Res istance R (ratio)

PI,ITl =fcnite~
1' 0.<52 =steel
fij ; 0"3 =nickel

Classroom Training Series: Electroma/1netic Tesling 75

 Figure 9 .11: Lift-off an d edge effect loc i on impedan ce-plan e:
(a) li ft-off loci; and (b) edge effect loci.
(a)
Unified Numbering System
043400 steel alloy
S Lift~
Off
0013 em (0.005 in.)
U
~

~ a 025 em (Om in.)

oms em (0,015 in.)
R Ai r 0.05 1 elll (0.02 in.) Ma"nelie
0 .1 em (0.04 in.J )\lolllllagnelie
0 .076 em (0.03 in.)
0.05 1 em (0,02 in, )

~
0.025 em (0 .0 1 in.)
Lift-off
Un iricd Numbering System
A97075 wrought aluminum alloy
Resistance R (rat io)

(b)
Uni fied Numberi ng System
04340 sleel alloy
~

.!!
1i
~

,.<.>
0:':
"TI Magnetic
~ ~~~--------------~--­
Nonmagnetic

Lin-off

Un ified Numberin. System

A97075 wrought al uminum alloy

Resistance R (ratio)

76 Personnel Trainin g Pllhlicario1!.\'

Figure 9.12: Movement of material points by frequency changes: (a) low frequency,
20 kHz; (b) medium frequ en cy, 100 kH z; and (c) high frequency, 1 MHz.

(a) Graphite Conductiv ity (b) ' Conductivity

Grap hIte
Air Air
UNS R56401
~ UNS S30400
co
~
§!
t t
-:;;
;; Lif t-
:R." ~ off Bronze
Lift-
'< off ~
~

"
.'3
~
~
UNS A97075 , -g UNS A97075, temper 73
temper 73
Co er
Co er
Resistance R (relative scale)
Resistance R (relative scale)

(e) ConductivilY
Air Legend
Graphite UNS A92024 = Unified Numbering System
A 92024 heat treatable
wrought aluminum alloy
UNS A97075 = Unified Numbering System
A97075 heat treatable
wrought aluminum alloy
UNS R56401 UNS R56401 = Unified Numbering System
? UNS S30400 R5640 I titanium alloy
8r nze UNS S30400 = Unified Numbering System
NS A92024, temper 3
UNS A97075. temper 73 S30400 austenitic chromium
nickel stainless steel
Re sistance R (relati ve scale)

Figure 9.13: Phase angle changes on impedance-plane caused

by frequency changes.

"
'"u
~
Steel

">-
!"
250
"u
"u
E ~~::::::::"""'----1300 kH z
Air
.="
'0

Resistance R (relative scale)

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnelic Testin g 77

 With phase analysis eddy current instruments , an operator can
produce impedance-plane loci plots or curves automatically on a
fl ying dot oscilloscope or integral cathode ray tuhe. Such
impedance-plane plots can be presented [or the following material
conditions , as shown in Fi gure 9.14.

1. Lift-orr and edge effects.

2. Cracks.
3. Material separation and spacing.
4. Permeability.
5. Specimen thinning.
6. Conductivity.
7. P lating thickness .

Figure 9. 14: Impedance changes in relation to one another on

impedance-plane.

Lift-ofr

Ma!lnetic
"0 Airf...=----+------~5~~-
..::.. Nonmagnetic
'"

Pa/t' I Aluminum
I
~
' pc
Copper

Resi stance R (relative scale)

Legend
c. l = crack in almninum
C:<.; ::; crack in st.eel
p~ ::; plating (aluminum on copper)
P~ ::; plating (copper on aluminum)
P = plaring (nonmagnetic)
~ :;::; spacing between alum inum layers
T = thinning in aluminum
jI = permeability
Om ::; conductivity for magnetic materials
On ;;;; conductivity for nonmagnetic materials

78 Personnel Trainill g Publications

 Evaluation of these plot, shows that ferromag netic material
conditio ns prod uce higher values of inducti ve reactance than values
obtained from non mag netic material conditions . Hence the magnetic
domai n is at the upper quadrant of the impedance-plane . whereas
nonmagnetic materials are in the lower quadrant. The se paration of
the two domains occurs at the inductive reactance values obtained
with the coil removed from the conductor (sample); this is
proportional to the value of the coiJ"s self-inductance L.
Linear material values do not prod uce linear responses on the
impedance-plane loci . With the eddy currcnt probe halanced on the
mctal specimen, the loci values for linear material conditi ons arc
displayed as fo llows.

I. Magnetic and no nmag netic lift-ofr conditions arc displayed

logarithmically (in X).
2. Magnetic and nonmag netic edge effects arc displayed
logarithmica II y.
3. Magnetic and nonmagnetic conductiv ities vary with test
frequency.
4. Magnetic permeability varies wi th tcst frequency.
S. Metal thinning varies exponentially.
6. Nonmagnetic plating thickness is displayed logarithmically.
7. Material spacing or separation varies exponentially.

Electromagnet ic induction effects arc not easy to understand.

Nei ther the mag netic field s no r the eddy CllD'ents can be seen.
In a proble m solving situ ation. impedance-plane analysis is a
useful tool because it improves the ability to detect various
conditi ons and provides a better understandjn g and interpretation of
the eddy current test results.

CATHOD E RAy T UBE METHODS

Cathode Ray Tube Vector Point Method

When a cathode ray lUbe (CRT) js provided as pan of the tcs t
equipment , the equipment may be set up to show on the tube the
locus of all the points in which the technician is interested. Thus, the
operator may construct. point by point, the impedance-p lane diagram
directl y on the tube rathe r tha n on a separate sheet of grap h paper.
During actual testing of spec imens, the impedance of the coil will
cause a dot to appear at some point on the screen . Its pOSition wi th
respect to the impedance-plane diagram tells thc technician what has
occu rred within the test object. An advantage of using a cathode ray
mbe is its extreme fle xibility. For example. the equi pment may be
set up so that the display is rotated to a position where a change in
lift-off would move the dot left or ri ght, while a change in
conduc tivi ty would move the dot up or down . The prese nce of a

Classroom Training Series: Electm11laglleric Testing 79

 disconti nuity would cause the dot to movc up and to the left , as
shown in Figure 9,1 5,

Figure 9,15: Rota tion of cath ode ra y tu be display.

Conductivity
Conductiviry

Lift-
off
Lift-
off

Cathode Ray Tube Ellipse Display Method

A CRT may also be set up to compare a test object with a
reference standard . The ellipse method uses an in spection co il in
conj unction wi th a reference coiL When a standard is pl aced unde r
the reference coil and the tes t object is placed under the inspection
coil, the CRT shows the phase relationshi ps between the signals
obtained . This com parison between the signals provides indications
of the dimensio n variable and the co nductivity variable ,
T he d imension vari able and the conductivity variable arc shown
on the CRT by the width of the elli pse and the angle tilt of the axis ,
F igure 9 .1 6 show s CRT displays fo r dimension and conductivity .

MODULATION A NALYSIS

A modulation analysis system , shown schematically on

Figure 9_17 , adds a mOdulating device between the test set and an
indicating device - a strip chart recorder. Tlle mod ulating de vice is
simply an electronic l1lter that will pass only certain frequencies . In
modulation analysis a differentia] coil is used so that two adjacent
areas of the art icle are compared.

80 Personnel Training Publications

Figure 9.16: Cathode ray tube displays for d imension a nd conductivity.

Dimension

Small change Large change

Conductivity

Small change Large change

Both dimension
and conducti vity

Small change Large change

Figure 9.17: Modulation analysis system.

Vertical marks on paper
Modulating Indicating
Test set
device dev ice
9111111

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 81

 As the test specimen passes under or th rough the coils at a constant
rate , various variables being sensed cause the equi pment to register a
signal. A discontinuity such as a crack will be ind icated by a sharp rise
in signal, followed immed iately by a shalV drop. A dimension change.
on the other hand , is most likely to occur graduall y. Thus by using
ei ther a low frequency or high freque ncy til ter, the effect of one
variable or the other is eliminated fro m the strip chart readout.
Figure 9.18 illustrates this .

Figure 9.18: Elimination of n oise.

No filters

More filters
needed

Crack signal
Good fi Itration

82 Personnel Traillinx Publications

 Chapter 10

Selection of Test Frequency

TEST fR EQUENCY

T hc freq uency of an altcmating cun-ent is defined as thc number

of cycles (one complete cycle of cun-em) that occur in one second.
Its unit is the hertz - one hertz ( I Hz) being one cycle per second.
Thus, house cun-ent at 60 cycles per second has a frequency of
60 Hz. The mos t important parameter of thc test system that affects
the depth of pcnetrat ion is the test frequency.
The type of alloy involved and the varia bles to be measured or
suppressed detenlline thc best frequency. The depth of edd y cun-ent
penetration within test mate rials is strongly affected by test
frequency, penlleability and conducti vity. For a given alloy, higher
frequenc ies normally limit the eddy cun-ent test to inspection of the
excited mctal surface nearest the primary coil wind ing. Lowe r
frequencies permit deeper eddy current penetration. A given test
freque ncy wil l all ow eddy CUITents to penetrate deepe r in lower
conductivity all oys tha n in higher conductivity alloys.
High test f requenci es arc no rmally used for detecting small
surface cracks or surface contamination and for gaging thin coatings.
Med ium frequencies are useful for conductivity measurements such
as alloy sOl1ing. Low tes t frequencies arc us ually required for tcsting
thicker materials (for oppos ite side con·osion, for example), for
thickness gaging and for penetrating into magnetic materials.
Penetration depth . however. is on ly part of the process for
selection of opti mum eddy cun-ent tes t frequenc ies. The geometric
relation ship between the impedance curves for the variable
magnitudcs (di fferent conductivity points or lift-off po ints) along
Lheir respective impedance curves is impol1ant.

DEPTH OF P ENETRATION

Eddy currents are not unifo rml y distrihuted throughout a test

object. They arc mostl y de nse at the sud·ace closest to the coi l. and
become progressively less dense with increasing d istance below the
surface of the materi al. At some di stance below the surface of a
thick material there will be essen tiall y no curre nts fl ow ing. The
depth of penctration is affected by the freq uency. conductivity and
permeabi lity of the material.

83
 j. The depth of penetratio n decrcases as the frequency increases .
2. The depth of penetration increases as the frequency decreases.
3. The higher the conductivity, the less the penetration.
4. The highe r the permeability, the less the penetration

Note: When testi ng ferromagnetic materi als, the pelmeability factor

will have no effect on thc depth of penetration if thc test Object is
magnetized to saturation by a separate direct current coi l. The
standard depth of penetration is defin ed as thc depth at whi ch the
current strength has dropped to 37% of the ClJn'ent de nsity that exists
at the surface. Fi gure 10.1 shows the distribution of eddy curre nts in
a material.

Figure 10.1: Variation in eddy current de nsity.

1.0
I
O.81+--+- + - --1-
Standard depth of penetration
where density of eddy current =
0.6 f--\--t--j - 37% of de nsity at the surface
0.4 I \ 11 __ I j 1

0.2 LJ _ -1-----7
o 2 3 4 5 6

Units of depth
(in multiples of the standard
depth of penetration)

If the standard depth of penetration exceeds the thickness of the

matcrial under tes t, the restrictio n of the eddy current paths appears
as a change in the conductivity of the matetial. The coil response
then retlects the thickness of the material. Edd y cu rre nts do not
cease to exist beyond one standard depth. Normall y the material
must have thickness of two or three times the standard depth before
thickness ceases to have any effect on the test coil.
A depth of penetration formula using res isti vity, frequcncy and
permeabi lity can be expressed as:

Eq.l0.l i5 ~ K ~P I (jXJ.lIT,)

where i5 is depth of penetration , K is constant (1.98). P is resist ivity

in m.icro-ohm-cm ,f is frequency in hertz , and Jt,d is I for
nonnlagnelic materi als.

84 Personnel Training Publications

 The K factor beco mes 1.98 (if working iil inches). Assuming this
will be 2, the formula then becomes simplified as foll ows:
Eq.l0.2 8=2JPI(JX P",)

Example Problem: Calculate the standard depth of penetrati on in a

pure aluminum sample at a test frequency of 1DO kHz.

Conductivity of aluminum = 2.83 micro-oh m centimeter

SDP = (ReSistivity I Frequency)
= « 2.83 x 0.00 1) I 100) x 1000
= 0.0283 cm

Another approach to freque ncy selecti on uses argument "A" of

the Bessel function where argument "A" is equal to unity or I .
Eq.l0.3 A = f p,,,a d'
5066
where f is frequency, fl rei is relative permeability, a is cond uctivity
in meter/ohm-mm 2 and d is diameter of test object in centimeters.
A freq uency can always be selected to establish factor " A" equa l
to I . This freq uency is knowh as the limit f requency and is noted by
the term fg. By substitu ting 1 for factor "A" andfg fo r f, the
equation becomes:
fg p ad'
Eq. 10.4 1= "I

5066
5066
jEi = u a d'
, r~1

wherefg is limit frequency in hertz,Prel is relative permeability, d is

diameter of test object in centimeters andais conductivity in
meter/ohm-nun 2.
Limit frequency (fg) is then establi shed in terms of conduct ivity.
permeab il ity, dimension and constant (5066).
Since limit frequenc y is based on these parameters, a method of
freq uency determination using a test frequ ency to limit frequency
ratio.f!fg can be accomplished. High.f!fg ratios are used for ncar
surface lests, and lower jlfg ratios are used for subsurface tests.
Figure 10.2 shows the standard depth of penetration fo r several
materials with different conductivities at various operating
frequcncie.s.

Classroom Trainin g Series: ElectromagneTic Tes/inK 85

Figure 10.2: Standard depth of penetration versus frequency for different types of material.
10

I""'- "'-I'- Gr~~hite' I

..... i'-- :--- l""'- i..[ Titanium
,..,
./. .....
Stainless steel
v'" ....... l""'-
.s'" 0. 1 ::::.... i'-- ..... ....... l::"- ii- I
:; Aluminum
~ "'- ~ ....... "'- ...... -
~ ::::.... I'-- ::--
~
0 am ---- ---- ----
-'=
Q. Ingot iron
OJ II :::::- ........
Q High- alloy steel/
~!- i'-- ----
0.001
Copper
----
I I III ...... ;;::::
0.0001 I I II 1:::--
10-2 10-1 10 1 102 lOS
Frequency (kHz)

Single Frequency Systems

These systems are capable of energizing the test coil with a
single frequency. Frequency selection often becomes a compromise.
It is common practice in in-serv ice in spection of thin wall,
non ferromagn etic tubing to establish a standard depth of penetration
just past the midpoint of the tube wall . This permits about 25 % of
the available eddy current to flow at the outside surface of the tube
wall. In addition, this establi shes a phase difference of
approximately 1500 to 1700 between the inside and outside surface
of the tube wall. The combination of 25% outside, or surface
current, and 1700 included phase angle provides good detectability
and resoluti on for thin wall tube inspection.

Multi-Frequency Systems
The frequency choice discussed previously deals with coil
systems driven by only one frequency. Test systems driven by more
than one frequency are called multi-frequency or multi-parameter
systems. It is common for a test co il to be driven with three or more
frequencies. Although several frequencies may be applied
simultaneously or sequentially to a test coil, each of the individual
frequenc ies fo ll ow rules establ ished by single frequency methods.
Signals generated at the various frequencie s are often combined or
mixed in electronic circuits that algebraically add or subtract signals
to obtain desired result. The technician must have a good working

86 Personnel Training Publicatiolls

knowledge of current density and phase relationships in order to
make intell igent frequency choices.
Modern multifrequency eddy current systems allow the
techn ician to perform disco ntinuity detection using the differential
mode and absolute mode simultaneously. These systems generally
use the time sharing technique to allow testing at four frequencies at
the same time. Each frequency channel is capable of generating
differential or absolute data.
The vector analyzer used for multifrequency eddy current
examination has the ability to display the signals from all four
frequencies and the two mixers si multaneously. This allows the
interpreter to evaluate all informat ion available from the
examination at the same time .

Classroolll Trainiflg Series: ElectromagneTic Testing 87

 Chapter 11

Coupling

LIn-Off AND FILL FACTOR

Lift-off and fill factor are terms used to describe any space that
occurs between the test object and the inspection coil.

Lift-Off
Lift-ofr is a term used to describe any s pace that occurs hetween
the lest object and the inspection coi l. \\lhen a surface co il is
energized and held in the air above a conductor. the impedance of
the coil has a cerlain value . As the coil is moved closer to the
conductor, the initial value will change when the field of the coi l
begins to intercept the conductor. Because the field of the coil is
::.;trongest close to the coi ll the impedance value will continue to
change until the coil is directly on me conductor. Con versely, once
the coi I is on the conductor, any small variation in the separation of
coi l and conductor will change the impedance of ti1e coil.

Fill Factor
Fill factor is a telm used to describe how well a test object will
be electromagnetically coupled to a test coil that surrounds or is
inserted into the test object. Fill factor pertai ns to tests that use
bobbin or enc ircling coils.
II is necessary to maintain a constant relationship between the
diameter of the coil and the diameter of the test object. Small
changes in the diameter of the test object can cause changes in the
impedance of the co il, This can be useful in detecting changes in the
diameter of the test object, but it can also mask other indications,
Fill factor can be described as the ratio of rcst object diamerer
squared to coil diameter squared ro r a circling coil, or vice versa for
a bobbin coil where the inside diameter is used .
Eq.11.1 _d'
D'
The fill factor will always he a number less than one, Tt is
necessary to have a means to guide the test object or coil through the
center at all times to maintain a fill factor of constant value , as
shown in Figure 11. 1.
Figure 11.1: Distortion of eddy curren ts by a discontinuity.

Material

lmpedancc
indica tion

Lift-off

...
Conductive material

Calculation of Fill Factor

Inside cuils: Fill fac tor = d 2/0 2

\vherc: d = co il windings inner di amcter
D = tu be internal dia meter

Outside coils: Fill factor = d 2/D 2

where: D = coil windings in ner diameter
d = tes t object outside dia meter

Example Problem : What is thc fill factor for inspecting 0.75 in. X
0.049 in . of wall thick ness copper tu bes using a 0.610 in . out er
diameter bobbi n probe?

Solution: Fill factor (bobbin coil) = d 2/D 2

d = 0.610
0= 0.75 - (0,049 x 2)
0= 0.75 - 0.098 = 0 .652
Fill facror = (0.610)2/ (0.652)2
Fill factor = 0.372 x 0.425
Fill facto r = 87%

Example Problem :Wbat is the coi l winding's in ne r diameter for

ins pecting I in. (2.5 em) solid rods using a fi ll fac tor of 90 %?

Solution: Fill factor (encircling coil) = d2/0 2

Fill fac tor = 90% or ().9
d=l
0 .9 = 12m2
0 2 = 110.9 = 1.11 1
0 = JI.llI = 1.05 in.

Persunnel Training Puhlications

 Chapter 12

Electromagnetic Testing Applications

EDDY CURRENT ApPLICATlO S

Applications of eddy current testing in industry arc numerous and

widespread. Eddy current testing can detect discontinuities that lie in
planes transverse to the eddy currents present in the material or
detect thickness changes and measure nonconducti ve coating
thicknesses . Di scontinuities include cracks, scams. laps, pits and
laminations at cut edges of sheet or plate. The presence of a
discontinuity is characterized by a sudden, brief change in
impedance as the test coil moves across the discontinuity. Readings
arc calibrated with standards hav ing known discontin uities , either
natural or manufactured. in the same kind of material.

Aerospace Applications
Applications of eddy current tests in the aerospace industry
include the follow ing.

Measurement of Metal and Coating Thickness

In the aerospace industry, numerous metal parts are coated or
plated to obtain special slIIface properties such as corrosion
resistance, wear resistance or improved appearance. These coatings
arc prepared by various means, incl uding electron-deposition. hot
clipping, cladding and spraying. For controlling the thi ckness of the
deposit and also for testing purposes, reliable and rapid
measurements of coatings arc necessary.
Four general types of coating and base materials lend themselves
to eddy current testing. The operatin g procedure used with the. test
instrument is determined by (he specific combination of materials.
These material combinations are classitied as fo llows.

J. Metal foil and sheet or metal coating on a nonconductive base

material , such as metall ic film on glass, ceramic or plastics.
2. Metal eladding with higher conducti vity than rhe base metal.
such as copper. zinc on steel or pure al uminum on an
alumin um alloy.
3. Metal cladding with a lower cond uctivity than the base metal,
such as nickel on al uminum.
4. Nonconductive coating on a metallic base materi al, such as
anod ic film or paint on aluminum, or other organic coatings
on metals.

91
 REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR THI CKNESS TESTING

For eddy current thickness tests . at least th ree objects with

known metal thickness are needed as reference standards to
calibrate the equipment. One reference stan dard represents the
minimum acceptable thickness. the second represents the maximum
acceptable thickness and the third is from the middle of the range .
All calibration standards must have the same conducti vity,
permeability, substrate thickness and basic geometry as the test
objects.

Metal Thickness
Tests for measuring metal thickness are generally used on
chemically milled sheet stock, thin wall tubing, metal foil bonded to
nonmetallic materials and any objects that may experience thinning
from corrosion.

Conductive Coating Thickness

Claddi ng thickness measurements are used in two types of
situations where conductivities of two metal layers are very
diffe rent . The first situation, in which the cladding is a better
conductor than the base metal, pertains to coppe r, zinc or
cadmium coatings on steel base materials . The second situation , in
which the claddi ng is the poorer conductor of the two metals,
pertains to lead coatings on cop per or to nickel coatings on
aluminum .

Metal Spacing
There are times when a gap separates two metal sheets . The gap
may be tilled with a nonmetall ic shim or may be purposely produced
as a fi xed dimension. If it is desired to measure the gap or spacing,
an operating frequency must be chosen so that eddy cu rrents will be
generated in the second (subsurface) layer. The frequency chosen
should produce eddy currents that penetrate both metals to a depth
of 3 x conductivity, as shown in Figure 12. 1.
Gap or spac ing measurements are best made with the probe
located over the thin member; thh reduces the problem with depth
of penetration. If both members are equally thick but one has a
lower conductivity, the probe should be placed on the low
conductivity test object.

92 Per.mnllel Training Publicarions

Figure 12.1: Probe coil impedance curve showing effect of metal
spacing between two flat, parallel, metallic conducting sheets.

:2 g-.l
i ! J.
Spacing
B
~
Air I

"
> J.<or---- Metal spacing
";:; (maximum gap)
1!" Conductivity -+-- Thinning locus
locus /
Lift-off
locus /P' ---- Metal spacing (zero gap)
_____ Conductivity locus
(infinite thickness)
Resistance R (relative scale)

TESTS OF M ETAL CONDUCTIVITY

Eddy current conductivity meters usually differ with respect to

operating frequency, lift-off. temperature. sensiti vity and probe
size compensation or means of presenting test results . Most
conductivity meters can provide results as a percentage of
Internat.ional Annealed Copper St.andard (%IACS). Other
instruments can provide conductivity measurCll1cnts in sicmcns-
per-meter or as cu stomized displays of signal amplitude or phase
angle (Figure 12.2).

Testing of Bolt Holes

Small cracks in material located next to fastener holes may go
undetected until the cracks grow til a size that allows detection at the
sULface not covered by the head of the fastener or nut. A crack of
this magnitude and under high stresses may continue to grow to
failure at a rapid rate. Eddy current testing is a reliable way to detect
cracks in material adjacent to fastener holes. Eddy cu rrent tests are
well known for detecting small fatigue cracks, particularly in
aluminum fastener holes . Automated bolt hole scanners provide
reliable and repeatable test results. Finding slllali cracks at fastener
holes sometimes requires removing the fastener and perfonning an
eddy eunem check. Automatic scanning Illay be used to detect
cracks as small as 0.013 CIll «(l.ODS in .). Figure 12 .3 illustrates an
eddy current bolt hole probe.

Cla.rsro01Il- Traillillg Series: Electromagnetic Testing 93

 Figure 12.2: Relative conductivity of metals and alloys shown
by eddy current meter readings. Unified Num bering System
(UNS) is used here for wrought aluminum a lloys.

-- ISH ~~~-=:==:=:=tl
~ 80 ~
__Sil ~er. coppcr~ I
-Pure aluminum:: Go1J ..... I
! ~g r- -1-UNSA91IdOalumin~
I
- ,
~ 50 - JMagnesium. rhouiurn----cr--
I I
' I
8" 40 - --UNS A95052 alu,';illllm-i-...'>. . I ~
b 30 Tungsten, UNS A92024 aluminulll-J.. - l\llolybdcnum
I Cadmium'____. - ",- Zinc I
Berylhum copper::-... ".t Yellow brass , cobalt
20 ~ Platinum F '-I~:~~p~'~r c~;~~
10
9
8
7,
Chromium
\
,
~

Lcad
~ Tin

_~_

1_Niekel steel and=r:- -'_----,_

I
-+- Nickel silver
I
--- ~luminum bronze
~SiliconI bronze _

other maone tic

~
'
-1
1

I
1
5 metals are in region to IeIT ~
4 - - , ,
-250 -200 -150 - 100 -50 0 50 100
Meter reading (relati ve unit)

Figure 12.3: Eddy current Ilole probe .

.....-----Coil asscmbly
Coi l wires sealed
in body probe with
epoxy cement

Adjustable .K~'YI'" Probe body

collar""""'- - Insulating sleeve
Selscrew ~ Coil w ire soldered
to microdot tenninal
Seal connector and shield in
probe body with epoxy cement Microdot
con wi re soldered connector
Shield

94 Personnel Training Publicalions

Testing of Aircraft Structures
Airl ines and airframe manufacturers have used eddy current crack
detection techniques since the early 1900s. Most of the eddy current
equipment and procedures were designed to operate at high frequencies
to detcct very small surface cracks . Around 1973 , damage tolerance
studies detennined that eddy current testing was more sensiti ve than
radiography for detecting fatigue cracks. It then became desirable to use
eddy current testing instead of radiography [0 dctect subsurface cracks.
Eddy current testing is a primary nondestlUctive test method for
detecting cracks and corros ion of aircraft stlUcture and engine
hardware during maintenance overhaul. These tests are performed in
accordance with procedures de veloped by the manufacturer. Such
tests can be used to detect fatigue cracks resulting from cyclic
loading during flight , take-off or landing . They can also be used to
detect stress corrosion cracks to indicate the ex tent of corrosion
damage or to identify portions of aircraft structures damagcd by firc.

Testing of Jet Engines

Eddy current testing is a well-establ ished techniqnc for the
detect ion of snrfacc discontinuities in conductivc test objects. The
United Statcs Air Force and other organizations have used
automated eddy current testing to ensure that criti cal engine
componcnts are free of rejectable surface discontinuities .
Eddy cun'ent lests of mi litary aircraft engines can be categori zed
as manufacturing or depot tests. When aircraft engine com ponents
arc initially produced. eddy currcnt tests of the manufactured objects
arc often required hy specification to ensure that the new engine
components are free of undcsirable material propelties or machining
discontinuities. Inscrvice parts sim ilarly require dcpot tcsts at
predetermined intcrvals to ensure that parts are free of small
di scontinui ties in critical, predetermined zones. Manufacturing tests
and depot tests arc performed as preventive screening.

SURFACE TESTS

Surface tests are also conducted using eddy cu rrent techniques to

detect cracking in a variety of components that are dillicult to test
with other surface methods. Components typicall y tested include
turbine rotors, turbine blades, socket welds and stainless steel pipes
susceptible to corrosion cracking of the outside surface . These
applications typically rcquire fiat (pancake) coils or flexib le array
coils. The coi ls are usually operated in the absolute mode , in eithcr a
cross wound or a transmit/receive configuration.

Classroom Training Series: Elecrromagneric Testing 95

 CHEMICAL AND PETROLEUM ApPLICATIONS

Heat exchangcr lUbe lesting is an im portant pan of mai ntenance

fo r the refining and petroleum industry. Heat exchange rs and
condensers arc designed 10 keep products in the lUbes separate from
products in the vessel (Figure 12.4). A leaking lUbe could cause a
significant impacI on production and could also cause a catastrophic
fa ilure and loss of life.
Bobbin probes are used to test for discontinui ti es in the matelial
such as cracks . pitting or wall loss. They will dis rupt the flow of
eddy currents and thus be detected by the in strument.

Figure 12.4: Cutaway ima ge of typical h eat exchanger, showing

t ube bun dle.
,,[()aUCI in

Product circulates
~i~::;~~~:=:~ ",) to below divider

Product out
Steam

ELECTRIC P OWER ApPLICATIO NS

Steam Generators
The most common use of electromagnetic testing in the power
industry is tube testing in heat cxchangcrs. Tubes in a nuclear steam
generator are important for safcty because they carry the primary
cooLing water. Degradation of steam generator tub ing results from
corrosion and mechanical mechan isms; intergranular corrosion , stress
corrosion cracking, thinning, impingement and fatigue. ~1ost tubes are
fabricated from iron nickel chromi um and nickel chromium alloys .
For electromagnetic testing, multi-frequency bobbin coil techniques
arc used to tesl the full length of the tuhes . It is recognized that rhe
bobbin coil is not quali fied for all tuhe locations, so other techniques
such as rotating coil technology and array probes are also used .

96 Pen01l11el Trainin g Publications

 Balance-of-Plant Heat Exchangers
In a nuclear power plant , heat exchangers that do not carry
reactor-cooling water from the containment vessel are commonl y
referred to as balance-oj-plant heat exchangers. Most of them have
counterparts in fossil fuel plants and are tested with multi-frequency
eddy current tec hniques in the differential and absolute modes using
bobbin coil probes. Table 12.1 lists rou tinely inspected heat
exchangers, potential damage mechanisms and the tubing material.

Table 12.1: Heat exch anger materials and damage mechanisms.

Potential Damage
Heat Exchanger Tube Material Mechanisms
Feedwater heat exchanger carbon steel steam erosion
copper nickel alloy pitting
stainless steel vibrat ional wear
condensate groov ing
loose part damage
circumferential cracki ng
roll transi tion cracking
axial cracking

Generator stator cooling system alloy of 90% copper and 10% inside surface pitting
nickel

Generator hydrogen cooler aluminum brass inside surface pitt ing and
outside surface damage

Lubricating oil cooler admiralty brass inside surface pitting

Main condenser stain less steel copper nickel inside surface pitting and
alloys; admiralty brass; vibrational wear
titan ium

Industrial Air Conditioning Chillers Applications

Cooling for large buildings and manufacturing processes is most
commonl y provided by centrifugal chillers. Condenser and
evaporator tubing have fins on their outside diameters to increase
heat transfer surface , as shown in Figures 12.5 and 12.6.

Classroom Trainin.g Series: Electromagnetic Testing 97

 Figure 12.5: Typical centrifugal chilleI.

Fi!{Ufe 12.6: Cross-section of sample h eat exchange tube.

0.13 em (0 .053 ill. )

•
~"..,.."'"

1.9 cm (0 .75 in.)

f
1.6 em (0.64 ill.)
,.Ii . ,
""01' •....,.... ..'\"."""""""""

1.4 em (0.56 ill .)

t
~.,.""".~
f
..... ~
*
Material Sorting Related to Conductivity
Identify ing or separating materials by composition or structure is
referred to as material sorting. Impedance values are established on
reference known material, and then the readings obtained from test
references are compared with the reading obtained fro m the test
object. Eddy current can also be used to idenLify and control heat
treatment conditions and evaluation of fire damage to metall ic
structu res.
Thi s can also be accomplished by determini ng depths of case
harde ning of steel s and some ferrous alloys. During age harde ning
of aluminum or titanium alloys , for example, the hardness and
conductivity of the material change simultaneously so that the
degree of harde ning may be obtained by measuring the conductivity
of the test object and comparing it with a standard of that material
with a known hardness.

98 Personnel Training Publications

 ELECTROMAGN ETIC T ESTI NG IN

P RIMARY METALS IN DUSTRIES

Electro magnetic testing tec hniques find their appl ication in all
stages of formi ng, shapin g and heat treating of metals and alloys,
where the effective ness of processing steps can be quickly evaluated .
Materials damaged during processing can be detected and removed
from production without incurring further processing costs. Themlal
treatments such as annealing, normalizing , harde ning and ot her heat
treating processes can be directl y monitored in many instances.

Testing of Hot Rolled Bars

There are several requirements fo r an effecti ve bar testing
system.

I. High discontinuity sensitivity.

2. Ability to classify bar quantity.
3. F ull automatic operation .
4. R ugged construction for use in mills .
5. The ability to test bars as received without spec ial
preparation.

A rotating sUiface probe eddy cUITent technique has been used for
the tes ting of hot rolled bars . With this technique, the eq ui pment
rorates an eddy current probe arou nd an advancing bar. The probe is
held a preset minim um distance from the bar surface. The equipment
mainta ins the selected level of test sensiti vity regardless of changes
in di scontinuity signal amplitude caused by varying surface spacing
from probe to bar. It marks only those disco ntinuities that exceed a
preselected length and depth. Bars with discontinuities are
automati call y separated from discontinuity-free bars.

Testing of Square Billets

Eddy cUITent testin g can auto matically inspect 100% of the
surface of steel billets w ithout the need of an operator's judge ment
for interpreting tes t results . The system described here can detect
seams, evaluate their severi ty and mark the location of those that
exceed an accepta ble depth. The key component is a scanning head
assembly that keeps an eddy current probe in contact with, and
tangent to, the billet surface at all locat ions arou nd the periphery,
incl uding the com ers. The mac hine is des igned to test round
cornered , square billets as they are rolled. This integration with the
manufacturing process is an important step in the development of
integrated automatic testing and conditioning systems.

Cla,\'STOO1l1 Twining Series: t.:lecrmmagnetic Testing 99

 Testing of Hot Steel Rods and Wires
Surface disco ntinuity testing is essential in the qual ity assurance
of iro n and steel products. In many mills, quality control of hot
rolled rods is provided through eddy current and flux leakage testing
carried OUI after the rolling, shearing and cooling process. Wires
and bars are usually coiled immediately after they are hot rolled.
When discontinuity detection is performed on cold products, they
must be uncoiled for testing. Eddy current tes ting using an
encircl ing coil has been applied to hot rolling afbars. Steel mills usc
enci rcling coil eddy current systems to test hot wires. Generall y,
encircling coils are in the differential mode eoi] arrangement. This
testing system can detect shOlt di scontinuities, slIch as scabs and roll
marks. A diagram of a single-strand steel rocl control system is
shown in Figure 12.7.

Figure 12.7: Diagram of Si ngle-strand steel rocl control system,

s!1owing four stages: (1) signal acquisition; (2) data d isplay;
(3) data sorting; and (4) reporti ng.

Stages Photoce lls (presence of product)

r;=.:====:::::::J 0<: '0

ROd > Sensor
0 Rod speed
mca~lIrement
£
Remote i1Hec(iOn
and ampl i l eI' box
- - - - - - ~J,.- Raw eddy current data - -

Cathode Programmable
lultiehannel processor Graphic
ray tube recorder
Q Analog processing of Q
2
ffi eddy current signals
IAnalog-to-digital l
COnVCJ1er
IF-
--- - --
Photocells. in formalion~ a
---- ----- ----
Rod speed information U
-

3 Preprocessmg computcr
Digital, signa1
processmg L1nlt
---- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Centra] compute-r e11101
Qualily managemenl 1 dISI
¢::) If'and
4 ,;>
I Printer I
I Results I

10(1 Per.wJ11J1el Training Publications

 Chapter 13

Factors Affecting Flux Leakage Fields

DEFECT GEOMETRY, L OCATI ON AND ORIENTATION

Thc presence of a discontinuity causes a reduction in the cross-

sectional area of the test object, thereby resulti ng in a local increase
in the magnetic nux dens ity. A reduction in the pemleability.
I.Ogether with an inc rease in the magnetic nux dcnsity, causes the
fl ux to leak into the surrounding medium.
Magnetic leakage fields can be subdivided fU l1her into acti ve or
residual leakage fields . To undcrstand the origin of the leakage fields
and choice of initial mag netization for the active leakage lield
technique, consider an unmag netized steel billet with a surface
discontinuity, as shown in Figure 13.la.
Let A represent the cross-sectional area of the b illet, and let a
represent the cross-sectional area of the discontinuity. The cross-
sect ional area of the sound pOltion of the bill et in the vicinity of the
discontin uity is reduced to (A - a) un its, as shown in Figure 13.lb.
H is the magnitude component and so is the scalar qua ntity. Then
place thc billet in a uniform mag netic field H and represent the
induced flux density in the sound portion of thc billet by B) (Weber!
meter2) . This magnetic fl ux density corresponds to a point P to the
right of ,UII"" on the permeability curve of the material, as illustrated
in Figure 13.lc.
Poin t Q is the corresponding point on the initial magnetization
curve in rigure 13. 1c. Thc magnetiC nux density passi ng through the
sound part of the billet is B1 (Weber/meter2). If it is assumed that
this same magnetic flux is to pass through the reduced billet area in
the vicini ty of the discontinuity, then the Ilu x density present in this
section is greater than B ]A (A - a) , namely B2. This local increase of
magnetic flux density results in a change of the operating point on
the magnetization curve from Q to Q' and the corresponding
decrease of local permeability from P to P '. However, this results in
conflicting demands in the vicini ty of the discontinuity.
The magnetic flux density must increasc with the reduction of the
cross-sectional area. This change drivcs permeability in the restricted
region of the billet to a value of less than that present in the sound
regions. Consequently, some of the flux leaks into the surrounding
med ium near the discontinuity, which is why this is call ed a leakage
field (Figu re 13.ld). The detection of this leakage field is the basis
for magnetic fl ux leakage testing.

101
Figure 13.1: Billet with discontinuity: (a) view of billet; (b) cross·section through
discontinuity; (c) magnetic characteristics of billet material; and (d) billet in magnetic
field showing discontinuity leakage field.
(a) (b) Area a of
Discontinuity discontinuity

Area A

Area (A - a)

(e) (d)

Discontinuity Leakage field

~

"
-;;
'-'
~

T
.:::;;" ----- ------
----- --
I Magnetic
------ -- --- ----~ -

-~t-===~:=:=~=5....=~~-=-=-=-
'"C Permeability It -------.... --------------
- --- -------~--------~--

/
'iO B1 ----~-----------------
ii Magnetic
"'><" field H
"
0::
Initial
'-'
.~
S magnetization curve
So
2"
Magnetic field intensity H (relat ive scale)

Subsurface Discontinuities
If a discontinuity is farther below the surface, the difficulty of
detecting the magnetic leakage fie ld is much greater. The reason for
this difficulty is that the surrounding material tends to smooth out
the field distortion caused by the subsurface discontinuity, thus
resulting in a small field disturbance on the surface of the hillet.
Because most detectors used to monitor the magnetic leakage field s
rely on a sharp change of field gradient to record the presence of the

]02 Personnel Training Publications

field , it is naturally difficult to sense the location of subsurface
discontinuities, as i1lustrated in Figure 13.2.

Pigure 13,2: Billet with subsurface discontinuity, showing

resultant leakage field.

Suhsurracc discontinuiLY leak agC field

-~
I-

Degree of Initial Magnetization

The initial operating point on the permeability characteristic of
the material is very important. For example, if this point should lie
to the left of I1ma.1" as illustrated by the point T in Figure lO.lc, an
area reduction caused by a discontinuity would drive the local
permeability higher than the permeability of a matcrial free of
discontinuities. Thus, there is a possibility that the discontinuity may
go undetected in these circumstances. Moreover, if the initial
magnetization of the material should locate the operating point ncar
saturation, then the difference between the magnetic flux density in
the material and the leakage magnetic field in the surrounding
medium decreases with the increasing disco ntinu ity cross-sect io nal
area.
Therefore, the problem of quantitatively detecting the
discontinuities is magnified because it becomes increasingl y difficult
to discriminate between the severities of the various heterogeneities.
Atso, because the degree of magnetizat ion is so great, the surface
roughness is easily mistaken for acmal discontinuities and results in
unwarranted rejection of the test objects. Thus , there exists an upper
and lower limit of magnetization to which a test object should be
subjected if the magnetic leakage field teChnique of nondestlUctive
testing is to be successful. Magnetiz.ation of the test object lies on
the linear pan of the magnetization curve in such a way that the
mate rial permeability is maximum.
lvJagnetization should not approach saturati on but should have a
value of tlux density that locates the initial operating point of the
material on the steepest pan of the initial magnetization curve. If the
degree of magnetization is too low. discontinuities may go unno ticed
and, if the magnetization level is too high, a lack of discontinuity
discrimination may result in false indications.

Classroom Training SerifS: Elfctromagnctic Testillg 103

 Chapter 14

Selection of Magnetization Method

I NTRODUCTION

Successful testing requires the test object to be magnetized

properly. This can be accomplished using one of several approaches.

I. Perma nent magnet.

2. E lectromagnets.
3. Magnetizing coils

Permanent Magnets
Excitation systems that use permanent magnets offer the least
flex ibility. Such systems use high-energy pClmanent magnet materials
such as neodymium iron boron. samarium cobalr and alumin um nickel.
The major disadvantage wirh such sysrems lies in the fact that the
excitation cannot be switched off. Due to the fact that magnetizatio n
is always lUmed on. it is difficult to inscI1 and remove the tes t object
from the rest instru ment. Although the magnetization level can be
adjusted using appropri ate magnetic shunts, it is awkwa rd to do so.
Consequently, pe rmanent magnets are very rarely used fo r
magnetization. except in rhe case of in-line inspection tools (called
smarl pigs).

Electromagnets
Electromagnets are used extensively to magnerize test objects.
Figure 14 .1 shows an excitation syste m where the test object is p'1l1
of a magnetic circuit energi7.ed by current passing through an
excitation coil.

Figure 14.1: Electromagnetic yoke for magnetizing of test ob ject.

Air gap \I,lhere rest!

obJect i:-; in serted

105
 The magnetic circui t passes through a yoke made of so rt
magnetic material and through a test object placed between the poles
of the yoke. When the coil wo und on the yoke canies cu rrent. the
resuhin g magneti c force drives magnetic Dux through the yoke and
the test object. The total magnet ic flux E (webe r) is given by:

Eq. 14.1 E = NI
S

where I is cun'ent in (ampere) in the co il. N is the number of lUms in

the coi l and S is the reluctancc (ampere per weber) of the magneti c
circuit.
To obtain maxim um se nsitivit y. it is necessary to ensure that the
magnetic flux is perpendicular to the d iscontinuity. Becausc the
orientation of the discontinuity is unknown. it is necessary to test
twice with the yoke, in two di rect ions perpendicular to each other.

Magnetizing Coils
A conmlOnly used encircling coil is show n in Figure 14.2. The
field direction foll ows the right hand ru le . The right hand l1Iic states
that if someone grips a rod , holds it and imag ines an electri c cun'em
fl owing with the thumb. the induced circular field in the rod would
flow in the direction that the fingcrs point.

Figure 14.2: En circlin g coil using di rect current to produce

magnetizing force.

Legend
I ;;;; eleclric current
P, Q ~ points or discontinuities in examp le
R ;: poi nt at which magnetic fie ld intensit y H is
measured
S = point at wh ich magnetic nux density 1) is
measured

106 Personnel Trainillg Publicatio1ls

 Introduction of the test object into the field of the coil changes
the field. The metal becomes part of the magnetic circuit, with the
result that close to the surface of the test object magnetic field
intensity H is lower than it would be if the test object were removed.
A Hall element tesla meter will show the field intensity at the test
object is not the same.

Testing in Residual Field

Test objects are first passed through the coil field and then tested
in the resulting residual field. Elongating thc coil and placing the
test object next to the inside surface of the coil will expose the test
object to the largest field that the coil can produce.
This technique is often used in magnetic particle testing. The
main problem to avoid is the induction of so much magnetic flux in
the test object that the magnetic particles stand out like fur along the
field lines that enter and leave the test object , especially close to its
ends.
The technician should experiment to optimize the coil field
requirements for the test object because this field depends on the test
object geometry.

MAGNETIZING BY DIRECT CURRENT

If an electric current is used to magnetize the test object, it may

be more advantageous to orient the direction of current in a manner
where the presence of a discontinuity impedes the current flow as
much as possible. Bars, billets and tubes are often magnetized by
applying direct current to their ends, as shown in Figure 14.3. Other
methods of magnetizing using direct current includes passing the
current directly through a tubular test object to magnetize the test
object circularly, as illustrated in Figure 14.4.

Figure 14.3: Circumferential Figure 14.4: Current carrying clamp

magnetization by application of direct electrodes used for testing ferromagnetic
current: (a) rectilinear bar; (b) round bar; tubular objects with small diameters.
and (c) tube.
Magnetic flux lines

~C5il====i}~H==========-'>."""I'~ I
(a)

(b) 4-'.L)_---LfH~ _ _ _~r- I ,

Clamp
(c)....o } H L I
Current / out
Legend
H = magnetic field inten sity
I = electric cun"ent 'Current I in

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 107

 Figure 14 .5 shows a central conductor energized by a curre nt
source (1) , again to establish a circular magnetic field inte ns ity H
(ampere per meter) in a tubular tes t object:
Eq. 14.2 H = _ T_
21ra
where J is the current in (amperes) and u is the area (square meters).

Figure 14.5: Central cond ucto r using d irect current to produ ce

magnetizin g force.

t
r (('\
-t -

\\_-j
---------tH 1:-:-=
r---

T
Current source
Legend
H;:;: magn~tic fleld IntensIty
I = electnc current
r = tube radius

M AGNITUDES O F M AGNETIC FLUX L EAKAGE FIELDS

The magnitude of the magneti c flux leakage field unde r acti ve

direct current excitat ion natu rall y depends on the applied field.
However, in the case of residual magnetization, the magnetic fl ux
leakage fi elds may be only a few hu ndred micro-tesla (a few gauss).
Furthermore, with residual field excitation, an interesting field
reversal may occur depending on the value of the initial active field
excitatio n and the dimensions of the discontinu ity.

108 Personnel Training Publications

 Chapter 15

Flux Leakage Applications

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic flux leakage testing is a commonl y used technique.

Signals from probes or sensors are processe d electronically and
presented in a manner that indicates the presence of discont in uit ies .
Although some techniques of magneti c flux leakage testing may not
be as sophisticated as others , it is probable that more ferromagnetic
material is tested with magnetic fl ux leakage than with any other
techn igue .

Heat Exchanger Tubing Applications

Magnetic fl ux leakage testing is based on the influence of
discontinuities on a magnetic field. The technique is limited to
felTomagnetic material. The magnetic llux leakage prohe consists of
a magnet wi th two types of magnetic pickups : coil and Hall element.
The coil picks up the flux rate of change , whereas the Hall effect
detector picks up ahsolute flux. The coil detects small discontinuities
tha t cause pel1urbations in the flux . M agnetic flux leakage co ils are
more sens iti ve to sharp discol1linuities than to grad ual wall loss. In
fact, the coi ls can totally miss long areas of wall loss if the changes
in wall thickness are grad ual. A Hall effect detector is therefore used
to detect gradual wallinss . Figure 15.1 shows a probe con figuration
fo r flux leakage test ing.

Figure IS.1: Bobbin coil probes for magnetic flux leakage

testing.
Tube. .Di SC(Jnt i Iluity

Ferrite
end plate FcnilC
core enen?:l zmg
North coil ~ ~

enepJizinQ,
e coil

109
 Hall effect detectors measure the absolute flux and can be used
for s izing wall loss, not pits, But the output of the Hall effect
detector depends on the orientation of the sen>ar in the probe
relative to the discontinuity and whether the location of the
discontinuity is on the inside or outside surface . In side surface
discontinuities produce larger signals than outside surface
discontinuities because the fie ld strength on the inside sUIt"ace is
hi gher than on the outside surface .

Wire Rope Inspection

Because the reliab ility of wire ropes is cruc ial for the safety of
many mining, o il indus try, crane and ski lift o perations , concern with
thcir integrity is a co nstant preoccupat ion of users and safety
authorities. Etfeetive procedures, combined with a good
understanding of degradation mechanisms and discard criteria, can
notably increase wire rope safety.
For example, advanced electromagnetic wire rope test equipment
of the magnetic flux leakage type has been developed since the
1960s. These instruments provide an important , and in many cases
indispensable. clement of wire rope testing. Such ropes are used in
the construction, marine and oil production industries, mining
applications, elevators and bridge cables.
Testin g is performed to determine cross-sectional loss caused by
currosion and wear, and to detect inte rnal and external broken wires.
The type of fl ux loop used (electromagnet or permanent. magnet) can
depend on the accessibi lity of the rope. Permanent magnets might be
used where taking power to an electromagnet might cause safet y
problems.
The cross-sectional area of the rope can be measured by sensing
changes in the magnetic fl ux loop that occur when the rope gets
thinner. The air gap becomes larger, so the val ue of the field
intensity falls. This change can be easily sensed by plac ing Hall
effect probes anywhere within the magnetic ci rcui t.
Modelll dual-function electromagnetic rope testers (show n in
Figure 15.2) allow simultaneous tests for loss of metallic cross·
sect ional area and localized di~c{)n tin ui ti es . For thi s tester, strong
permanent magnets induce a magnetic flux at the satu rat ion level In
the rope in the ax ial (long itudinal ) direction. Various types of
sensors close to the rope (such as co ils, Hal l se nsors or fl ux gate
sensors) sense and measure the mag netic flux. Any discontinuity.
such as broken wire or corrosion pitting , distorts the magnetic flux
in the rope and causes it to leak from the rope. For localized
discontinuity tests, the radial component of the leakage flux is
measured by radial sensors.

110 PersolUll'l Trainillk Publications

Figure 15.2: Elect romagnetic testi ng of mooring rope.

Round Bars and Tubes

In some test systems, round bars and tubes are magnetized by an
alternating current magnet and rotated under the magnet poles.
Because the flux leakage from surface discon tinuities is very weak
and confined to a small area. the probes must be very sensitive and
small. The system uses a differential pair of magnerodiodes to sense
leakage flux from the discontinuity.
The diffe rential output of these twin probes is ampli fied to
separate the leakage !lux from the background flux. In th is system,
pipes are fed spirally under the scanning statio ns to increase the test
rate. In one similar system, rou nd billets are rotated by a set of
rolle rs while the billet surface is scanned by a transducer array
mo ving straight along the billet axk Seamless pipes and tubes are
made from the rou nd billets.

Petroleum and Gas Pipelines

Pipelines connect field production (gas and oil extraction) with
refineries and petrochemical plants where gas and crudc petroleum
are processed into usable prod ucts . Because pipelines cross state
lines in the Uni ted States. they are govel11ed hy the DepaJ1ment of
Transportation. The construction, maintenance and testing of these
pipelines arc critical to the safety of the environment and the general
public. Buried pipelines not only have the potential for catastrophic
fa ilure but could contaminate water sources if leakage occurs.
Flux leakage testi ng can be applied to detecting cracks and
corros ion pits in the walls of underground pipelines. In pipe factories
cracks and hairline cracks. O.QlS cm (0.006 in .) deep on the outside
diameter and 0.03 em (0.0 12 in.) deep on the inside diameter, are
satisfactOlily detectcd by magnetic flux lcakage methods for wall
thicknesses up to 0 .8 cm (0.315 in.). Based on pipelines past t"ilures,
the di scontinuities that caused these failures me much larger, and thus

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Tes/ing III

 can be detected more easily in principle . However, the technological
difficulties to be overcome are often great.
For example, the entire testing device must be transponed inside th,
pipe for long distances. Magnetizing conditions close to saturation
must be achieved to reveal outside diameter discontinuities with inside
diameter probes , requiring very power efficient magnetizing systems.
The entire pipeline must be tested with only one pass of the probes and
associated magnetizing device. Recording systems must be capable of
giving definitive positional information .
For the pipeline inspection tool, a recorder package is added and
the signals from di scontinuit ies are recorded. When the recordi ngs
are retrieved and played back , the areas of damage are located. Pipe
welds provide convenient magnetic markers.
Smart pigs are test vehicles that arc pushed through the pipeline
by product flow (Figure 15 .3) . The technique got its name from the
sound of the original scraper pig moving through the pipe. At the
end of the line or run , the pig is retrieved and the on-board data are
then processed and analyzed. The pigs are similar to the mag netic
flux leakage probes used in tube testing , but pigs are constructed to
be propelled down pipelines and co llect the required test data.

Figure 15.3: Eq ui pm ent for magneti c flu x leakage testin g of pipes and tubes: (a) pig tool;
and (b) data acquisiti on from pig sensors.
(b)

Pickup coils

Billets
A relatively common problem with square billets is elongated
surface breaking cracks. By magneti zing the billet circumferentiall y,
magnetic flu x leakage testing can be performed to detect such
defects.
Magnetic flux leakage systems for testing tubes exhibit the same
general ability to classify defect depth. It is generally accepted that
even with the lack of correlation between some of the instrument
readings and the actual discontinuity depths, the automatic readout
of these two systems still rep resents an improvement over visual or
magnetic particle testing .

112 Persollnel Training Publications

Installed Heat Exchanger and Boiler Tubes
Flux leakage testing is widely used to test installed ferromagnetic
heat exchanger and boiler tubes. The !lux leakage probe consists of a
magnet and two inductive coil sensors. The magnets set up a fl ux
field in the lube wall as it passes through the tube. The field
fluctuates when it encounters a discontinuity. The nux rate
nuctuation effect is picked up by the coils and displayed On the
display ap paratu s and chaIt recorder.
A Hall effect sensor is also used in this applicatio n to detect
abrupt defects and gradual wall loss. The output of the Hall effect
detector depends on the orientation of the sensor in the probe
relative to the disco ntinuity. and whether the location of the
discontinuity is on the inside or outside tube surface.
I! should be noted that the output of the magnetic nux leakage
coil is related to the change of flux caused by the discontinuity but
not directly to Ilaw depth. Tubes up to 8.9 cm (3 .5 in.) in diameter
and 0.03 em (0.0 12 in.) wall th ickness can be tested.

Above-Ground Storage Tank floors

Tank floors of above-ground storage tanks (shown in Figure 15.4)
are subject to corrosion where they touch the ground.
Magnetic flux leakage testing has been widely used in the oil
field industry for over 25 years for the examination of pipe , tubing
and casting, both new and used. It is only in the past ten years that
this testing technique has been applied to above ground storage tank
floors in an attempt to provide a reliable indication of the overall
floor condit ion within an economical time frame. For the purpose of
this application, a magneti c blidge is used to introduce as near a
saturation of flux as is possible in the test material between the
magnetic poles. Any significant reduction in the thickness of the
plale will res ult in some of the magnetic flu x being forced into the
air around the area of reduction. Flux leakage sensors that can detect
these flux leakages are placed between the poles (see Figure 15 .5a).

Figure 15.4: Above-ground storage tank for petroleum

products.

Classroom Trainin g Series: Eleclromagnelic Testing 113

 [t is important that magnetic fl ux leakage equ ipment produced for
this part icular application be designed to handle the environmental
and practical problems always present. Figure IS.Sb shows a mobile
floor scanning unit.
Powerful rare earth magnets are ideally su ited for thi s
application. They are more than capable of introducing the required
flux levels into the material under test. Electromagnets by
comparison are excessively bulky and heavy. They do have an
advantage in that the magnetic fl ux levels can be easily adjusted and
turned off if necessary for cleaning purposes . Hall effect and coil
sensors can be used in this application ; however, it was
demonstrated that coil sensors are more sensitive, stable and reliable.
Hal l effect sensors are proven to be too sensitive when surrace
conditions are less than perfect, which results in an unrel iable test.
Magnetic flux leakage in this applicat ion cannot differentiate
between the response from top side and bottom side indications.
Contrary to what is expected, the fl ux leakage response from a top
side indication is significantly lower in amplitude than that from an
equivalent bottom side indication. Magnetic flux leakage is a
qualitative , not quantitative , testing tool and is a reliable detector of
corrosion on tank floors.

Figure 15.5: Magnetic flux leakage test: (a) schematic of bridge; and (b) tank floor scanner
incorporating magnetic flux leakage test bridge.
(a) (b)

Test object

114 Personnel Training Publications

 Chapter 16

Remote Field Testing

HISTORY

The remote field effect was firs t noted in 1940s and was patentcd
by W.R . Maclean in 195 1. In the late 1950s, Thomas R. Schmidt
independently red iscovered the techniq ue while developing a tool
for testing oil well casings. Schmidt spearheaded the development of
the technique and named it remote fle ld eddy current tesling. The
techn ique used by the industry is now refer red to as femOle field
testing. Several test cqui pment manufactu rers recogn ized the value
of this nondestruc tive electromagnetic techniq ue for the testing of
ferrou s heat exchanger tubes and began manufacturing remote field
test inmuments starling in 19X5.
Developments since 1990 include the testing of tlat plates and
steel pipes using external probes thaI use a technique simil ar to
remote field testing. Modem insU1lInents use computers to display
and store data, and more aci vanced systems also have automated
signal analysis.

I NSTRUMENTATION

The typical remote field testing instruments contains four major

components .

1. An oscillator is used as the signal source for the exciler coil

and as a reference for the detector signal.
2. A power ampl ifier increases the powe r level from the
oscillator signal so that it can be used to ciri ve the exciter coil.
3. The phase and amplitude detector measllres the dctector coil
signal.
4. A computer based storage device processes and stores the
data ,

Figu re 16. 1 shows how the different electronic components

interact.

llS
 Figure 16.1: Electronic components of remote field test system.

Detector Phase
ampl itude
detector
and
coil '----L-="-':.'.'.'.O.._
-.. D Computer

Reference signal

Exc~~~; ,-I 1.1 - D

P()\\Icr amplifier
Oscil lator

Probe Configuration
Figure 16.2 ,hows the configuration of a basic remote field eddy
CU!Tent probe. There is one exc iter coil and one receivi ng (detector
coil). Both coils are wnund coaxially with respect to the tested tuhe
and are separated by a distance greater than twice the mbe diameter. If'
the exciter and receiver were to be placed close together, the detector
would measure on ly the field generated by the exc iter in its vicin ity.

l'igure 16.2: Simple probe for remote field testing.

To observe remote field testing 's unique through-wall

transmission effect, the detector needs to be moved away [rom the
exc iter. The detector meas ures the electromagnetic field remote from
the exciter. Although the fill factor of the coils can be as low as 70%
it will usually be similar to the till factor for eddy current probes at
80 % or more. A lowcr fill factor reduces sens itivity to small
discontinuities but docs not affect the quality of remote field testing
data . The ability to function with low fill factor makes remote field
testing attractive for pipes with internal coaling and tight bends.

Effects of Probe Speed

The ability of remote field testing to detecl anel quantify
discontinuities relies on the quality of the signal received. The probe
must be in the vic inity of the discontinu ity for at least one exc itation
cycle in order to detect it. The probe pull speed should be slow
enough so that the digital sample rate allows the field profile near
the prohe to be accurately recorded. It is equally important that the
speed of testing be as constant as possible. Sudden changes in speed
can result in anomalous signal s.

116 Persollllel Tra;l1ifrg PltbUcarimu

Frequency Selection
Remote field testing operates at relatively low frequencies
typically ranging from 40 to 500 Hz. In general, a lower frequency
(up to 250 Hz) is used for thick walled and high permeability pipe .
For higher sensiti vity and hi gh test speeds, a higher frequency is
used. The frequency is chosen as high as possible while minimi zing
noise and remaining in the remote field zone . It is important to
check for the presence of any electromagnetic noise sources such as
welders, electric motors and pumps that tend to generate noise in the
frequency range ofremote field testing.

F EATURES OF REMOTE FIELD TESTING

Applications
Remote field testing can be used for all conventional carbon steel
material specifications. diameters and wall thicknesses . The test
speed can be up to 60 ft per minute depend ing on wall thickness and
test frequency. Remote field testing is a noncontac! technique . The
probes have minimal friction with the tube or pipe wall and require
no couplant.

Sensitivity
The accuracy for remote field testing in the straight part of tubes
is about 5% of wall thickness for general wall loss. The accuracy is
less (20% of wall) for highly localized di scontinuities and in bends
or near external conducting Objects because of the changes in
magnetic properties of the tube in the bend area and due to shielding
effects of external objects.
Remote field testing can detect both inside and outside surface
discontinuities with equal sensitivity, but in most cases cannot
di fferenti ate between them without using near field coils. Remote
field testing is insensitive to scale and nonmagnetic debris. Internal
and external magnetic de posits do affect the signal to a small degree.
A large fill fac tor is not required for remote field testing , and
centralization is not as critical as with other nondestructive testing
techniques [or similar applications.

Signal Analysis and Data Presentation

Re mote fie ld test data are recorded in computer memory or hard
drive. Phase am plitude diagrams (voltage planes) are displayed
during the test on instrument monitors in real time.
The raw data from the detector are stored either in phase
amplitude format or as in phase and quadrature components. The
data can be recalled for display, analysis and final report preparation.
Figure 16.3 chart (a) shows phase and log amplitUde signals for
an absolute coil. Chart (b) indicates x-y voltage signals; chart (c)

Classroom TrailJing Series: Eleclromagnelic Testing 117

 shows phase and log amplitude from a differential coil and chart (d)
shows the mixed frequency signals .

Figure 16.3: Strip chart recordings: (a) phase and log amplitude
signals for absolute probe; (b) x,y voltage signals; (e) differential
signals; and (d) mixed frequ ency signals.
(a) (b) (e) (d)

-,Ii
~'f0 ~<) (} -2'-''''0<10-« iV-lo-.;m .;0 10.1 ~ :;" o : nV ..f:;I>-"!Q4 ;)1~lGl!'::
'. '~ ,' ~ .f: -15·:U~) 1

'- '
, , ! " p

1I ~-l
(J ( ,
1: [ I
~~ :. ( II :

1 J
!: I
: I
I
t \
tL C:h:1J .1) :~
1
,
I
I
I

JJ.
.

-fj
f- :J1·
: 'J
cr-
L_L;? 1.
--~~·r-- r~~!7 .-~ e--"J......J.:=":"-
.<---.I i- - r-- '" t • ~
~~~
~~ < )
rL( S.
'\
~ s
.~~ j
: I
:f ';::'" l ~ r: : Ci., ..1
,
l.~
' . .
l. yL .J
l..~.,
,I"";
,...,;.J
1'J
ll... Jr
,
[~
f!\,-' : ~ ~ \,
,.oM
~ ::Ij~ "'~ W Q ·2 0 ..:.( l..,J- I2-"~::t-)11 J"1~2 rlol :;;{)= l!:!1'" ~ ·7(-IJ..
' ,21
"~ 1 \.S ~ 0 ·11 - 1-5

The voltage plane and x-y displays pro vide maps of the detector
coil output in polar coordinates. On polar displays, signals are drawn
as vector points with the angle represeming the phase and the radius
representing the amplitude. Remote [ield testing signals on the
voltage plane or x-y display are scaled and rotated to a convenient
position for final viewing .
Figure 16.4 shows a typical phase amplitude diagram; voltage
plane recording , while Figure 16.5 shows a phase amplitude
diagram: x-y plane recording.

liS PerSOIl1li.'l Training Publicutions

Figure 16.4: Phase amplitude diagram: voltage plane recording.

(lI A1x;2 12 ~JOHz

Reference curve ~
of thickness to ~\
ampl itude \

Zero

\ 0,0 /I .~ Nominal
I'-~ I reference
point

Figure 16.5: Phase amplitude diagram: x,y plane recording.

I Y axis
~
\~\
'\'\
~,
\~~
Signal \'\
anele
.... with t ~
\.\\\ ~

respect to ~~'\1
. X aX I S '; l\
X axis ~ "i\
0.0

rv ~ Zero vo ltage poinr

di'splay

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testin g 119

 By observing the signal shape. phase angle and relative size on
the voltage plane. many discontinuities can be characterized and
sized for depth and circumferential extent . The axial length of a
discont inuity can also be measured by recording the data on a strip
chart as the probe is pulled through the tube.
All remote field test instruments display the data as strip charts
and voltage planes. In addition, some instruments have automatic
depth sizing and repol1ing software.

REFERENCE STANDARDS

All nondestructive testing methods use reference standards to

compare discontinuity signals with those from knovm machined or
a.t1ificial discontinuities.
Remote field testing requires reference standards for each
variation in tube diameter, wall thickness, conduct ivity and
pemleability. Reference discontinuities must be machined to closely
simulate the discontinuities expected in the tube or pipe being
examined. ASTM £-2096-00 lists two recommended standards that
can be used for remote field testing .

120 Personnel Training Publicmions

 Chapter 17

Alternating Current Field

Measurement
HISTORY

In rhe 1980s there were moves to develop nondestructive testing

techniques for detecting and siz ing fatigue cracks underwater in
welded offshore structures. The development foc used on two
existing techniques: eddy current testing for detection and
altenlating cu rrent potential drop testing for sizing.
The alternating current field measurement tech niq ue was
developed out of work on the potential drop techniques. Potcntial
drop test applications in the 1980s rended to use direct current rather
than alternating current.
Work in potent ial drop testing in the early I 990s studied the
surface electric fields to describe the assoc iated magnetic fields. As
with alternating CUlTCnt potential drop testing, field measurement
made it possible to estimate crack depths without calibrati on. As it
tumeu out, making a noncontacting technique from alternating
current potential drop meant that the probe could be scanned along a
weld very easily, Thus, although altern ating current field
measurement was developed for noncontact sizing, it was also useful
fo r discontinuity detection.

PRINCIPLE OF O PERATION

The alternating current field measurement tec hnique involves

inducing a locall y uniform CUlTent into a test object and measuring
the magnet ic tl ux de nsity above the test ohject surface, The presence
of a surface discontinuity peI1urbs the induced current and the
magnetic flux densily.
The method uses an instrument and a hand-held probe contain ing
a uniform field induction system and two magnetic field sensors.
Software on the external personal computer is used to control the
instrument and to display and analyze the da ta .
The required locally uni form magnetic field is ind uced us ing one
or more horizontal axis solenoids, with or without a yoke . The
direction of thi s electric field E, as shown in Fi gure l7.l is
designated as the Y axis and the direction of the associated uniform
magnetic dens ity B (at right angles to the electric field ancl parallel
to the test surface) is dcsignated as the X ax is. The Z axis is then the
direction normal to the surface .

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 121

 Figure 17,1: Coordinates conventionally used in alternating
current field measurement,

Electric field E

X
J-y
Figure 17,2 sho ws the effect of a surface break ing discontinuiry on
the magnetic field, The presence of a discontinuity diverts current
away from the deepesr parts and concentrates it near the ends of a
crack,

Figure 17.2: Effect of surface breaking discontinuity on

magnetic field,

-'~" ¥~ I B
z
A-----
0.. ~.,
E '':::
V
,,_-...,,------.1-/\._--'>\_ ..- - - - Clockwise fl ow
~ T givc~ Bz peak

-< ~ Uniform
- in put
current

Counterclockwise
flow gives
Bz trough

Current lines
close together
gives Bx P:k \ Current lin es
far apart gi yes
~~
" ~BxrroUgh
..=V'.
:.= ::,.J
Q.. > .
1="'= Hx
..::;::~
, "
Legend
""+- - - -- - T
Bx = magnetic n ux component normal to electric field and parallcllo test
surface
B:z. =magnctic fl ux com ponent nonnal to te st surface
r =time or scan di.stan ce (relative scale)

122 Personnel Trainin g PublicaTions

 Amplitudes of components of the mag netic flux density are used
to minimize variations caused by material properties and instrument
calibration. These relative ampl itudes are compared with values in
sizing tables prod uced from a mathematical model to estimate
discontin uity sizes without the need for calibration using artificial
disconti nuities such as slots , notches , holes, etc.
The sizing tables have been produced by re peated running of the
model for semi-elliptical cracks in a wide range of di fferent lengths
and depths . The model is called the forward problem fo r which the
discontinuity size is known and the signals are then predicted.

Probe Configuration
Figure 17.3 shows components arranged in a typical alternating
current fie ld measurement test. The exact parameters used in a probe
vary according to the application. The larger dimensions are used
where possible because they gi ve the most uniform field and allow
the two sensors to be wo und concentrically, which gives clear
symmetric loops in the butterfly plot. In probes designed for tight
access applications or for higher senSiti vity , the smaller dimensions
are used.

Figure 17.3: Typical al tern atin g current field measurement

probe layout.

Solenoid , 1.5 to 3 em

I
(0 .6 to 1.2 in.J long

2 to 4 em (0.8
to 1.6 in.)
A Probe coils. 0 .1 W 0.5 em
(0.04 to 0.2 in.) in diameter

1 ITIIl§
/ / / /Test
/ /object
////

ADVANTAGES AND D ISADVANTAGES

The alternating current field measurement tech nique uses a

un iform input field to allow comparison of signal intensities w ith
theoretical predictions. A uniform field has advantages and
disadvantages compared with conventional eddy cun-ents.

Classroom Traininx Series: Electromagnetic Testing 123

 Advantages
The main advantages include the following.

I. The ability to test through coatings several millimeters (0.25

to 0.5 ern [0.1 to 0 .2 in.]) thick.
2. T he abil ity to obtain depth information on cracks up to
2.5 cm (1 in.) deep.
3. Easy testing at material boundaries, such as welds .

Disadvantages
The main di sadvantages include the following.

I. Lower sensitiv ity to smaller discontinuities. This reduction in

sensitivity is of little consequence on welded or rough
surfaces where sens itivity would be reduced anyway. On
smooth, clean surfaces however, altel11ating current field
measurement is less sensitive to short or shallow
discontinuities than conventional eddy current.
2. Geometry changes such as plate edges and corners can
produce signals that may confuse the technician. even though
these signals do not have the same form as a signal from a
discontinuity.
3. Discontinuity's orientation relative to probe. The signals
obtained from a discontinu ity depend on the orientation of the
di scontinuity. The uniform fie ld theoretical model wo uld
suggest that no signal be produced when a probe Scans across
a transverse discont inuity, because the current tlow is then
parallel to the discontinui ty and would not be perturhed.

ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD

M EASUREMENT I N DICATIONS

Fatigue Cracks
Alternating current field measurement was designed for the
detection and sizing of fatigue cracks, Fatigue cracks arc generally
sUlt'ace breaking d iscontinu ities that tend to grow at defined stress
concentration, and are well suited for the linear scanning path of
alternati ng current field measurements probes. Fatigue cracks also tend
to grow in a semi-elliptical shape and at right angles to [he surface.

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Stress corrosion cracking can take the form of a series of parallel
cracks acting as a colony. The detection of stress corrosion cracking
by altcrnating currenr field measurement is reliable, and depth
values obtained by treating isolated cl usters as single discontinuities
agree reasonably well with the typical discontinuity depth.

124 Personnel Training Publications

Hydrogen Induced Cracking
Alternating cun-ent field meas urement techniques have also been
used to detect sul fide stress concentration cracking , hydrogen
induced cracking, hydroge n sulfide cracking and stress oriented
hydrogen induced crackin g in the base metal adjacent to the heat
affected zone.

Fatigue Cracks in Rail Heads

Non semi-elliptical discontinu ities occur also in railroad rails .
Head checking (also called gage corner cracking) is craCking that
initially grows into the top sulface of a rail at a highly inclined
angle . As they grow below a certain depth, they tum to a steeper
angle but also start to grow sideways, so their length is greater
beneat h the surface . Altemating current field measurement can be
used to detect this type of cracking.

Corrosion Pitting
The nondircctional currents used in alternating cun-ent field
measurement arc most strongly pert urbed by planar discontinuities.
However, surface corros ion pitting also perturbs CUlTent flow to
some extent and can also be detected. The deg ree of cun'ent
pelturbation is much lower than fo r a crack of the same depth and
length, so on initial scan a corros ion pit looks l ike a shallow crack.
However, the dis tinguish ing featu re of a pit is that unl ike a crack , it
will produce the same signal regardless of the orientation of the
interrogating current.

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Tesring 1, -

~,
 Chapter 18

Electromagnetic Testing Standards and Procedures

INTRODUCTION

Procedures, specifications and standards are produced to provide

a means of controlling product or services quality. Written
instructions that can be used as guidance to companies or indi viduals
to a desired end resuit and are acceptable to industry are the basis of
standards, specifications and procedures.

CALIBRATION STANDARDS

An important requirement for successful electromagnetic testing

is the use of an accurate reference standard for equipment
calibration. The reference standard is used to adjust the
electromagnetic equipment's sensitivity to various test object
parameters (cracks, surface roughness, conductivity/permeability
variations and other material conditions).
Success in electromagnetic testing depends on the proper use of
available reference standards. The development and use of eddy
current reference standards requires a thorough understanding of the
test to be performed. Reference standard considerations should include:

I. The material tested.

2. Si ze and shape.
3. Discontinuities of interest.
4. Means of producing art ificial discontinuities.
5. Non-relevant indications that might be encountered, such as
material property variations.
6. Instrument capabilities and limitations.
7. Criteria for relevant indication.

In view of many types of artificial discontinuities that can be

produced , an understanding of their relationship to the
di scontinuities of interest is critical. For example, if transverse
discontinuities in a tube are of interest , it might seem obvious to use
a transverse notch. However, that notch could be either straight ,
wh ich is much easier to fabricate , or curved to match the radius of
the tube . Figure 18.1 illustrates this configuration.
Another similar case is that of cracks in a fastener hole , which
can be simulated by several notches, as shown in Figure 18.2, all of
which produce different signals.

127
Figure 18.1 : Transverse notches in tube: (a) straight; and (b) curved .
(a) Notch (b) ~NotCh

~-......:
Tu be Tube

J'igure 18.2: Notches to simulate cracks as might be fou nd in

fasten er holes.
Notch

t
Kole side Hole side Hole side
/ /

R EFERENCE STAN DARDS

Conductivity Reference Standards

In edd y curre nt testing , frequent use is made of measurements of
conductiv ity based on thc Intemational Annealed Copper Standard
(lACS ). Two standard melal blocks are supplied with conductivity
meas uring in struments. One block represents a high level of
cond ucti vity. while the other re presents a low level of conductivity.
The percemage value in l ACS is stamped on the blocks. as
illustrated in Figure I ~.3 .

Figure 18.3: Conductivity standards.

101.0% 13.5'k

High Low

128 Persol1nl'i Training Publications

 Conductivity reference standards should be tested with a
relallvely small coil to detennine the uni fo rm ity of electrical
conductivity over the surface of the standard . Both the fron t and the
back surface should be tested for conductivity differences.

Coating Thickness Reference Standards

Coating thickness calibration reference standards of uniform
thickness are available in two types.

1. Foils or shims of known thicknesses laid on an appropriate

substrate.
2. Actual coatings affixed to prepared substrates as supplied or
recommended by the instrument manufacturer or
standardizing organization (Table 18.1).

Table 18.1: Standard reference materials from National

Institute of Standards and Technology for calibra tion of
instrumen ts used in measurement of organic and nonmagnetic
in organic coatings over steel. Each 4.5 x 4.5 cm (1.8 x 1.1> in.)
block consists of fin e grained copper electrodeposited on low
carbon steel substrate.

Material Coating Thickness

N umber ]lID (in. x 10. 3)
135Ra RO, 255, 1000 (3. 1,9.8,39)
1359b 48 , 140.505,800 (2.0,5.5,20,32)
1361b 6, 12,25,48 (0.2,0.5, 1.0,2.0)
1362b 40.80, 140,205 (1.6. 3.1, 5.5.7.9)
1363b 255 , 385 , 505 , 635 (9.8 .1 6,20 ,26)
1364b 800,1000,1525. 1935 (32,39, 59,79)

Discontinuity Reference Standards

A discontinuity reference slandard should duplicate the test
situation for material type and geometry and , in addition , include
discontinuities that establ ish the maximum discontinu ity that is
acceptable and also establ ish the sensitivity of the test system .
Discontin uity reference standards fall under two types: natural
discontinuity reference standards and artificial discont inuity
reference standards.

Natural Discontinuity Reference Standards

Natural discontinuity standards consist of duplicates of the test
piece configuration that contain natural discontinuities of a known
size and shape. At least one of the discontinuities should be at the
limit of acceptability. Natural discontinuities can be developed or
accumulated. Fo r example, cracks can be developed by submitting a
material to cyclic stresses until a natural fatigue crack is generated.

Cla.}·srooHl Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 129

 This can then be machined to produce a surface or hole crack of
know depth . Figure 18.4 illustrates an example of how a nat ural
fatigue crack is developed.

figure 18.4: Developing a natura l fatigue crack.

Location of induced Small slot to induce
fat igue crack fat igue at this point

b----r--r,7I
/ '--------- -'71
f----------------c//' f/~/~r------------{
A"'-+----""" _ 0_
'- -_
-_-4
..Y /

o o
w--_ _
o
Fatigue specimen
,

Machine ::::::::::::~+H--,l'
=:=1___
--tp/,LL:.......
crack on tosUlface
leavejI'- ,Z V
SeC[ion con taini ng fatigue crack
machined from fatigue specimen

Artificial Discontinuity Reference Standards

Artificial discontinuities may be machined into a duplicate of the
test object configuration. Several samples may have to be n111
through the lest system to find one that does not prod uce any
appreciable indications of natural discontinuities from the tcst piece
prior to machining. Standard reference disco ntinuiti es that are
perti nent to the required specification are then fabri cated into the
sample.
Types of standard reference discontinuities that can be used to
simulate test object discontinuities incl ude longitudinal notches,
circumferential notches , drilled holes , nat bottom holes , diameter
steps and geometry variations.
When external compari son techniques are used, the refe rence
standard must be free of discontinuities. The standard must be
representative of impelfections that may be fou nd in the test object.

Lift-Off Reference Standards

Lift-off reference standards are easi ly constructcd by the
application of known thicknesses of a nonconductive material to a
sample of the test object. Paper, polyethylene terephthalate and
cellophane arc examples of nonconducrive materials alien used.
When it is required to measure the thickness of nonconductive
coating, the standa rd does not have to be coated with the same
nonconducrive coating material since , to eddy eurrenttcsting, one
nonconductive coating is exactly like any other. The firm

130 Personnel Training Pub/ict1lions

 req ui rement is that the thickness of the coating used on the standard
be known.
If measuring thickness of a non conducti ve coating over a
conductive test object, lift-off standards need to be constructed that
represent both the max imum and the minimum acceptable standard.

Sorting Reference Standards

When sorting with the absolute encircling coi l tcchnique, a
known acceptable calibration standard and a know n unacceptable
standard are required. When using the comparative encircling coil
technique, usually two known acceptable specimens of the test
object and one unknown unacceptable specimen are required. For a
three-way sort, it is best to have three calibrati on reference
standards, including either two for the high and low limits of
acceptability fo r one group or one each for two unacceptable groups.
The third reference standard represents the acceptable lot of
material.
Although electro magnetic sorters can be useful for limited
appl ications , sorting steels is better done via spectroscopic
equipment. A change in product diameter, for example, can simulate
a change in composition to electromagnetic sorters.

Figure 13.5: Types of reference standards; (a) notched tubes; (b) calibration block; and
(c) block with graduated h oles.
(a) (b) 0.05 em
(0.02 in.) typical .., 0.02 crn (0.008 in.)
'" typical
~

Transverse notch 0.05 cm -0.005 em

(0.02 in.) (-0.002 in.)
0.1 em
(0.04 in.)

(c)
B
A,
'>.. e 8' / C

Legend
08g A. Made of same material as part to be

oo;:O~Q
inspected , 0.64 em (0.25 in .) thick ,
32 root mean square finish.
11.5 em °0 B. Holes reamed to ±O.o05 em (±O.002 in.)
(4.6 1 in .) 5.8 em tolerance and 32 root mean square fini sh.
y (2.32 in.) C. V ibration etched hole sizes and materiaL

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 131

 STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS

In nondestmctive testing . a specification is ofte n written by a

commercial organization , usually one of the primary parties in the
purchasing agreement. A specification is product specific and may
be considered a tailored form of a standard. A spec ification can
req uire morc stringent limits than a related standard's limit. In
practice , a specification provides a clearl y organized list of testing
parametcrs (a spec ially wlillen procedure) that describes the
technique for locating and categorizing discontinuities in a specific
test object. A typical specification includes acceptance criteria and is
required by the designer, buyer. manufacturer and users of the test
object it covers.
For electromagnetic testing , thc tenu procedure refers to a set of
brief generalizcd guidelines that show the technician how to perform
an accurate rcst fo r a given contract. A procedu re often includes
details about the in house setup . Specifications are writtcn to
eliminate the variahle characteristics of human operators and system
designs, to prod uce an accurate re,ult regardless of who is
performing the electromagnetic test. Specificatio ns must be written
with full knowledge of the electromagnetic test technique, its
sensitivity, tcst object design, and its matcl; al characteristics. In
addition to knowledgc of discon tinuities criti cal to rhe test object's
service life.
Testing specifications are working documents that in struct how to
locate discontinuities in a specific test object. Speci ficati ons are in
regular need of review and revision.

Standards and Industry Specifications

Procedures, specifications and standards are produced to provide
a means of contrOlling product or services quality. Written
in struct ions that guide a company or individual to a desired end
res ult and are acceptable to the industry are the has is of procedures,
speci fications and standards .
Several pUblications arc availahl e to guide or instruct.. Some of
the most frequently used references include the following.

The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)

The American Society for Testing Material s (ASTM) puhl ishes
several standards pertaining to the electromagnetic testing
techniques. These standards are numbered, for example E268-81.
E268 refers to the standa rd, and 81 refers to the year of ori gin or the
last rev isio n.
The following list includes some ASTM standards that peltain to
electromag netic techn iques .

I. E309-77: Eddy CU1Tent Examin ation of steel Tubular

Products using Magnetic Saturation .

132 Personnel Training PuhlicatiolJs

 2. E426-76 (1981): Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) testing of
seamless and welded and welded Tubular Products, Austenitic
Stainless Steel and Si milar Alloys.
3. E703-70: Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) Sorting of
Nonferrous Metal s.
4. E566-82: Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) Sorting of Ferrous
Metals.
5. £376-69 (1979) : Measuring Coaling Thickness by Magnetic
Field or Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Test Methods.
6. £570-69: Flux Lcakage Examination of Ferromagnetic Stcel
Products.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

In 1911 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (AS ME)
set up a committee to establish rules for safety for design,
fabrication and testing of boilers and pressure vessel;;. Theses n Il es
have become known throughout industry as ASME code .
The ASM£ Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is divided into
eleven sections. ASME Section V is Nondestructive Examination.
Scction V is divided into two subsections,A and B . Subsection A
deals with nondestructi ve methods of examination . Article 8 is Eddy
CutTent Examination of Tubular Products . Subsection B contains
documents ado pted by Section V.
Eddy Current standards arc described in Article 26. In this case ,
the ASME E215 documcnt has been adopted by ASME and
reassigned the designation S£215 .

Military Standards (MlL-STD)

The United States Military uSes the military standard document
to control testing and materials. Standard procedures are provided by
a series of MIL-STD-XXXX documents. Special requirements arc
specified by the military spec ificati on system. For example,
MIL-STD-J537A refers to Electrical Conductivity Test for
Measurement of Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys, Eddy Currcnt
Method. MlL-STD-2032A is Eddy Current Inspection of Heat
Exchanger tubing on ships of the United States Navy.
The mi litary standard usually contains several parts and is very
descriptive. These parts nonnally include scope, applicable
doc uments , definitions, general requirements , detail requirements
and notes.

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic TestinK 133

 Glossary

Absolute coil: Co il that responds to the electromag netic properties of

that region of the test part within the magnetic field of the coil ,
withou t CIlmpari son to the response of a second coil at a di fferent
location on the san1C or similar mate ri al.
Absolute measurement : (1) Measurement made with an absolute
coil. (2) Measurement of a property without reference to another
measu re ment of that property.
Acceptance criterion: Bench mark against which test res ults are to
be compared for purposes of establishing the fu ncti onal
acceptabi lity of a pan or system being examined.
Acceptance level: Measured value or values above or bclow which
test objects arc acce ptable in contrast to rejection level.
Acceptance limit: Test signal value used in electromagnetic testing,
establishing the group to which a material under test belongs.
Acceptance standard: Specimen, simi lar to the product to be tested,
containing natural or artificial discontinuities that are well defined
and similar in size or extent to the maximum acceptable in the
produc!. Acceptance standards are available also for material
properties such as conductivity and hardness.
Alternating current: Electri cal current that reverses its direction at
regular intervals.
Altcl'11ating current field: Varying magnetic field produced around
a conductor by altern ating CUlTenl fl ow in g in the conductor.
Altcl'11ating current magnetization: Magnetization by a magnetic
field generated when alternating cun ent is fl owing.
Ampere (Al : SI unit of electric CUtTen!.
Amplitude response: Property of a te~t system whereby the
amplitude of the detected signal is meas ured without regard to
phase. See also phase analysis .
Analog-to-digital converter: Circuit whose input is information in
analog fo rm and whose output is essentially the same information
in digi tal form.
Anisotropy: Havi ng properties that differ according to the direction
of measu rement.
Artificial discontinuity: See discontinuity, artificial.
Artificial discontinuity standard: See acceptance standard.
ASNT : American Society for Nondes tructive Testing.
ASNT Recolllmended Practice No. SNT-TC-I A: See
Recolllmended Practice No. SNl~TC-IA.

135
 Attenuation: Decrease in signal amplitude Over distance, often
called loss: can be expressed in decibel s or as a scalar ratio of the
input magnitude to the output magnitude.
Automated system: Acting mechanism that perfOlms req uired tasks
at a determined time and in a fixed seque nce in response to
certain conditions.
Band pass filter : Frequency filter that has a si ngle transmission
band between two cutoff frequencies. ne ither of the cutoff
frequencies being zcro or infinity.
Bandwidth: Difference between the cutoff frequencies of a bandpass
fi Iter.
Calibration, instrument: Adjustment of insU1Jment readings to
known refercnce standard.
Central conductor: Electric conductor passed through the opening
in a part with an aperture. or through a hole in a test object, for
the purpose of creating a circular magnetic lield in the object.
Certification: With respect to nondestructive test personnel, process
of providing written testimony that an individual is qualified . Sce
also certified and qualified .
Certified: With respect to nondestructive test personnel, hav ing
wrincn testimony of qualification. See also certification and
qualification .
Circular magnetization: Magnetization in an object resulting from
current passed 10ngiLUdinally through the object itself or through
an inserted central conductor.
Circumferential coil: See encircling coil .
Coil: One or more loops of a conducting material; a single coil may
be an exciter and induce currents in the material or it may be a
detector or both simultaneously.
Coil clearance: See lift-off.
Coil spacing: In electromagnetic testing, the axial distance between
two encircling or inside coils of a diH'erential or remote lield test
system.
Conductance: Transmission of electric current through material.
Measured in siemens (S). Inversely related to resistance R (ohm).
Conductivity: Ability of material to transmit electric current.
Measu red in siemens per meter. Inversely rclated to resi stivity r.
Contact head: Electrode asse mbl y used to clamp and support an
object to facilitate passage of electric current through the objcct
for circular magnetization.
Coupled : (1) Of two electric circuits, having an impedance in
conlIDon So th at a current in one causes a voltage in the other.
(2) Of two coil s, sharing parrs of their magnetic flux paths.
Coupling: Percentage of magnetic flux from a primary circuit that
links a secondary circuit ; effectiveness of a coil in inducing eddy
currents in the test object .
Current flow technique: Magnetizing by passing current through an
object using prods or contact heads. The current may be
alternating current or recti fied alternating current.

136 Persollnel Training PublicQtions

Current induction technique: Magnet izati on in which a c irculating
current is induced in a ring component by a fluct uating magnetic
field.
Cycle: Single period of a waveform or other variable. See period.
Defect: Discontinuity whose size , shape, orientation or location
make it detrimental to the useful service of its host object or
whi ch exceeds the accept/reject critcria of an applicable
specifi cation. Note that some discontinuities may nor cxceed
specif ications and are the refore not defects . Compare
discontinuity and indication .
Demodulation: Process wherein a carrier frequency modulated wi th
a signal of lower frequency than the carrier frequency is
converted to a close representation of the ori ginal mociulating
signal. See modulation .
Depth of penetration: See skin effect and standard depth of
penetration .
Differential amplifier: Amplifier whose output signal is
proportional to the algebraic di ffe rence between two input
signals.
Differential coils: Two or more physically adjacent and mutuall y
coupled coils connected in series opposition such that an
imbal ance betwee n them, causing a signal, will be produced only
whe n the electromagnetic conditions are different in the regions
beneath two of the coils. In contrast, comparator coils are not
adjacent or mut ually coupled.
Differential measurement: In elecu·omagnetic testing, the
measurement of system imbalance by using differential coils, in
contrast to absolute and comparati ve measurements.
Differentiated signal: In electromagnetic testing, an output signal
proportional to the input signal's rate of change.
Direct current: Electric current flow in g continually in one direction
without variation in amplitude through a cond uctor.
Direct current tield: Active magnetic field produced by direct
Clm-ent fl owing in a conductor or coil.
Discontinuity: r;terrupt ion in the physical structu re or configurati on
of a test object. After nondestructive testing , unintentional
discontinuities interpreted as detrimental to the serviceab ility of
the host object may be called flaws or defects. Compare defect
and indication .
Discontinuity, artiticial : Reference discontinuity such as hole ,
indentation , crac k, groove or notch introduced into a reference
standard LO provi de acc urately reproduc ible indications for
determining sensitivity levels .
Domain: Any of numerous contiguous regions in a ferromagnetic
malerial in which the direction of spontaneous magnetization is
uniform and different fro m that in neighboring regions.
Eddy current: Electrical CUlTent induced in a conductor by a time
varying magnetic field.

Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testillg 137

 Eddy current testing: Nondestructive test technique in whi ch eddy
CUlTcnt fl ow is induced in the test object. Changes in the fl ow
caused by variations in the s pecjrnen arc reflected into a nearby
coil , coils , Hall etfect device or other magnetic Il ux sensor for
subsequent analysis by suitable instmmcntation and techniques,
Edge effect: In electromagnetic testing. the dis turbance of the
mag netic fie ld and eddy currents because of the proxim ity of an
ab rupt change in geometry. such as an edge of the test object.
Sometimes called elld ~ffect. T he effect generall y results in the
masking of discontinuities wi thin the affected regio n.
Effective depth of penetration: In electromagneti c testing. the
nrinimum depth beyond which a test system can no longer
practically detect a further increase in specimen thickness,
Electric field : Vector field of either the electri c f ield inte nsity (volt
per meter) or of the electric nux dens ity (coulomb per meter
squared ) ,
E lectroma gnet: Ferromagnetic corc sUlTounded by a coil of wire
that temporari ly becomes a Tnagnct when an electric c urre nt flows
through the wire .
Electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EM AT ): Electromagneti c
device u:;;ing lorentz forces and fi1agnetost ricti on in cond uc ti ve
and felTomagnetic materials to generate and rece ive acoustic
signals for ultraso nic nondestruc ti ve tests .
E ncircling coil : In e lectromagnetic test in g, a coil or coil assembly
that sUlTounds the lest object. Such a coil is also called an ann ular
coil . circumferential coil or fee d-through coil.
ET: Electromagnetic testing .
Evaluation : Review following inte rpretati on of indications , to
determine whether they meet spec ified acceptance criteria ,
Excitation coil: Coil that carries the excitation CutrenL A lso called
primary coil or lvinding.
External discontinuities: Di scontinuities on the outside or exposed
surface of a test object.
False indication: Test indication that could be interpreted as
orig in ating from a discontinuity but which actually orig in ates
where no d iscontinui ty exists in the lest Object. Di stinct fro m
non re levant indication . Compare Defect.
Ferromagnetic material : Material such as iron , nickel or cobalt
\vhose relative permeability is consi de rably greater than unity and
depends on the mag netizing fo rce and ofte n exhibits
hysteresis , Materials that are most strong ly affected by mag netism
are called f erromagnetic .
Fill factor: For encin.:1 ing co il electro magneti c testing , the ratio of
the cross-sectio nal area of the test object to the effective cross
sectional core area of the primary enc ircling coil (outside
diameter of co il fo rm. not ins ide diameter that is adjacent to the
object), For internal probe electromagnetic testing, the ratio of the
ellecti ve cross sectional area of the primary internal probe co il to
the cross-sectional area of the tube interior,

138 Personnel Training Publication'S

Fill factor effect: Effect of fill factor on coupling between coil and
test object.
Flaw: Rejectable or unintentional anomaly. See also Defect and
Discontinuity.
Flux density : See Magnetic flux density .
Flux leakage: See Magnetic flux leakage field ; Magnetic flux
leakage technique ; Magnetic flux meter.
Flux meter : See Magnetic flux meter .
Hall detector : Semiconductor element that produces an output
electromotive force propoltional to the product of the magnetic
field intensi ty and a biasing current.
Hall effect: Potenti al difference developed across a conductor at
right angles to the direction of both the magnetic field and the
electric current. Produced when a current nows along a
rectangular conductor subjected to a transverse magnetic field.
Hertz: Measurement unit of frequency, equivalent to one cycle per
second .
Heterogeneity: The qu ality or state of being nonuniform or
dissimilar.
Horseshoe coil: Probe coil in which the ferrite core of the coil is
horseshoe shaped . Also called a V-shaped coil.
Hysteresis: Apparent lagging of the magnetic effect when the
magnetizing fo rce act.ing on a ferromagnetic body is changed;
phenomenon exhibited by a magnetic syste m wherein its present
Slate is influenced by its previous history.
Hysteresis loop : Curve show ing flux denSity B plotted as a fu nction
of magnetizing force H as magnetizing force is increased to the
saturation point in both negative and pos itive directions
sequenti ally. The curve forms a charactcristic shaped loop.
lACS : International Annealed Copper Standard.
Impedance: Opposition that a circuit presents to the flow of an
alternating cUlTent, specifically the complex quotient of voltage
di vided by current.
Impedance analysis : [n electromagnetic testing, an analytical
teChnique that consists of correlating changes in the amplitude,
phase, quadrature components or all of these of a complex test
signal voltage to the condi tio n of the test object.
impedance-plane diagram : Graphical representation of the locus of
points indicating the variations in the impedance of a res t coil as a
fu nction oj' a parameter, such as conductivity or lift-off.
Indication: Nondestructive test equipment response to a
di scontinu ity that requires interpretation to detennine its
relevance. Compare Defect, Discontinuity and False indication.
Indication, discontinuity: Visible ev idence of a material
discontinuity. Subsequent interpretation is required to determine
the sign ificance of an indication.
Indication, false : See False indication .

Classroom Troil/ing Series: Electromagnetic Testing 139

 Indication, nonrelevant: Indication due to misapplied or improper
testing. May also be an indi cati on caused by an actual
discontinuity that does not affect the usability of the test object (a
change of section, fo r instance).
Indication , relevant: Indication from a discontinuity (as opposed to
a nonrelevant indication) requiring evaluation by a qual ified
inspector, typically with reference [Q an acceptance standard, by
vi rtue of the di scontinuity's size, shape , orientat ion or location.
Induced current technique: See Current induction technique .
Inductor: Device consisting of one Or more associated windings,
with or without a magnetic core, which impedes the flow of
current.
Initial permeability: Slope of the inducti on curve at zero
magnetizing force as the test spec imen begins to be magnetized
from a demagnetized condition (slope at the origin of the B,H
curve before hysteres is is observed).
Inserted coil: See Inside diameter coil.
Inside coil: See Inside diameter coil.
Inside diameter coil: Coi l or coil assembly used for electromagnetic
testing by insertion into the test piece. as with an inside probe for
tubing. Also called illserted coil.
Intcmational Annealed Copper Standard (lACS): Conductivity
measurement system in which the conductivity of annealed,
unalloyed copper is arbitrarily rated at J 00% and in which the
conductivities of other materials are expresscd as percentages of
this standard. See also Conductivity and Percent Intemational
Annealed Copper Standard.
Leakage flux: (1) Magnetic flu x of the coil that does not link with
the test object. (2) Magnetic tlu x that leaves a saturated or nearly
saturated speci men at a discontinuity.
Level, acceptance: See Acceptance level.
Level, rejection: See Rejection level.
Lift-off: Di stance between the probe coil and the test object.
Lift·off effect: In an electromagnetic test system Olltput, the effect
observed due to a change in coupling between a test object and a
probe whenever the distance between them is varied.
Longitudinal magnetic field: Magnetic field wherein the flux lines
traverse the component in a direction essentially parallel with its
longitudinal axis.
Magnetic field : Di strib ution of a vector quantity that is a measure of
an exeI1ed magneti c force.
Magnetic field indicator: Dev ice used to locate or determine
relati ve intensity of a tlux leakage field.
Magnetic field intensity: Strength of a magnetic field at a specific
point. Measured in ampere per meter.
Magnetic flux density: Normal magnetic flux per unit area,
measured in tesla (T).
Magnetic nux leakage field: Magnetic field that leaves or enters the
surface of an object.

140 Personnel Training Publication s

Magnetic flux leakage technique: Electromagnetic test techniq ue
for the detection and analysis of a surface discontinuity or near
surface discontinuity using the flux that leaves a magnetically
saturated, or nearly saturated , test object at a discontinuity.
Magnetic flux meter: Electronic device for measu ring field strength
magnetic tl ux leakage.
Magnetic flux leakage: Excursion of magnetic lines of force from
the surface of a test object.
Magnetic particle testing (MT ): Nondestmetive test method using
magnetic leakage fields and indication materials to disclose
surface and ncar surface discontinuities.
Modulation: Process of imparting information to a carrier signal by
the introduction of amplitudc or phase perturbation.
Multifrequency: Two or more frequencies applied sequentially or
simultaneously to the test coil.
Multifrequency technique: Use of the response of a test object
to more than one frequency, usual ly to separate effects that would
be ind istinguishable at a single frequency.
NDT: Nondestructive testing.
Noise: In electromagnetic testing. any nonrelevant signal that tends
to interfcre with the normal reception or processing of a desired
discontinuity signal. Such noise signals may be due to an
cxtraneous sourCe or generated by heterogeneities in the test part
that are not detrimental to the use of the pmt.
Nondestructive testing (NDT): Determ ination of the physical
condition of an object without affecti ng that object's ability to
fulfill its intended fu nction . Nondestructive test methods typicall y
use an appropriate form of energy to determ ine material
propert ies or to indicate the presenec of material discon tinuities
(surface, intemal or concealed).
Nonferromagnetic material: Material not magnetizable and
essentially not affccted by magnetic fields.
Percent International Annealed Copper Standard (% IACS):
Measurement of conductivi ty as a percentage of the conducti vity
of pure copper, arbitrari ly rated at 100%. See also International
Annealed Copper Standard .
Period: Absolute value of the minim um interval after which the
same characteri sti cs of a periodic waveform or a periodic feature
repeal.
Permeability: Ratio of magnetic ind uction to mag netizing force.
This relationship is eithe r ( I) absolute pel111eability, in general the
quotient of magnet ic ind uction di vided by the magneti zing fo rce,
or (2) relative permeabi lity (or specific permeability), a pure
number that is the same in all unit systems. The value and
dimension of absolute pel111eabi lity depend on the system of units
used. In anisotropic media, permeability is a matrix .

Classroom Traininx Series: Electromagnetic Te.\-ling 141

 Phase analysis: Anal ytical technique that discriminates between
variables in a part undergoing electromagnetic testing by the
different phase angle ancl amplitude changes that these conditions
produce in the test signal. See also Phase detection .
Phase angle: Angular equivalent of the time displacement between
con'esponding points on two s ine waves of the same frequency.
Phase detection: Derivation of a signal whose am plitude is a
fun ction of the phase angle between two alternating currents, one
of which is used as a reference.
Pulse technique: Mul tifrequency technique in which a broadband
excitation such as an impulse is used. Either the frequency
components are ex tracted and analyzed or the interpretation is
based directly a ll characteristics of the ti me domain waveform .
Qualification: Process of demonstrating that an individual has the
required amount and the required type of training , experience,
knowledge and capabilities.
Qualified: Having demonstrated the required amount and the
required type of training , ex perience , kno wledge and abilities.
Recommended practice: Set of guidelines or recommendations.
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA: Set of guidelines
publi shed by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing ,
for employers to establish and conduct a nondestmctive testing
personnel qu ali ficat ion and certification program.
Reference standard: Refe rence used as a basis for comparison or
calibration. In tube testing. a rube with artificial discontinuities
used for establi shing the tcst sensiti vity setting ancl for
pclioclically checking and adjusting the sensitivity setting as
required. See also Acceptance standard.
Rejection level: Value established for a test signal above or below
which test specimens arc rejectable or otherwise distinguished
from the remaining specimens. This level is ditlerent from the
rejecti on level as defi ned for ultrasonic and other test systems.
Relative permeability: Ra tio of the permeability of the material to
the permeability of a vacuum.
Sensing coil: Coil that detects changes in the flow of eddy currents
induced by an exc itation co il ; sensing and excitation coils can be
one and the same. Also called detector coil .
Signal: Physical quantity, such as electrical voltage, that contains
relevant informati on.
Signal-to-noise ratio : Ratio of signal val ues (responses that conta in
relevant information) to baseline noi se values (responses that
contain Ilonrelevant infomlation). See Noise.
Skin depth : Standard depth of penetratioll. See also Skin effect .
Skin effect: Phenomenon wherein the depth of penetration of
electrical currents into a conductor decreases as the freq uency of
the current. is increased . At very high frcquencies , the current flow
is restricteel to an extremely thin outer layer of the conductor. See
Standard depth of penetration.
SNT-TC-IA: See Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA .

142 Personnel Training Publicatiu11.\"

Specification: Set of instructions or standards invoked by a specific
customer to govel11 the results or performance of a specific set of
tasks or products.
Standard: (1) Physical Object with known material characteristics
used as a basis for comparison or calibration; reference standard .
(2) Concept established by authority, custom or agreement to
serve as a model or rule in the measurement of quant ity or the
establishment of a practice or procedure . (3) Document to control
and govern practices in an industry or application, applied on a
national or international basis and usually produccd by consensus.
Sec also Acceptance standard and Reference standard.
Standard depth of penetration: In electromagnetic testi ng , the
depth at which the magnetic field intensity or intensity of induced
eddy currents has decreased to 37 % of its surface value. The
square of the dcpth of penetration is inversely proportional to the
frequency of tne Signal. the conductivity of the matetial and the
permeability of the material. See also Skin effect.
Test coil: Section of a coil assembly tnat exc itcs or dctects the
magnetic field in the material under electromag nctic test.
Test frequency : In electromagnetic testing. the number of complete
cycles per unit time of the alternating currcnt applied to the
primary test coil.
Three-way sort: Electromagneti c sort bascd on a test object signal
response above or below two levels established by three or more
calibration standards.
Threshold level : Setting of an instrument that causes it to register
onl y those changcs in response greater or less than a specified
magnitude.
Through-transmission: or or pertaining to electromagnetic
techniques where the excitation field penetrates thc test Object so
that the detected signal is responsivc to features external to or on
the opposite surface. The primary coil and secondary coil are
positioned on oppositc sides of the product to be inspected.
Volt (V): Measurement unit of electric potential.

Classroom Tmining Series: Electromaglletic Testing 143

 Appendix

Units of Measure for Electromagnetic Testing

Table 1: 51 base units.

Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Ma" kilogram kg
Time second s
E lectric current ampere A
Temperature kelv in K
Amount of substance mole mol
Lu minolls intensity candela cd

Table 2: S[ derived units with special names."

Quantity Units Symbol Relation to
Other 81 Units b
Capacitance farad F C-V-I
Catalytic activity kata l kat s- ). mol
Conductance siemens S A·V-I
En ergy joule J N·m
Frequency (periodic) hertz Hz h -I
Force newton N kg·m· s-2
]m.hLctance henry H Wb·A-I
llluminance lux Ix Im·m- 2
Luminous tlux lumen 1m cd·sr
Ekclric ,·harge coulomb C A· s
Elcctri<: potential e volt V W ·A- l
Elcctrk resistance ohm Q V·A- I
M agnetic flux weber Wb V·~
Magnetic flux densi ty tesla T Wb.m 2
P lane angle radian rad I
Power waft W 1->- 1
Pressure (stress) pascal Pa N 'nr2
R ad iatio n ab sorbed dose gray Gy Jkg- l
R ad iation dose equ ivalent sievert Sv J-kg- 1
R ad ioactivi ty becquerel Bq 1·,1
Solid ang le steradi an sr 1
Temperatu re. celsius degree celsi us 'C K
Timcll hour h 3600 s
Vo lumea liter L dOl)

Legend
u. Hour and liter are not SI un it!) but are accepted for use with the S1.
b. Numbe r onc (1) expresses dimen sionless relat ionship .
c. Electromotive fo rce.

145
....
..,.
'" ''',ble 3: Example of conversions to SI units,

Quantity Measurement in Multiply To Get Measurement

Non SJ Unit by in SI Unit
~
S A ngle m in ute {min) 2,90~~82 x 10 4 rad ian (rad)

"
~
:;-J A rea
degree (deg)
squ are inc h (in .2)
1.745329 x 10- 2
645
rad ian (rad)
squ are millimeter (m m2 )
'"
S·
~.
Distam.:c angs trom (.6..)
inch (in ,)
0, 1
25,4
nan ometer ( nm)
millimet.er (111m)
:P Energy British therm al unit (BTU) 1.055 ki lojoule (kJ )
<3- calori e (ca l), thcnnoc he miccil 4.1 84 j oule (J)
~ Power Bril ish th erm al unit per hour (BTU 'h- I ) U,293 wa tt (W)
~
:;"
C Specific hei1! Bri tish thermal unit per po un d 4. 19 kilojoule per kilogram per kelvi n (kJ-kg- I.K- I )
~
~ degree Fahrenheit (BTU ·lbm- LOF- I)
Force (Iorque, couple) foot· pound (n. lb r) 1.36 joule (J)!'
Pressure pound fo rce l>Cf sq uare inc h (Ibr in.- 2) 6.89 kilopascal (kPo)
Frequency (cycle) cycle per minute 60- 1 hertz (1-11.)
Illuminance rootcandle (l"Ie) 10 ,76 lux (Ix)
phot. (ph) 10000 lux ( Ix)
LUll1inJllce candel a per square loot (cd·n- 2) 10.76 cande la pe r square me.te r «xl'm- 2)
candela per square inch (ctl-in .- 2) 1550 cande ltl per square meter (cd ' m- 2)
foot lambeI'I (ft l) 3.426 candela per square me te r (cc..hn-2)
lambe rl 3 183 (= I a aOO/n) ca nde la p CI' sq ua re mete r (cd' m- 2)
nit (nL) I cand cla pe r sq uare metcr (cch n-2)
stilb (sb) 10000 ca ndel a per sq uare meter (cd 'rn- 2)
Radi oactiviLy curi e (C i) 37 gigabct.:q ucrel (G Bq)
[o ni z ing rad iati o n exposure roentgen ( R) 0.258 mi llicoulolllb per kil ogram ( mC kg- l )
Mass pOllnd (Ibm) 0.454 kilogram (kg)
Tem perat un.: (d iffe rence) dcgrcc Fahrenl1 ei t (OF) 0 .556 kel vi n ( K) or deg ree Ccl 5illS (OC)
Temperature (sca le) deg ree Fahrenh ei t (OP) (OF - 32)1 1.8 degree Celsius (OC)
Temperature (scale) deg ree Fahrenh e it (° F) C F - 32)1 1,8) + 273 .15 kelv i n (K)
 Table 4: SI prefixes and multipliers.
Prefix Symbol Multiplier
yotta y 10 2+
zett3 Z 10 21
exa E 10 18
pCLa P lOi S
tera T lOll
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto:l h 10 2
deka (or decal" da 10
deci;.J d 10-\
cenlP c 10- 2
milli m 10- 3
micro II 10-6
nano Il 10-9
p ica p 10- 12
fcn1to f 10- 15
aUo a 10- 18
:lepta Z 10- 2 1
yocto y 10- 24

a. Avoid these prefixes (except in dm 3 and cm3) for science and

engineering.

Table ~: Units from the centimet e r-gram-second (CGS) system of units and not accepted for
use with 51. Factor to convert each CGS unit to SI unit is given.
~ical Quantity CGS Unit Multiply by SI Unit SI Symbul
Busic CGS Units
Magnetic field intensily oersted (Oe) 10)'(4,,)-' ampere per meter A'm- J
Magnetic tlux maxwell (Mx ) 10- 8 wehe r Wb
Magnetic nux density gauss (G) 10-4 tesla T
Mag potential difference gi lbel1 (Gb) JO· (4,,)- 1 ampere A
Electromagnetic CGS Units
Capacitance abfarad 109 farad F
Charge abcoulornb 10 coulomb C
ConduClanL:e abmbo L09 siemens S
Current ahampere 10 ampere A
Inductance ab henry 10 -9 henry H
Mag field intensity abampe re/em 103 ampere per meter A·m- I
POlential abvo lt 10- 8 voll V
Resistance abohm 10-9 ohm Q
Electrostatic CGS Units
Capacitance stalJarad 1.11 2650 x 10- 12 farad F
Ch;Jrge statcoulornb 3.3356 x 10- 10 coulomb C
Conuuclancc st::u mho 1.]] 265 x 10- 12 siemens S
Current statamperc 3.335641 x 10- 11 ampere A
Inductance stathenry 8.987 552 x 10" henry H
Potenli,,1 Sial vol t 2.997925 x 102 voir V
Resistance s[atohm 8.98755 x lO" ohm Q

Clas.'1room Trainil/g Series: Elcctromagnclic Teslillg 147

 Bibliography

1. A5NT Level III 5/Udy Guide: Eddy Current Testing Method. Columbus, OH: Amcrican
Society for Nondestructive Testing (1983) .

2. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Vol. 5. EieCll'Ol1Iagnetic Testing.

Columbus. Ohio: American Society for Nondcstnlctive Testing (2004).

3. Nondestructive TeIting Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic Panicle Testing.

Columbus , Ohio: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (1989).

4. Nondestructive Testing Classrool1l Training Handbook, second edition: Eddy ClIrrenr

l esting. Fort Worth , Texas: Convair Division of General Dynamics Corporation (1979) .

148 Persolln el Training Pllblicmions

 Index

A thickness loci On impedance·plane diagram. 70, 7 1

above-ground sTorage t~~nk floors thickness testing of coati ngs on, 9 1,92
n ux leakage testing applications, 11 3-114 al um inum alloy 2024
absolute arnmgement, of eddy current :::;cnsing demenIs, effect of freq uency OIl impedance-plane diagram, 69
33-34 aluminum alloy A91100
active n ux leakage tields, 101 relative conductivity by eddy Cllrrent meter reading , 94
adm iralty brass aluminum a!loy 2024-'1'4
heat exchanger tubing, 97 conductivity. 58rable
aerospace indu stry aluminum alloy 606 1-T6
eddy current testing applications. 91 conductivity. 58tuf,Ie
aircraft st ructures aluminum alloy 707 5~ T6
eddy current testing applications. 95 conducti vity. 58table
probe coils for crack detection. 30 aluminum alloy UNS A92024, 77
alarm lights, for eddy current testing, 25 edge effects in conductivity measuremen t, 61
alarms relative conductivity by eddy cu rrent meter reading, 94
audio,25 aluminu m alloy UNS A95052
digital mixing. 26 relative conductivity by eddy (,'urrent meter reading, 94
alloys aluminum alloy U . S A97075, 77
composition effect on conductivity. 59 lift-off and edge effect J.:.x;i on impedance-plane
conductivi ty of selected, 581Gb/e. 59table diagram . 76
primary metals industries eddy current testing aluminum brass
applications. 99 -1 00 heat exchanger tub ing, 97
rdativc conducti vity of selected by eddy current al uminum bronze
meter rcadin gs, 94 re lativ~ conductivi ty hy eddy cum :nt meter reading. 94
resistivity of selected, 59wble aluminum nit:kcl
alloy sorting. 83 in permanent magnt!ls , 105
altemating current, I () amber. 3
electromagnetic field produced by, 6, 13 American Society for Nondestructi ve Testing (ASNT) , 8
alternating cun'e m field measuremenl lt:t:hn ique, 121 -1 25 American Society for Testing M aterials (ASTM)
alternati ng; t: urrcnt generators , 16 standards. 132- 1:13
altern ating Current potential drop testing , 121 American Society of Mechani cal En gineers (ASM E)
aluminu m, 57,59.78 standards. 133
conductivity, 58lable, 59table ammete r. in eddy currcnt test circuits, 21-22
degree nfhardcning determination, 98 ampere, 13
depth of penetration , !-I5. 86 anal og meters , for eddy current tcsting. 24, 25-26
effeet o f frequency On impedance-plane diagram. 68-69 anneali ng
frequency effect On impedance-plane diagram, 68 eddy current. testing application s. 99
pemleabiliry. lift-o f(, and conductivity loci on ANSJIASNT CP-189-J99/, 8-9
impedance-plane diagram, 75 antimony
relative t:onductivi ty by eddy current meter reading, 94 conducLiv ity and reSistivity. 59rahle
resistivi ty, 59/Ubh~ arctan, 20

149
art itici al discontinuity reference standanls, 130 effeu of freq uency on thickness measurements, 72
I~SlI!IERoiler alld Pressllre Vessel Code, 133 heat exchanger luhing. 97
tl5M£ £-215 , 133 permeability. lift -otT, and conductivity loci on
115M£ 51'-215. 133 impedance-plane diagram, 75
.1SNT CP- IN9 , g rdative conductiv ity hy eddy current meter reading. 94
ASTM £309-77, 132 thickness lod on impedance-plane diagram , 70 , 7'1
tlSTM £376-69 (1979). 133 thickness testing or (,.:oatings Oil, 92
ASIM C426-76 (1981). 1.13 bronze
AST,."I F.566-82. 133 conducti vity and re sistivity of commercia l annealed,
A5TM £570-69.133 59Jable
,ISTM F.703-70 , 133 condu ct ivity of phosphor, 58rahle
ASIM £2096-00. 120 effect of frequcncy Oil impel/anee-plane diagntm , 69
audio alarms. for eddy cmrenl test ing , 25 relmive conductivity by cddy current T11~(er reading . 94
halance-or-plant heal exchanger tubes, eddy current
testing, 97 C
cadmium
B c\.mductivity and resistivity. 59table
bull bearing~ thickn ess testing of c:oating!'i , 92
Ha H effect se lN lr for, 50 calcill m
bandwidth. and choice of eddy current sensjng clements , 37 conductivity and resistivi ty, 59Ulble
bar magnets, 42 , 43 calibration 5-tandards, 127 ~ 12X
bars use with external comparison t~chI1ique. 35
direct current Imlgnetizarion, 107 carbon steel
eddy current tes ling or hot rollt'.d, 99 h<::c)t e;.;changer tubing. 97
c-.ncirdillg coil applications, 32 rcmote fidd testing, 11 7
end effect. 62 cathode ray tube ellipse display mcthod, ~O
flux It!akage testing app1ic."utions, III cathode ray lubes (CRl\), for eddy current te~;ti n g , 24 , 26
hillets cathodc ray tuht: vector point method. 79-&0
direct cu rrent magnetizution , 107 ccl loph ane
elkly cu rrent testing applications. 99 for lift -off n.'Jcrcnct:. stand ard. 130
factors alTecting: flu x leakage fields , 101-I 03 center effect. 32
tlux leakage tit'lds. 101 -102 centrifugal chillers , eddy currenl testi ng , 98
flux leakage t.esting app lications for round. 111 CGS units. for electromagnet ic testing. 147rable
flux leakage testing app lications for square , 112 chemical industry
magnetic tapc system appl icmions. 53 eddy current tesring applications , 96
hobbin coil s. 32 ehromhllll
cht:mical and petroleum industry application s, 96 conductiv ity and resistivity. 59r,dJfe
electric power applications, 96 coatings
end effec t retluclion. 62 ac field meaSllremcnt technique application. 124
fill factor. 89 optimum eddy current testing rreql1ency. 83
for hcat cXch,mger tubing applications , [09 thickness testing for , 91 , 92
test ("'oil urrung<.'mcllts, 33~36 coaling thickness reference !:'tamlards. 129
uoilC'J' tubes cobalt
flux lC<lkage te~ting applications for installed. 11 3 conduc ti vi ty and resistivity . 59table
boh holes relative conductivity by eddy (,.'urrcnl meter reading. 94
eddy c urrent lesling app lications . 93 coercive force , 46
~lIr fi:\ce co il <lpplications, 30 coil imped ance , See impedance
brass co ils. See bobbin coils: encircling coil s: smface coils
conductivity of 70-30. 5Krab/e conductive coatings, 60

150 Personnel Trainill/{ Publications

conductive coating thickness. 91
conductivity. 57·58
and depth of penetration of eddy currents. 83. 84. R5
eddy current tcst.ing applications. 93-94
effect on impedance-plane diagram. 63-67
factors affecting. 58·62
and impedance-plane diagram. 74·79
se lected metals and alloys, 3Mrable, 59rahle
suppressi()n nf condllctivity variable on impedance·
plane diagram, 73
conductivity measurement. 93-94
and impedance·plane diagram. 78, 79
optimum eddy current testing frequency. X3
conductivi ty reference standanls. 1 2~- ! 29
conductors. 13-14,57
copper. 78
conductivity and resistivity. 39rable
conductivity of annealed. 58table
depth of penetration versus frequency, M6
effect of freque ncy 011 impedance-plane diagram. 68-
69
frequency dfect on impedance-plane diagram. 68
as good condul.:tof. 57
llltemariona l Annealed Copper Standard (lACS)
Sys tt'IIL 57, 128
pellm~~lbiljty, lift-ofr, and comluctivity lOC:I on
impedance-pl ane diagram, 75
relaLive conuw.:ti vity by eddy cunent meier rcnding, 94
thicknt:ss loci on impedance-plane diagram. 70. 71
thickness testing of cOeltings. 91 . 92
thkkncss ll:sting of coatings OIl. 92
copper nickel ~illoys. 59
c()nos inn
opli mum eddy current testing frequency. 83
steam generators . 96
wire rope inspection. 110
COlTosion pitting
ac fie ld mea~uremen t iIldications. 125
uIlderground pipelines. III
in wire rope . 11 0
cracks, See also fmigue cracks: subsu rface discontinuitit'~
ac fi eld measurement indications . 121, J 24-125
calibrmion standard s. 127, 128
eddy current testing application.'., C) 1
flux leakage delectability. 39
flux leakage te ~{ing for dett!clion. X
and impedance-plane diagram. 78. 79
Hamral discontinuity reference standards. 129, 130
Classroom Trail1il1X Series: EIe.ctrollluXfletic Testing
optimuIll eddy current testing frequency for
detection, 83
petroleum and gas pipelines. II I
surface coil applicmions, 30
C· scan displays. 26
current. 4, 5 . 13
D
demodulation and allaly~is, eddy currc.nt instrumentation, 24
depth of pe netration, or eddy currents. X3-X7
ditferential coil arrangement
cxtemal comparison lcdmiyue, 35
scl f·c omparison tcchnjque, 34
digiml conductivity mcters. 26
digital data storage
fo r eddy currefl( testing, 26
for remote field testing. 115. 117-118
djgital displays, for eddy current testing. 26-27
digital meters. for eddy current testing. 24. 26
digit.11 mixing. for eddy Cllm::nt lt~ting. 26
digitiz<\tioll rate , and choice of eddy current sc:nsing
dt:ment~. 37
dimensional factors. effect on coil impedancc , 62-63
direct CLirrent magndizalion. 106. [0 7- IOH
discontinuities
ac fidd me<\:H1rement teChnique applicatiOIl. 121·125
eddy curre nt s distorted by, 64. 90
eddy current testing applications. 91
effect ()n coil impedance, 63·64
effect on nux leakage fields, 101-103
effects on coi l impedance. 63-64
nux leab,ge testing for dctect.ion, 8
hem t'xchnnger tuhes , 109- 110
magnemdiode applications for LUbeS. 53
optimum eddy currenl testing frequency for
detection. X3
discontinuity reference standards. 127. 129-131
douhle co il alTangcmcllt , of eddy current sensing
clements. 33-34
E
eddy current hole probe, 94
eddy currents
depth of penetration, 83-87
distortion by dio.;conlinuity. 64. 90
generation. 6-7.13-14
eddy current !\ellsing dements. 29·33
factors affecting choice of. 36-37
te~t coil arrangements. 33-36
151
eddy current testing. See also conductivity: rill factor: standards and spe.ci fications , 132 ~ 133
impedance; lift-off units for, 1451ab/e, 146rable, 147raMe
alternating current field measuremenl tel:hniqut: , elec tromagnetic yokc. 105
121-125 electromagnets. 105-106
applications, 91 - 100 electrom{ltivc forcc, 5. 14
basil: principles , 6- 7 electrons. ]3
basic test system setup . 6 encircling coi ls , 31-32 , 106
cathode fay Lube methods , 79-XO end effect reduction. 62
coil impcdam:c ,57-62 fill fac.:tur, 89
coupling, 89-90 end effect , 62
excitation frequcncy. 7 cx: tCl11aJ comparison technique, .,5
generation, 13-14
impedance testing systems . 65 F
instrumentmion , 21-24 Faraday. Michae l. 5
modulation analysis systems . 80-82 Faraday's law of elec tromagnetic induction. 5.14
phase analysis systems, 65-79 fastener holes
rC<-Idout lllcch<-lnisms . 25-27 CfllibTation slanuan.1s JilT cracks, 127. 12;.;
remOTe field. 115-120 surface coil applications,.10
sensing c1crncnts . 29-37 fatigue cracks
lcst f'rc 4ucncy ~cJcctiOll. 83-87 ae field measuremem indicm.ioJls , I'll , 124 , 125
theory, 13-20 aircraft structures. 95
edge dfccts natural dist:ontinuity reference stan dards, 129, 130
effect on nc field mellsurement technique. 124 feed-through coil. ., I
effect 011 conductivity, 60-61 fenites
loci on impedance-plane diagram, 76. 7S, 79 in illllU(:tivc coil scm-ors. 49
elecfrical cow.iucti-..rity. Scc conductivity ni(.:kclz lJle fcrrite cores, 74. 7S
electrical CUlTcnt. 4 . 5, 13 ferromagnctiL' materials, 44 . See also iron; steel
electric:11 resi.stiviry, See resistIvity hysteres is, 45
electric power industry ferro-probe,5 1
cddy eurrent tcsting applications . 96-98 fill facLor , i-l9-90
electrornagnetic fields. 13 remote field testing. 116, 117
electromagnetic induclion, 3, 5, 13 tlar coiL 29
and c\el:tmll1olive forct'. 14 nux density . 43,10 1
~elf induction , 17 flux-gate magnetometer, 5 1
electromagnetic testing:. Sec also eddy current tesling: tlux leakage fields . Sf:e. alsu magnetization
flux leakage testing detecting , 7-8
applications of cddy current testing, 91-100 fw.:tors atfcctjng . 3Ot-103
applications of tlux leakage tcsting . 109-1 14 magn.itude s . 108
calibration standards. 35 , 127-128 flux leakage sensing elements . 49-54
coupling. 89-90 tlux leakage testing
introduction. 3-11 applications. 109-114
Level I personnel. 8, 1 I bask principles. 7-8
Level Il personnel, 8.11 excitation frequency, 7
I.eyellli personnel. 9.11 magnetization method sclection . lOS-lOS
magnetization method selection, 105-108 sensing clements . 49-54
pt:rsolllle.J certification . 10-11 theory. 39-48
personnel qualification . 8- 10 typical signal. X
reference standards, 92-93. 120,127 .1 28-131 flux lines . 42
standards and procedun!s . 127-133

152 Per:w11Iu:1 Training Publicaliolls

fanning chcmil.:ai and petroleum applications. 96
eddy current te~ting ~pplications . 99 flux leakage testing npplications. 109- I 10
Fors ter. Friedrich , 6 tlux leakage testing applications for in~talled. I J 3
Forster prohe, 51 intcrnal coil applications. 33
frequency, 7 su rface coil applications. 30
alt.crnating currcl][. 17 hc.at treating
and choke of eddy current sensi ng dements. 36 eddy currelll testing app lication ~. 99
and depth of penetration of t:!ddy currents. 8)·87 hertz (Hz). 17 . 83
effect on impedance· plane diagram. 6X-70 high -alloy steel. See Steel. high-alloy
effcct on thickness measurements, 71- 72 hole probe.)O
limit frequency. 85 holes
frequcncy selection . 83 anlt1cial discontinuity reference st.:lndards. 130
multi-frequency sy stems . 86-87 bolts . 30. 93-94
for remote field eddy current testing. 117 fasteners . 30. 127. 12R
single frequen cy systems, X6 rivet.... 30
horizontal deviation. and choice of eddy (;Ul'rcnt sensing
G elements . 36
gage corner cracking . 125 bot rolled bar ... , eddy cune.nt tc~ting. 99
gain linearity. and choice of eddy current sens in g hybrid coil arrangemenLs, of eddy current sensing
elc::ments.36 elements. 35·)6
gas pipelines hydrogen induced cra<,·k.i llg
nux leakage testing app licat ions, 111-112 ac field measurcment indications. 125
gall <;s.43 hydrogcn sulfide cracking, 125
glass
a, non-conductor. 57 I
gold impedance, 7,18-20
conductivity, 58mb/e, 59table conducti vit.y of te st object effe cts . 57-62
relative cUlldu ctiv ity hy eddy current meter reading, dimcnsional factors of te..,l objed. 62-6.1
94 discontinuity effeds of Ie'" object. 63-64
re sistivity. 59rable and fill factor. 89
graph ite and inducli vt:. reaclam:c. 20
depth of penetration versus frequency_ 86 and life-off. 89
errtx:t or
rrl'lILu.:ncy on impedance-plaue diagnlm, 69 permeability of t~st Object elli..'cts. tl2
readout mcchani~ms . 25 -27
H and resistance . 20
H ~\tt dTeCl sensors. 8. 39. 50-51 impedance bridge circuit. ZJ-22
Clbove-ground storage lank !lOOT applications. 114 impedance-plant! diagram , 1~-19. 65
heal exchanger tubing applications. 109-110 conduclivily and pemu;-ability. 74·79
installed heat exchanger/boiler tubing application. 11 3 conductivity locus. 65 -6H
hurdening effect of freqllency, 68 -70
eddy cmrent testing applicalions, l)X. 99 effect of frequc::ncy O il thicknc$$ mca ~lIrel1lents, 71-7'2
hardncss effect of mnterialthicknc.ss. 70-71
effect on conductivity. 59 suppressi<Jn (If c(muuctivity variable , 73
BaSlelloy ~ uppre ssion of lift-off "Variable. 72-73
thickness loci on impedance- plane diagram. 7 1 impedance lesting systcms. 65
Hustelloy X impedancc "CC lo r, 18-19
conductivity. 58table Inconei 60{)
heat cxchanger rubes conductivity, 58table
balnnce-of-plant, in electriL: power applicmions, 97

Classruom T1'lIining Series: f:ieclromagneric TestiJiM 153

indium antinornide qualification rOT, 9
in Hall erred sensors, 50 lift-off. 89
induced currents. 3A and depth of pcnerrarjon of eddy cu rren ts. R3
induction. See elcctromagnetic induction loci on impedan!.:e-planc diagram. 67-68. 78 . 79
induction coil. X, ~W suppression of lift-oft· variable on impedance-plane
inductive coil sensors. 49-51 diagram. 72-73
inductive reactancc , 18 li ft- off reference standards , 130- 131
amI impedance. 20 limit frequency. H5
industrial air conditioning: chillers. eddy current testing. 97 lines of force. 41
inuLlstry specific ations . 132-133 liquid crystal displays (LeDs) . for eddy current tes ting.
inilial magnetization. \U3 24.27
inner diameter coil. 32 lodestone . 3
inside probe. 32
inspection coils . 29 lVl
instrumentation magnesium
eddy cnrrenl leSiing . 2 1-2+ conductivity. 58/ab/e
for remote field 1 c:~ling . 115· 117 conductivity and resistivilY or pure , 59rable
internal coils . 32-33. See also hohhill cojls relative conductivity by eddy curren t merer reading:. 94
In ternational Annealed Copp~r St~Uld<:lrd (lAC S) system . magnetic attraction. 3-6
,,7,128 magnetic domnin s. 44-45
iron. See al.w sta i nlcs~ steel: steel and R and H curve. 40-42
conductivity and resistivity of pure. 59wble magnelic ficld intensity. 41
as ferromagnet ic 1II:.1leria l, 44 magnerit' fIeld lines. 42
penneability,62 magnetic fields . 42
iron . ingot in eddy curren l lesling, 6-7
conductivi ty and resist ivity. 591(1ble in flu x leakage tes ting. 7-8
depth of pene tration vc rsus freq uency. 86 right hand rule for. 43-44
magnetic flux densily. 41. 4:1 , 101
J magnetic flux leakage lie1{b; . See fl ux leakage rields: nux
jet engines leakage testing
eddy current testing lIpplicm ions. 95 mag.netic flux l in~s , 42
mag.ne tic hysleresis , 44-45
L mag.netic part ide testing. 7-8 , 39
lamination mag.netizi ng current level, 54
eddy current testing application';. Sll magnetic pennt>ahility. 47-48.62
laps and depth of penetration of eddy currents . 83. 84
cddy current testing applicati(}n~. 91 effecrs on coil impedance, 62
lead and impcdam·!.!-planc uiagram, 74-79
relative conduclivity by eddy CUITcnt meter reading . 94 magnerie n:sonancc sensors . 54
thickness loci on impedance-plane diagram , 70. 71 magnelic rape system. 53
rhic:kne.;;s lesting of coali ngs. 92 magnetism. 3lJ. 42
Leve ll personnel early observations of, 3-6
eertificmion fOT. 11 magne,[ite.3
qualitication for. R magnetization
Lc\'cl II per:;onnel degree or initial , 103
ce rtification ror. II direcl l:urrenf. 106. 107-108
qualification for. H in nux leakage testing . 7-8
Lcvel III personnel method select ion , 105-108
certification foT. I I magneLi/.ing coils . 106-107

154 Pers()} mel Training Publicatiolls

magnctodiodes. 51·53. 111 o
lll:1gnelostutic energy, 40 Oersted. Ilans Chri$lian , ~
m~H~rial soning ohm . 15
alloys. 83 Ohm 's law, 15
eddy current te~ ti ng <tpplicutions, 98 outer diameter co il. 31
sorting referelKc standards, 13 1
Maxwell. James Clerk. 3. 5·6 p
Maxwell's equations . 5. 7 pancake coil. 29
metals p.tper
conductivity of selected. 5Xtahlt? , 59wb/e for 11ft-off referc:n(c st<Hldard. 130
primary melal s industries eddy cu rrent testing pencil probe. 29
app licatioll ~. 99·100 permane nt magnets. 105
relative conductivity of selected by eddy cum.'m 13 and H curVe! . 40-42
meter readings . 94 permeability. See magnetic pemteahility
reSi sti vi ty of selected. 5Yrab/e personne l ce"rtilic<.ltion, 10-11
metal spacing. 92 personnel qualification. 8-10
metal thickness. lJ2 Persollnel Qualilication and Certitkation in
military srandards, J 33 NondeStructive Testing: Re.colllllltmded Prtlclice
MIL·STf)·]537A.133 Nu. SNT·TC·]II. 8. 9. 10
MIL·STD·2032A. 1.13 petroleum industry
rlHJdulation analy s i~ systems. 80-X2 eddy current testing applicmions, 96
molybdenum petroleum pipelines
conductivity and resistivity. 591able flux leakage leMing applications, 111 - 112
relative conductivity by eddy current meter retlding. 94 phase amplitude diagram. in remote lid<.llesting. 117. 119
Monel phase analy~is "ystems, 65-79
conductivi ty.5Hlable phase angle.. 17
mooring w ire rope inspection, 111 and impedance-plant: diagr<llll, Ii)
multi-frequency systems, 86-H7 and inductive reactanc:e. 20
signal excitation. 23 and resistance. 20
multi-parameter SYSlCnlS, R6 pha~t:di scri ntination , 24
narrow enc ircling coil. 31 phast: lag. 17
phosphor hrollze
N (.;onductiviIY. 5~whh'
natural dis(ontinllit)' rdcrcm:e standards, 127, 129-1:'0 rdati ve conductivity by eddy current meier reading , 9.+
ncodymium iron boron pigs . for pipeline inspcclion.1l2
in permanent magnets. 105 pipd ine inspection, 111 -112
niL'kcl pits. See also corro:-.i on pining
conductivity and resistivity, 59Table al1ificial discontinuity rcferenc~ standards. 13U
as poor conductor. 57 eddy ('urrem le!sting applications. 91 , 93,96
thi ek.ne~$ lc~ ting of comings, 91. 92 plates
nickel copper ac field meaSllft!ment technique applic.:ation . 124
hear exchanger tubing, 97 magnetic lape! !-ty~tcm application~. 5.1
nickel zinc ferri te l:Ofcs , 74. 75 polyethylene terephthalatc
nOlH.:onductors, 14,57 for lift-off rderencc standard, l30
ntJrrnalizing primary field. 13
eddy .curre-n t l e~t in g. applkations. 99 primary melals industries
nucl ear magne tic resonance magnctomc[~rs. 54 eddy current testing applications . 99-100

Classroom Traillillg Series: ElecfromagneTic Testing 155

principle of :;df induction. 17 s
prob~ coil. 29 ~a1l1ariUJ11 cobalt
procedure, 132 in permanent magnets. 105
pythagor(!un theorem, 19 sample rate . and choice of eddy CU!Tenr sensing elements, 37
scams
Q eddy current testing applinttions. 91
quadrature accuracy. and choice of eddy current sensing selenium
c leme nis. 37 conductivity and resistivity, 59tabfe
quasistatic magnet ic fi~ld. 7 self-comparison technique. 34
self inductance. 17
R se nsing elements
rail head fatigue cracks. at fidd measuremcnt indit·alion s . eddy curren t testing. 29·37
125 flux leakage testing. 49-54
readoU[ mechanisms. for eddy Current testing. 25-27 sigmll analysis. 7.24
Recommended Pructire No. SNT-TC-1A. 8. 9. 10 remote field testing. 115 ,117- 120
reference coil. 22 signal demodulation. eddy current instrumentation. 24
reference standards. 127. 12X- 131 signa l display. eddy current instrumentation. 24
for remote field testing, 12() sig nal excit<1tion. 2.1
for thickness tes ting, 92 and choict! of eddy current sensing elements, 3(')
remanence . 45 signal m()dlll ~lti()n, eddy current instrumentation . 23
remote fie ld eddy current testing. 115 signal preparation, eddy eurrenl ins{rumentmioll , 24
remote fic ld testing. IIS-121) signal-to-noise ratio. cddy current instrumentati(ln. 24
instrumentation. 115-11 7 si licon bront.t'
reference standards for. 120 relative conductivity by eddy curren Lmeter reading. 94
res idua! field testing . 107. 108 si lver
res idual nux leakage ticl c.h. 101 conducti vity, 58roble
res idua! Hmglletislll , 45-47.62 conductiv ity and r~sistivi ty of tin solder, 59rable
residu al stresses as good ('QlldllC'tor. 57
effect on conductivity. fiO relative conductivity by eddy currenl meter reading. 94
resistance. 15 sine wave. ac generators. J 6
and impedance, 20 single coil ilmlllgemenr. of eddy cunent sensi ng clements,
resi sti vi ty. 57-58 33
and depth of penetration of eddy currents, R4 sin gle frequency sys tems. X6
sclecccd metals and alloys . 59tc1h!e signal excitation . 23
reten tivity, 45 . 46 51 units, for clcerroJll~gne t ic lesting, 145mb/e. 146rable.
revcrse magnetization saturation point. 46 147/ab/e
reverse polarity saturmion point. 47 skin effect . 61
reverse residual magnetism . 46 sman pigs . 112
rhodium sockel welds
re1mive conduc tivity hy eddy curren l meter reading, 94 sllliace testing. 95
righl hand rule, for magnttic Iltlds. 43-44 sortin g reference standards, 131
rivet holes spccifications. 132-133
surface coi l appli<:atiom . 30 speed filter. 24
rods s pinnjng probe technique. 31
eddy current lesting applications. 100 stainless steel
round bars depth o f penetraLion versus frequency. 86
flux leakage testing applic:a l io n ~. III heat exchanger tubing , 97
surface testing of pipes , 95
thi ckness Im:i on impedancc-plane diagram. 71

156 Persollnel Training PlIblicatiolls

stainless steel 304. 59 subsUltaee discontinuities
conduc ti viTy.5Krable effects on coil impedance, 63
cffect of fre quency on impedance-plane diagrum, 69 flux leakage fields . J[l2-103
stainless s t~el 316, 59 magnetic parlides attracted by, 40
stai nless slccl3 16L. 59 surfacc coil s, 29-31
Slainless steel UNS 530400. 77 test coil arrangements, 33-36
standards surface cracks
calibration standards, 35, 127-12R flux leakage. 39
and procedures. 127-133 llanJral discontinuity reference ~taJldanls , 130
reference standards, 92, 120 . 127. 128-131 surf"1ce tests , 95
and spcc ifit:ations, 132- 133
Slellm generators T
eddy (.'urrenl lcsting app licat ions . 96 tangent. 20
steel. 7~. See also smin lcss S(c:e1 temperature
l:oating thkkness reference standards . 129 dfect on conductivity. 60
hystcresis loop fm annealed low t:arbon. 47. 4~ test rrequency selection. See freq uency se lection
hysteresis loop for hardent:d steel. 47 . 4X testing coi l. 22
hysteresis loop for unmagner ized, 46 thickness
hystercsis k~o ps , 46 conductive coa ting thick ness, 92
permeublli ty of hardened ferromagnctic, 62 effect on impedance measurement. 63
phase angle t:hangt:s on impedance plant: caused by effect on imptdance-plane diagram. 70- 71
rrequency changes. 77 meta l thickness. 92
as poor conductor, 57 thidness te~ting
rc:mote field testing, 117 aerospace applications . 9 1
sorti ng reference standard. 131 comi ng thickness rererc n c~ standards, 129
t~stitlg or hot rods .Iud wires, J()() effect of freque ncy 0 11 measurements , 7 1-72
testing or square billets. 99 and impedance-plane diagram . 78.79
thickness tesring of coa tings on. 91. 92 oprimu1l1 eddy curren t testing frequency. 8]
wire rope inspection . 110- 111 refc:rcnce standards for. 92
st.eel . high-alloy through transmission aTTallg~me nt, of cddy current
C(l1ldUelivity and resistiv ity. 5f.Jtable se nsing t:lcments. 35-36
d~pth or pcnerrmion versus fr~q ll ell(;y, 86 tin
slee l alloy UN5 043400 conductivity and rc:sistivity of foil , 59wble
li ft-off and edge effect lc.x:i on impedance-plane conductiv ity and re.'\istivity of pur~ , 59rahle
diagram. 76 relative conductivi ty by eddy ellrrenlmeter reading. 94
permeability, lift-off. and conductivity loci c.lIt titanium
impt:dance~p l alle diagrnm, 74 . 75 conductivity. 581l1hle.
steel nlloy UNS 191422. 74. 75 degree of harde ni ng de l~nnina t i()n. 98
::aorage lank floor:; (above-ground) depth of penetration ,'ersus frequC!ncy. 86
flux leakage testing applications. 113-114 hc:at cxchanger tubing, 97
stress eon'osion cT<:!cking permeability. lift-off. and conductivity loci on
ae fidd measuremen t indicatioll!;. 124 , 125 impedanl.:e-plane diagram. 75
aircraft stntctures. 95 thickJleSS loci on impcdallce-planc diagram. 70. 71
stre~s ori~nted hydrogen induced cracking. 125 titanium alloy UNS R5640 1, 77
strip-chart recorders ritaniull1 a.luminum vanadium a.lloy (Ti-6Al-4V)
for eddy currclll l~sting. 25-26 l'ondut:tivity. 58/(/bll:
for m(lduimioll analysis. 8{) effect of frequency t)n impedance-planc diagram. 69
for r~mote field testing, 11 7, 118 Ttlbing . See a/50 h~at eXChanger tubes
<':il libnllioll standards. 127. 128

Clos.\'1'OO/11 Tra;nillg Series: EleCTromagnetic TestiUM 157

 direct CllrrelH magnctiwtion, 107-108 z
encircling coil applications, 32 I.111C

end effect. 62 conductIvity and res istivity of commercial rolled ,

flux leaknge testing applications . 111. 113 59table
internal coil applicmions. 33 relative <.:onductlvity hy eddy CUlTentmeter reading:, 94
magnetodiode <lpplicntions. 53 thidncss testing: of coatings, Y 1, 92
remote field testing. 117. 120 Zircaloy-2
single rrequency eddy current system applications. 86 conduct ivity,5Srable
slrip-ch~lrt rec()rde.r applications. 25-26 zirconium
sU ltace coil applications. 30 comhu;tjvity, 581able
tungsten
conductivity . md resistivity. 591l1hle
turbine blades
surral'C ll's-ting , 95
turbine rotors
surface testing. 95

u
Unill'OTWCrsimlS, for elel'tromagnetic testing. 146rablc
Ul1ites States milital)' standards. 133
unitS. ror eiectn,lrnagndic testing. 145wbfe. 146rabfe.
147whfe

v
vertical deviation, and choice of eddy current scnsing
clements . 36
virgin curve, 45 , 46
volt. 14
\'olra~e . 14
voltuge-plane diagram. 19
voltmeter. in eddy current test circuits, 21

w
Wa... paloy
conductivity, 5?!abfe
weheL 106
wclds
ae field mcasuremcnt Icchni4 ue application, 121 ,124
smface testing of sockct. 95
\Ver alternating current tluorcscent te<.:hni4lles, 39

Wheatstone bridge. 21-22

wide encircling coil, 31
\vire rope inspection
nux lcukagc tc.<;ting application~. 11 0-111
wires
eddy current testing appl ic:nions , 100
\vood
as non-conductor. 57

158 PerSO lJnel Training Publicatioll s

 The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
PO Box 28518
Columbus, OR 43228·0518

Catalog No.: 1643

ISIlN·10: 1·57117·122·3
ISBN·13: 978·1·57lJ7·l22·1