Cell Communication

Communication is a fundamental principle for any organised system to function

at its optimum. For example, the prosperity of a business relies on its
independent sectors being able to communicate with each other for the
organisation as a whole to carry out processes vital to its survival. Another key
element to its survival is being receptive to its environment, being in the
knowhow of changing trends and being able to receive administration from
higher governing bodies. The same concept applies to the function and survival
of a cell.

The ability of cells being receptive and able to correctly respond to their
microenvironment allows development, tissue repair, immunity and homeostasis.

The study of cell signalling has been mostly related to the mechanisms of
signalling between cells of a single organism, in the context of developing ways
of treating human disease. For example the treatment of type II diabetes, where
in understanding the cells communication processes, researchers can deduce
where the problem lies in liver and muscle cells becoming irresponsive to Insulin.

In general, cells communicate with each other via direct contact (juxtacrine
signalling), over short distances (paracrine signalling), or over large distances
(endocrine signalling).

Direct Contact – This form of communication requires complimentary receptor

proteins on both cells which are adjacent to each other specific to a response.
The binding of the cells (via either proteins, channel proteins etc) induces a
series of processes and reactions within the receptive cell, which lead to the
desired response.

Short Distance Contact - Some signalling molecules degrade very quickly,

therefore limiting the capacity of their effectiveness to their immediate
surroundings. Others affect only nearby cells because they are taken up quickly,
leaving few to travel further. One important advantage of this type of signalling
is that the signal is limited to only those cells that it needs to effect, allowing it to
be localised.

Long Distance Contact – The endocrine system regulates the majority if not all
long distance signalling within the organism. Sites of endocrine production
(glands) are dotted around the organism. Some are in close proximity to the
area/cells it wants to affect and others such as the pituitary gland are fixed near
a main bloody supply and signal the majority of cells e.g. in the case of
thermoregulation.

The general process of communication is the following; Signal recognition via

receptors Signal transduction (where external signal is transformed into an
intracellular command) Effect (resulting in the desired modification of the cell’s
behaviour)
A ligand/signal molecule will only induce a response in cells that have specific
receptors complimentary to that particular ligand, where each cell has a specific
set of receptors

For example: only liver and muscle cells have receptors complimentary to
glucagon/insulin this specificity is important, in the case of blood sugar
regulation, if all cells had glucagon/insulin receptors then all tissue would
become responsive to changes in blood sugar levels resulting in unnecessary
uptake or loss of glucose from ordinary cells, which could be detrimental to their
health.

The activated receptor protein interacts with various intracellular signalling

molecules, producing one of two possible outcomes; a direct change in cellular
behaviour/activity or Activate second messengers which in turn modulate
cellular activity.

There are three main receptor types which either cause a direct change to cell
behaviour or initiate signalling cascades via second messengers, these include ;

Ion channels receptors which can be either ligand gated ion channels or voltage
gated ion channels; Receptors that have intrinsic enzymatic activity (they are
basically embedded enzymes); Tyrosine kinases – on/off switches of a cell or
receptors that activate intracellular second messengers such as G protein
coupled receptors.

Ion Channel Receptor:

The receptor molecule is an ion channel which may be ligand gated and
activation of that receptor changes the permeability of the cell membrane to a
particular ion. This is common amongst nerve cells and other electrically
excitable target cells

For example; muscle contraction is heavily dependent on Ion channel receptors.

Where acetylcholine (ligand) binds to and activates nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors on the motor end plate of the muscle cell. Activation of the nicotinic
receptor opens its intrinsic sodium/potassium channels which lead to muscle
contraction through a series of events.

Receptors with intrinsic enzyme activity:

Ligand binding promotes conformational change and dimerisation of the

receptor. Dimerisation activates enzymatic activity of the receptor molecule (e.g.
tyrosine kinase – which promotes it to act as a switch), this results in
phosphorylation of the kinase thus “switching it on”. Thus causing a signalling
cascade and resulting in the desired affect

G Protein Coupled Receptor:

Activated receptor catalyses G protein activation this in turn induces the

exchange of a nucleotide bound to G protein (replacement of GDP with GTP) the
activated G protein initiates signalling cascade through the activation of second
messengers such as cAMP (a highly potent second messenger)