SAE TECHNICAL

PAPER SERIES 1999-01-3747

Automotive Electrical System in the New

Millennium
Henry Huang, John M. Miller and Paul R. Nicastri
Ford Motor Co.

Reprinted From: Electronics for Trucks and Buses 1999

(SP-1489)

International Truck & Bus

Meeting & Exposition
Detroit, Michigan
November 15-17, 1999

400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760
The appearance of this ISSN code at the bottom of this page indicates SAE’s consent that copies of the
paper may be made for personal or internal use of specific clients. This consent is given on the condition,
however, that the copier pay a $7.00 per article copy fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
Operations Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 for copying beyond that permitted by Sec-
tions 107 or 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying such as
copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for creating new collective works,
or for resale.

SAE routinely stocks printed papers for a period of three years following date of publication. Direct your
orders to SAE Customer Sales and Satisfaction Department.

Quantity reprint rates can be obtained from the Customer Sales and Satisfaction Department.

To request permission to reprint a technical paper or permission to use copyrighted SAE publications in
other works, contact the SAE Publications Group.

All SAE papers, standards, and selected

books are abstracted and indexed in the
Global Mobility Database

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

ISSN 0148-7191
Copyright 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE. The author is solely
responsible for the content of the paper. A process is available by which discussions will be printed with the paper if it is published in
SAE Transactions. For permission to publish this paper in full or in part, contact the SAE Publications Group.

Persons wishing to submit papers to be considered for presentation or publication through SAE should send the manuscript or a 300
word abstract of a proposed manuscript to: Secretary, Engineering Meetings Board, SAE.

Printed in USA

Automotive Electrical System in the New Millennium
Henry Huang, John M. Miller and Paul R. Nicastri
Copyright © 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
The automotive industry is investigating the change of
electrical system voltage in a vehicle from the present 14
volt (12V battery) to 42 volt (36V battery) to integrate new
electrical and electronic features. These new features
require more amperes, thicker wires, large power
devices, and eventually higher cost. The existing 14V
system is very difficult to sustain so much content
because of constraints of performance, efficiency, cost,
packaging space, and manufacture-ability. This paper
discusses foreseeable needs moving to a higher voltage,
and reasons of 42V selection. It explores benefits and
drawbacks when the voltage is changed from 14V to 42V
in the areas of wire harness, power electronics, smart
switching, power supply, etc. Finally, two typical 42/14V
dual voltage architectures are presented for a likely 42V
transition scenario.
INTRODUCTION
The voltage of the automotive electrical system was not
always at today's 12V. It was raised once from 6V to 12V
around 1955. The reason was that a higher ignition
energy was required for the higher-compression V8
engines being introduced, prompting the need for a
higher voltage electrical system. Occurring almost
simultaneously with this ignition issue were new
automotive features such as radios, higher power
headlamps, and more powerful electric starting motors,
all of which were stretching the capabilities of the existing
6V system. None of these new on-vehicle systems would
individually mandate the introduction of a 12V system;
rather, it was the pressing need for more reliable ignition
that drove the implementation of a single higher-energy
12V battery (with 14V regulation). Most of the automobile
companies accomplished the transition within two
years[1].
In a sense, the automobile industry is now faced with a
similar situation. Many new electrical and electronic
features are emerging. Some of them are to meet tighter
emission and fuel economy regulations, such as
electromechanical (EM) engine valve actuators. While
some are to satisfy higher desire of safety and comfort,
such as electrical brakes. Many of these new functionality
can not be practically introduced using the currently
1
1999-01-3747
Ford Motor Co.
available 14V power supply, and a higher voltage supply
would definitely be beneficial to some of the existing
automotive components. However, today's situation is
quite different and more complicated than that in the
1950's. The comparative complexity of today's 14V
electrical system and the large number of different
components that have been designed to operate at 14V
make the prospect of changing to any new voltage quite
painful. Furthermore, there are some specific
components such as incandescent light bulbs and low-
power electronic modules that prefer low voltage
operation.
It is this dilemma that makes this voltage change different
from the one in the 1950's. Before the entire electrical
system is transferred to a higher voltage, a dual voltage
electrical system will most likely appear in the new
millennium. In the dual voltage system, a new higher-
voltage system is introduced to accommodate desired
higher power components and features while
simultaneously preserving the present 14V system – at
least for an interim period – for those components that
prefer the present lower voltage. The business and
engineering experience from this dual voltage electrical
system will lead to a smooth transition to a more capable
and more efficient single higher voltage system.
The purpose of this paper is to examine foreseeable
future power requirements, analyze the rational for the
selection of 42V(36V battery), and investigate the
potential advantages offered by the introduction of 42V.
The needs for a dual voltage architecture in the transition
period are discussed. This paper will then present a DC/
DC converter-based 42/14V architecture and a dual
stator winding-based 42/14V architecture. Finally, the
importance of international 42V standards will be
discussed.
HIGH ELECTRICAL POWER FEATURES
As mentioned earlier, the voltage change from 6V to 12V
in 1955 was driven by the need to improve ignition
systems for V8 engines. What, then, is that electrical
feature today which is pushing for a higher voltage? Or, is
it a group of features together which will significantly
improve today's automotive electrical system at a higher
voltage in terms of performance, cost, reliability and etc.
Some of these potential features are discussed as follow.
Their promising benefits are coming along with a large
electrical power demand.
ELECTROMECHANICAL VALVE ACTUATION – At
present, the intake and exhaust valves are driven by a
camshaft. The time of valve opening and closing is only a
function of engine speed regardless other vehicle
conditions, such as load. This may result in incomplete or
insufficient combustion which will decrease fuel efficiency
and increase emissions. By replacing the camshaft with
electromechanical valve actuators, the timing of each
valve opening and closing can be controlled
independently to optimize overall engine performance.
Therefore, it can substantially reduce emissions, and
improve fuel efficiency, up to 15%. To open or close the
electromechanical valve, the switching time is
approximately three ms. Also considering high cylinder
pressure, driving these actuators requires significant
electrical power. Depending on engine size and speed,
its total electrical power can be higher than 2kW.
Because of this, many electromechanical valve control
prototype systems today are operating at a voltage
higher than 14V. Despite high electrical power and high
cost, some car manufacturers plan to put this feature in
their products in the beginning of the new millennium
because fuel economy and emission control are a driving
force for engine technology deployment.
COMBINED STARTER ALTERNATOR – A combined
starter alternator can be used to replace the starter,
alternator, and fly wheel in a conventional vehicle. It is
directly mounted to the engine crankshaft which will
improve the mechanical energy transfer efficiency
compared to belt driven alternator. In addition to
generating electricity, a combined starter alternator can
assist or substitute for the engine when starting,
stopping, accelerating, and decelerating a vehicle.
Because lower fuel efficiency and severer emission often
happen at these driving conditions, a combined starter
alternator can improve fuel efficiency and reduce
emission dramatically. Today, a combined starter
alternator is often seen in a hybrid electrical vehicle
which is running at a very high voltage, such as 300V. It
requires special protection to avoid the risk of excessive
shock that high voltage would cause. Therefore, many
efforts are ongoing to use a similar, but more economical
approach at 42V to retain an open wiring system.[2]
BRAKE BY WIRE – It is expected that today's hydraulic
braking system eventually will be replaced by fully
electrical systems. Comparatively, an electrical braking,
or brake-by-wire, system has significantly fewer parts
than a hydraulic-based system. It eliminates heavy
hydraulic components and dangerous chemicals. The
less weight will improve fuel economy, and less parts will
reduce the installation cost. A disc brake requires
approximately 1kW of actuation energy, and a drum
brake requires around 100W[3]. It will be beneficial if this
high power feature is implemented at a higher voltage.
2
ELECTRIC POWER STEERING – Electric Power Steering
is the biggest improvement to steering systems since the
introduction of hydraulic power steering about 50 years ago.
It promises better turn-ability, less weight, and more fuel
savings. It also promises better environment protection, and
more flexible packaging. There is almost no cost penalty.
When turn at lower speed, it may require more than 500
Watts electrical power. If operating at a voltage higher than
14V, it will reduce weight and component cost further
because of the impact of lower electrical current.
ELECTRIC HEATED CATALYTIC CONVERTER –
Catalytic converters are very effective once hot. But
before they are light off, exhaust gas basically passes
through them untreated, and shoots straight out the
tailpipe. In those first two to three minutes when the
converter is warm-up, 60% to 80% of tailpipe emissions
occur. As the EPA tightens its emission regulations, one
of the few places in a conventional vehicle where
emission can be possibly improved is in those critical first
two or three minutes. One solution is to get the converter
hot faster. The electrically heated catalyst (EHC) is one of
the most promising technologies to accomplish this.
Power and energy demands can be as high as 2kW and
40kJ(with no heating prior to engine cranking). The
electrical heat supply should be initiated prior to or right
after the engine is started and continued for more than 10
seconds depending on the power level. A higher voltage
will be helpful to this high power electrical heater.
REASONS FOR A HIGHER VOLTAGE, 42V
The electrical features discussed above reflect an
ongoing trend to introduce new electrically-powered loads
that have been converted from existing functions or
features that are presently powered by hydraulics,
pneumatics, or direct mechanical connection to the
engine shaft. The benefits which these features can bring
are strongly demanded because of environmental
protection, fuel economy, safety, and many other reasons.
However, more electrical features require more electrical
power, wires, packaging space, and semiconductor
devices. The existing 14V electrical system has
substantial limitations to cost effectively generate, store,
distribute, and control the additional power these features
need. Comparatively, raising to a higher voltage has
significant advantages to practically and economically
integrate them into a vehicle.
WIRE HARNESS – The wiring harness is the single most
expensive and complicated element in a vehicle's
electrical system. A wiring harness for today's mid-size
vehicles typically weights more than 35kg, requiring more
than two km of wire with at least 1,000 cut leads and 300
connectors.
The vehicle's wiring complexity continues to increase as
new electrical loads are added, despite a long-standing
desire by automotive manufacturers to find ways to
simplify the wiring harness in order to reduce cost and
improve reliability. The prospect of new high-power loads
with ratings exceeding one kW is particularly disturbing
for electrical system designers. It adds significantly to the
weight, cost, and difficulty of assembly because of the
large wire sizes associated with high currents at 14V.
60
50
Wire Length (%)
40
30
20
10
0
22 20 18 16 14 12 10
Wire Gauge
Figure 1. Distribution of harness wire gauge as a
function of system voltage (striped bar 42V,
light bar 14V).
Introduction of a higher voltage bus supports the long-
term objective of reducing the wiring harness cost and
weight in at least two ways. First, there is an important
opportunity to decrease the wire size. For example,
delivering the same power at 42V requires only one-third
of the current required at 14V, opening the way for use of
smaller, lighter weight wires on all of the vehicle's higher
power lines as shown in Fig. 1. The value of this
conversion is somewhat limited in today's vehicles since
many of the wires for existing low power loads are
already constrained to a minimum size in order to provide
sufficient mechanical strength. As a result, conversion of
a large sedan from 14V to a dual-voltage 42/14V system
is projected to yield a wiring harness savings of only
approximately US$15 and four kg. Nevertheless, the
scale of the potential savings can be expected to
increase substantially as new higher-power loads are
added in the future.
The second advantage is associated with the concept of
remote load switching using a multiplexed
communication bus which has been evolving for several
years as a promising approach to significantly reduce the
wiring harness complexity. Although multiplexed
networks are already beginning to appear in production
vehicles, wide implementation of this approach has been
hindered by the high cost of the smart semiconductor
switches that are crucial to performing the load switching
functions. A higher bus voltage makes it possible to
significantly reduce the cost of the required
semiconductor switches due to deduction of electrical
current. Such cost reductions will likely be critical to
accelerating further multiplexed remote switching
networks in future electrical systems, streamlining the
wiring network needed to supply tomorrow's higher-
power loads.
SHOCK HAZARD PROTECTION – From the perspective
of reducing required current to minimize weights,
volumes, and cost of wiring and other components, it is
generally in favor of increasing the selected voltage as
high as possible. In fact, many of the electrical and hybrid
vehicles now in development around the world have
adopted system voltages in excess of 300 volts because
of these factors. However, there is a wide consensus
Present 14v
among representatives of the automotive industry that
Future 42v/14v economic considerations require the next-generation of
electrical system to be an open wiring system, consistent
with today's 14V system. That is, the voltage adopted for
the new high-voltage bus must be sufficiently low to
insure the personal safety of anyone who comes in
contact with the system without the need for any special
wiring insulation, connectors, or other protection. This
8 6 4
"no-shock" constraint places a maximum limit on the
voltage which can appear on the new high-voltage bus.
But it also provides some advantages which high voltage
electrical vehicles and hybrid electrical vehicles do not
possess.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Technical
Committee on Vehicle Electrical Power Supply Systems
began evaluating the effects of higher voltage auto-
motive electrical systems in 1988. They performed an in-
depth study of work that had been done regarding human
tolerance to electrical shock. They then combined this
information with their detailed knowledge of present
vehicle wiring practices and the safety record of today's
systems using 12V and 24V batteries. As recorded in
SAE J2232 [4], the committee concluded that protection
against direct contact with electrical circuits should not be
required if voltages do not exceed 65 volts dc, including
periodic ripple. After considering much of the same data,
the German VDE standards-making body decided that
the peak bus voltage should not exceed 60 Vdc without
protection (VDE 0100/410 [5]).
However, it is important to note that setting safe dc
voltage limits for shock protection is not a simple issue
with universal agreement. In North America,
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) is developing standards
(UL 2202) for off-board charging of electric and hybrid
electric vehicles which includes proposals for voltage
limits under both dry and wet conditions. For dry
conditions, 60 Vdc is proposed as safe for shock hazard
protection. However, the situation is more complicated for
wet conditions which might be encountered during off-
board charging when the vehicle is parked in the
customer's driveway or curbside in the rain. Voltages as
low as 30 Vdc are being considered by the UL committee
for the wet-condition voltage limit, and the implications of
this key specification are the subject of ongoing debate.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES – In addition to shock
hazard protection, the cost and reliability of
semiconductor products is a very important issue when
setting voltage specifications for the new electrical
system because of the expected proliferation of
3
semiconductor switches in future vehicles. Voltage and
current ratings directly affect semiconductor cost since
the current-handling capability of a switching device is
directly related to its area, while the voltage rating is tied
to the device's thickness and doping profile. Since
electrical power is the product of voltage and current,
increasing the nominal bus voltage makes it possible to
inversely reduce the required current to process a given
amount of power, resulting in a corresponding reduction
in the necessary silicon chip area as illustrated in Fig. 2
for power MOSFET devices.
Since semiconductor device cost is heavily dependent on
the required chip area, this relationship illustrated in Fig.
2 strongly suggests the desirability of increasing the
nominal bus voltage in order to reduce the device cost.
However, personal safety issues limit the maximum
dynamic bus voltage to approximately 60V or less as
described above. This voltage level is consistent with the
semiconductor industry's ability to offer a wide range of
cost-effective vertical-MOS power semiconductor
switches using mature existing 60 to 80V processes.
160
140
Silicon Area (%)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80
Nominal Bus Voltage (V)
Figure 2. Silicon chip area as a function of system
voltage with regulation voltage as a
parameter
Tradeoff studies have been conducted to compare the
semiconductor costs associated with processing the
same amount of power drawn from 14V and 42V buses.
The results of such a comparison, illustrated in Fig. 3,
demonstrate the potential savings in power electronics
cost available by raising the nominal voltage to 42 volts.
Consider the case of electric power steering as an
example. The power processed electronically in the
electric power-assist steering controller is approximately
600 W. Processing this output power at 14 volts with an
assumed electronic efficiency of 85% requires that 50 A
be controlled by the semiconductor switches, fixing the
amount of silicon area required to provide that function.
When the bus voltage is tripled to 42 volts, the currents to
be switched drop to less than 17 A, reducing the
projected cost of the required power-dependent
components to less than 40% of their corresponding cost
at 14V.
The effectiveness of the voltage regulation for a given
nominal bus voltage is another factor which can have a
significant influence on semiconductor cost. Returning to
Fig. 2, the significant impact of voltage regulation on the
required chip area (and, hence, device cost) is illustrated
by the family of curves which correspond to different
values of regulation voltage margin (0, 10, 30, and 50V)
above the nominal bus voltage. These results illustrated
the importance of achieving tight tolerances for the
vehicle system voltage regulation in order to minimize
semiconductor costs.
450
rel. cost at
400 14V
rel. cost at
350 42V
300
Rel.
Cost in
250
%
200
150
100
50
0
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
Electr. Power in W
Vn+0
Figure 3. Cost of power electronics as a function of
Vn+10
system voltage. Leftmost curve is for 14V.
Vn+30 (Courtesy TEMIC).
Vn+50
Today's 14V electrical systems are not tightly regulated,
allowing dynamic over-voltages of approximately 30V to
65V above the nominal 14V bus voltage. It has taken over
100 120
twenty years to improve this system voltage margin from
more than 75V to its current value. In contrast, draft
voltage specifications for the new 42V bus (see Appendix
1) which are presently under consideration in the
international community propose a significantly tighter
voltage margin of only 16V, corresponding to a maximum
bus voltage of 58V for dynamic over-voltage conditions.
A direct implication of such tightened bus voltage margin
is that no high-energy transients can be allowed on the
electrical distribution lines, unlike today's 14V system.
One of the likely outcomes of such a voltage specification
would be the necessity of centralized load dump
protection built into the alternator. Although this
additional feature adds cost to the charging system, the
significant cost savings which can be achieved as a result
of tighter voltage margin in all of the connected electronic
modules easily justifies it for future vehicles on a system-
cost basis.
Reduced current through semiconductor products not
only brings down the cost, but also improves their
efficiency. For example, the alternator efficiency can be
improved approximately by 2% to 4% because lower
current (due to a higher voltage) leads to less rectifier
loss.
In addition to the above facts, other components will also
benefit from a higher voltage depending on the tradeoff
between cost and dynamic response. When same 14V
4
electromagnetic components are used at 42V in pulse
width modulation to keep same power level, their
electrical response will be improved because higher
voltage margin is available for the dynamic response. For
examples, the electromagnetic valves would push energy
more quickly in and out of coils. The electromagnetic
actuators would behave with far better dynamics. The
motors and solenoids would more quickly respond to
signals from the controller.
There are many factors that influence the voltage
selection for the higher voltage system. Participants in the
international forums listed in the preceding section have
worked to develop voltage recommendations based on
shock safety information in addition to other important
considerations including: semiconductor costs, battery
manufacture-ability (36 volt is 3 times of today's 12 volt),
mechanical strength of wires, and necessary over-voltage
margins. It was the combination of all of these factors that
has led to the recommendation of 42V as the nominal
voltage for the high-voltage bus in the new millennium.
42/14V DUAL VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
The transition from 6V to 12V was not that difficult
because the vehicles in 1955 had very few electrical
loads. However, today's vehicle is full of various electrical
features. Technical, manufacturing, and financial
considerations preclude converting today's entire
electrical system to 42V all at once. Therefore, unlike the
first 6V to 12V clean-cut transition, it is very likely there
will be a dual voltage electrical architecture before a
complete single 42V system. In a 42/14V dual voltage
system, the governing partitioning philosophy is that
high-power loads will generally be allocated to the 42V
bus, while the low-power electronic loads, including most
key-off loads, will be allocated to the 14V bus.
A wide variety of dual-voltage electrical system
architectures together with many important permutations
are presently under investigation within the global
automotive community. Two of the more popular
candidate architectures which will be briefly discussed in
this paper, reflect the breadth of alternatives available.
Figure 4 shows the first of the two candidates which have
received considerable attention within the European
Forum Bordnetz community. At the heart of this
architecture is a dc/dc converter which supplies power to
the 14V bus from the 42V bus, which, in turn, is
energized by a 42V alternator. Note that the particular
implementation of this architecture in Fig. 4 shows a
separate battery connected to each of the two power
buses. According to this approach, battery B1 is
optimized for high power delivery designed to provide
reliable engine cranking power (a 36V battery capable of
delivering five kW for a duration of ten seconds at -29°C
for as many as 3 attempts). Battery B2 is optimized for
energy density (>30 Ah, 12V) to support key-off loads
plus hazard lamp operation.
5
This architecture provides opportunities to integrate new
high power features like electromechanical valve
actuators on the 42V bus. It also provides opportunities
to improve existing high power loads, such as engine
cooling fans and blower motor, by moving them to the
42V side. This architecture minimizes changes to existing
14V features such as lighting.
42V
Mot.
Alt
C1 B1
14V
Str.
B2
Electronic
C2 Module
Figure 4. Candidate 42/14V DC/DC converter
architecture.
Another benefit in this architecture is a tighter 14V bus
voltage margin provided by the dc/dc converter. It will
reduce the cost of all electronic modules and
semiconductor switches on the 14V bus. This is because
many today's electronic modules are designed for an
wider 14V bus voltage margin which allows a much larger
dynamic over-voltages.
There are two batteries in this architecture. Comparing
with today's one battery 14V system, two batteries
implies more cost, weight, and packaging space. Though
the 36V battery can be optimized for cranking, and the
12V battery can be optimized for energy, the cost is still
likely going to be higher. Advanced batteries which offer
superior energy and/or power densities such as nickel-
metal-hydride (NMH) and lithium-ion (Li-Ion) are even
more expensive.
Another new component in this architecture is the dc/dc
converter. It is needed to support widely-used 14V
components like electronic modules and lighting.
Because of the capability of energy transfer between two
batteries, this architecture also provide opportunities to
improve reliability of some safety critical functions, such
as steer-by-wire or brake-by-wire which require a backup
battery. The dc/dc converter and two batteries would also
provide backup advantage for starting engine when one
of batteries is drained. However, the cost of the dc/dc
converter is still too high for automotive applications,
about 0.5$ to 1$ per watt, depending on power rating,
volume, and bi-directional capability.
The second dual-voltage architecture introduced in this
paper is shown in Fig. 5. This concept uses a more
complicated alternator with two sets of stator windings to
deliver power separately to the 42V and 14V buses.
Although many different permutations of this dual-stator
architecture are possible, the version shown in Fig. 5
uses standard field control (labeled C1) to regulate the
42V bus voltage, and a phase-controlled converter (C2)
to regulate the 14V bus voltage. Here again, high-power
loads including the cranking motor are allocated to the
42V bus, while the low-power electronic modules are
supplied by the 14V bus. Separate batteries are shown
for each bus, as in Fig. 4. In contrast to two independent
alternators, there are some difficulties of controlling
individual stator windings for optimal outputs in this dual
stator winding architecture.
42V
B1
Mot
Str.
Alt.
C1
14V
B2
C2 Electronic
Module
Figure 5. Candidate 42/14V dual stator architecture.
Comparing the architectures in Figs. 4 and 5 reveals
some of the important cost-performance tradeoffs that
must be faced by future electrical system designers. For
example, the Fig. 4 architecture incorporating the dc/dc
converter offers greater energy controllability compared
to the Fig. 5 dual-stator architecture because the dc/dc
converter makes it possible to transfer energy between
the two buses and their associated batteries. However,
the cost of the dc/dc converter is likely to be considerably
higher than that of the simpler phase-controlled C2
converter in Fig. 5. The results of such tradeoff
evaluations will determine the best architecture choice for
different vehicle classes and manufacturers.
OBSTACLES TO 42/14V ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
As mentioned earlier, one of the biggest obstacles to
move to 42V electrical system is the natural desire to
avoid the risks and costs of changing today's mature 14V
system and well-established 14V infrastructure. In truth,
there is presently no specific vehicle requirement nor
required production option that definitely demands the
introduction of 42V. Clearly, the added complexity of a
dual-voltage electrical system and its higher on-board
energy storage requirements can only be justified if one
or more vehicle functions unimpeachably needs the
higher voltage. These functions could be
electromechanical valve actuators, combined starter
alternator, or others.
Figure 6 attempts to illustrate both the economic
impediments and opportunities offered by the new 42/
14V system. The basic cost of the new 42/14V electrical
system supplying today's vehicle electrical loads will be
higher than that of a conventional 14V system, posing a
barrier to early adopters of this approach, who must
shoulder this extra financial burden. However,
6
introduction of future high-power electrical loads will be
considerably more expensive to support by stretching the
existing 14V system (if they can be supported at all) than
by introducing the new dual-voltage system. Thus, the
economic case for introducing the 42/14V system
ultimately rests on the desire to reduce the combined
electrical system costs in the future.
Total
S ystem
C ost N ew 2'nd C ost
$ F'cns A voidance
1'st
Investm ent
14V / on C hangeover
14V
42V
Today's A lternative
A rch. A rch.
Figure 6. Economic impact of 42/14V system
introduction.
The second major impediment worth noting is the
absence of global standards for 42V. Although selection
of any voltage higher than 42V is unlikely for an open-
wiring architecture, OEM's today are free to select any
suitable voltage within the guidelines of SAE J2232 or
DIN 72251. The potential economic risks posed by such
fragmentation provides strong arguments for vehicle
manufacturers and suppliers to work together to establish
a global consensus for 42V so that all consumers can
benefit from a common specification. This will insure that
suppliers will only need to retool once for a common and
accepted higher voltage. It will also encourage
development of new components that appeal to the
widest possible potential market, providing the
advantages of "plug-and-play" compatibility in an open
42/14V architecture.
Clearly, much work remains to be done to prove that a
42/14V electrical system provides the best economic
value to future vehicle customers. Efforts will continue
during coming years within the MIT Consortium and
elsewhere for standardization activities and targeted
research to address remaining technical issues. The
objective is to get ready for more automotive high-power
electrical features to come.
CONCLUSION
Continuing growth in the total electrical load in future
vehicles is causing today's 14V electrical system to
approach its limitations. New electrical functions and
features with power requirements of several hundred
watts or more will require the availability of a higher
voltage power supply in order to be practical in terms of
efficiency, cost of wiring, packaging, and semiconductor
controls. 42 volts is the preferred choice for the nominal
voltage of the new bus because of the significant
advantages it offers for retaining an open wiring
architecture without exceeding shock hazard voltage
limits.
Proposals for a dual-voltage 42/14V configuration are
attracting considerable international support, combining
a new 42V bus for higher-power loads with a 14V bus to
supply low-power electrical/electronic modules. Many
different architectures are being considered for
implementing the 42/14V system which offer a wide
range of cost-performance tradeoff opportunities. There
are growing indications that a 42V bus will be introduced
into production vehicles at the beginning of the new
millennium, likely appearing first in high-end luxury cars
or trucks where the capacity needs are most pressing.
Considerable work still needs to be accomplished in the
international community in order for the introduction of a
new 42/14V electrical system to occur in an orderly and
cost-effective manner. In particular, development of
global standards for the voltage specifications associated
with the new 42V bus represents an urgent priority which
is now attracting increased international attention.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the guidance and
support of our many colleagues who have assisted us
with preparation of this manuscript. In particular, we
express our appreciation to Feng Liang, Lingkon So, and
Shahram Zarei of Ford Research.
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
In addition to the references cited, the following works
were consulted:
1. Comprehensive National Energy Strategy, United
States Department of Energy, DOE/S-0124, April
1998.
2. Jarrett, B.A., West, J.G.W., "Dual Voltage Electrical
Systems for Future Automobiles", unpub.
monograph, ca. 1985.
3. "Effects of Current Passing Through the Human
Body, Part 1: General Aspects", International
Electrotechnical Commission Report IEC-479 Part 1,
Second edition, 1984.
4. "Effects of Current Passing Through the Human
Body, Part 2: Special Aspects", International
Electrotechnical Commission Report IEC-479 Part 2,
Second edition, 1987.
DEFINITIONS, ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS
CLD. Centralized Load Dump Protection
EPA. Environmental Protection Agency
KOL. Key Off Loads
MOSFET. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor
OEM. Original Equipment Manufacturer
PWM. Pulse Width Modulation
SLI. Starting-Lighting-Ignition battery
SOC. State of Charge (of battery)

1. J. M. Miller, D. Goel, D. Kaminski, H.-P. Schöner, T.

M. Jahns, "Making the Case for a Next Generation
Automotive Electrical System", International
Congress on Transportation Electronics, Dearborn,
MI, Oct. 19-21, 1998, pp. 41-51.
2. W. Diem, "Electricity to Take on Bigger Role in
Autos", The Detroit Free Press, May 20, 1999
3. R. T. Bannatyne, Electronic Braking Control
Developments", Automotive Enginnering
International, February 1999, pp. 125-127
4. SAE J2232, "Vehicle System Voltage - Initial
Recommendations," SAE Information Report, SAE
Handbook, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale,
PA. 15096-0001, June, 1992.
5. VDE 0100/410, "Errichten von Starkstromanlagen
mit Nennspannungen bis1000V/
Schutzmassnahmen; Schutz gegen gefahrliche
Korperstrome", Nov. 1983.
6. J. G. Kassakian, H-C. Wolf, J.M. Miller, C.J. Hurton,
"The Future of Automotive Electrical Systems," Proc.
IEEE Workshop on Power Electronics in
Transportation, Hyatt-Regency Hotel, Dearborn, MI,
Oct. 24-25, 1996, pp. 3-12.
7. J. G. Kassakian, H-C. Wolf, J.M. Miller, C. J. Hurton,
"Automotive Electrical Systems circa 2005," IEEE
Spectrum, August, 1996, pp. 22-27.

7
 APPENDIX 1
PROPOSED VOLTAGE SPECIFICATIONS

Proposed voltage specifications for the 42/14V electrical
system are illustrated below. Voltage specifications for
the two buses are enclosed in boxes. The voltage
specifications for the 42V bus are generally supported by
members of the MIT Consortium. However, the
associated semiconductor voltage requirements are
more tentative, with likely dependence on the specific
vehicle application and platform. As a result, the
semiconductor voltage ratings are the subject of ongoing
discussions within international forums including the MIT
Consortium.

V ehicle B us V oltage (14V S upply)

11 14.3
0 9 16 20

M in S tart V olt.
M in. V olt Eng. O FF
M ax V olt Eng. O N
M ax C lam p V olt.

S em iconductor R equirem ents

0 5 14 18 22

M in. O p. V olt
N om inal O p. V olt
M ax. O p. V olt
M in Zener C lam p V olt.

V ehicle B us V oltage (42V S upply)

0 25 33 43 52 58

M in S tart V olt.
M in V olt. Eng. O FF
M ax V olt Eng. O N
M ax V olt C LD
0 5 S em iconductor R equirem ents 42 52 60

M in. O p V olt
N om inal O p. V olt
M ax O p V olt
M in Zener C lam p V olt
Figure A1. Dual voltage specification, electrical distribution and semiconductor voltage level.