A Critical Revie of Experimental Results and Constitutie Descriptions For Metals and Alloys in Hot Working

中国科技论文在线 Materials and Design 32 (2011) 1733–1759 http://www.paper.edu.
cn
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Materials and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes
Review
A critical review of experimental results and constitutive descriptions for metals

and alloys in hot working
Y.C. Lin ⇑, Xiao-Min Chen
School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: In industrial forming processes, the metals and alloys are subject to complex strain, strain-rate, and tem-
Received 9 September 2010 perature histories. Understanding the flow behaviors of metals and alloys in hot working has a great
Accepted 20 November 2010 importance for designers of metal forming processes. In order to study the workability and establish
Available online 27 November 2010
the optimum hot formation processing parameters for some metals and alloys, a number of research
groups have made efforts to carry out the thermo-mechanical experiments (compressive, tensile and
Keywords: torsion tests) over wide forming temperatures and strain-rates, and some constitutive equations were
Forming
developed to describe the hot deformation behaviors. This paper presents a critical review on some
Plastic behavior
Metal matrix
experimental results and constitutive descriptions for metals and alloys in hot working, which were
reported in international publications in recent years. In this review paper, the constitutive models are
divided into three categories, including the phenomenological, physical-based and artificial neural
network models, to introduce their developments, prediction capabilities, and application scopes, respec-
tively. Additionally, some limitations and objective suggestions for the further development of constitu-
tive descriptions for metals and alloys in hot working are proposed.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction measured data, a number of research groups have made efforts to

develop constitutive equations to describe the hot deformation
Material flow behavior during hot forming process is often behaviors of metals and alloys.
complex. The hardening and softening mechanisms are both signif- Some thermo-mechanical experiments over wide forming
icantly influenced by many factors such as strain, strain-rate, and temperature and strain-rate indicate that: (1) In the initial stage
forming temperature. On the one hand, a given combination of of the forming process, the stress abruptly increases to a peak
thermo-mechanical parameters yields a particular metallurgical due to the dominance of work hardening; (2) When the strain-rate
phenomenon (microstructure evolution); on the other hand, increases while the temperature is fixed, or the temperature de-
microstructure changes of the metal during the hot forming creases while the strain-rate is kept constant, the overall level of
process in turn affect the mechanical characteristics of the metal the flow curve enhances correspondingly due to the growing work
such as the flow stress, and hence influence the forming processes. hardening; (3) The flow stress shows steady-state region due to the
Understanding the flow behaviors of metals and alloys at hot equilibrium of work softening and work hardening. Fig. 1a shows
deformation condition has a great importance for designers of the typical true stress–strain curves obtained from the hot com-
metal forming processes (hot rolling, forging and extrusion) pression of 42CrMo steel [6]. It is obvious that the effects of the
because of its effective role on metal flow pattern as well as the temperature and strain-rate on the flow stress are significant for
kinetics of metallurgical transformation (for example, static, dy- all the tested conditions. The true stress–true strain curves exhibit
namic, and metadynamic recrystallization behaviors) [1–5]. The a peak stress at a small strain, after which the flow stresses de-
constitutive relations are often used to describe the plastic flow crease monotonically until high strains, showing a dynamic flow
properties of the metals and alloys in a form that can be used in softening. The stress level decreases with increasing deformation
computer code to model the forging response of mechanical part temperature and decreasing strain-rate. This is because lower
members under the prevailing loading conditions. Meanwhile, strain-rates and higher temperatures provide longer time for en-
numerical simulations can be truly reliable only when a proper ergy accumulation and higher mobilities at boundaries for the
constitutive model is built. Therefore, based on the experimentally nucleation and growth of dynamically recrystallized grains and
dislocation annihilation and thus reduce the flow stress level.
Meanwhile, due to the combined effect of work hardening and
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 15200817337. thermally activated softening mechanisms, the flow stress
E-mail address: yclin@mail.csu.edu.cn (Y.C. Lin). obtained from experiments consist of four different stage, i.e.,
0261-3069/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2010.11.048 转载
中国科技论文在线 http://www.paper.edu.cn
1734 Y.C. Lin, X.-M. Chen / Materials and Design 32 (2011) 1733–1759
140
Strain rate=0.01s-1
120
o
850 C
True stress (MPa) 100
o
80 950 C
True stress
60 o
1050 C
40 WH
WH+DRV+DRX DRX
o +DRV
1150 C
20
I II III IV
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
True strain True strain
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a) Typical true stress–strain curves for 42CrMo steel under the different deformation temperatures with strain-rate of 0:01 s1 ; (b) typical flow stress curve [6].
Stage I (Work hardening stage), Stage II (Transition stage), Stage III sists of some mathematical functions. However, the phe-
(Softening stage) and Stage IV (Steady stage), as shown in Fig. 1b. nomenological constitutive model is lack of physical
In stage I (Work hardening stage), the work hardening (WH) rate background that just fits experimental observations. Addi-
is higher than the softening rate induced by dynamic recovery tionally, the notable feature is that they reduce number of
(DRV), and thus the stress rises steeply at micro-strain deformation material constants and can be easily calibrated. However,
then increases at a decreased rate, followed by stage II (Transition due to their empirical characteristics, they are usually used
stage). In transition stage, the competition between the work hard- in limited application fields (covering limited ranges of
ening and the softening phenomenon induced by dynamic recov- strain-rate and temperature) and they exhibit the reduced
ery, as well as the dynamic recrystallization (DRX), takes place. flexibility (detailed formulation for determined materials).
In addition, the flow stress still increases, but the increase rate con- (2) Physical-based constitutive model. It accounts for physical
tinuously decreases. In stage III (Softening stage), the stress drops aspects of the material behaviors. Most of them are involved
steeply, which is related with dynamic recovery, dynamic recrys- in the theory of thermodynamics, thermally activated dislo-
tallization, etc. Finally, stage IV (Steady stage): the stress becomes cation movement, and kinetics of slips. Compared to the
steady when a new balance between softening and hardening ap- phenomenological descriptions, they allow for an accurate
pears [6]. definition of material behavior under wide ranges of loading
Generally, an ideal plasticity model for metals and alloys should conditions by some physical assumptions and a larger
be able to accurately describe the material properties such as number of material constants.
strain-rate dependence, forming temperature dependence, strain (3) Artificial neural network (ANN). The above methods are to
and strain-rate history dependence, work hardening or strain- carry out the regression analysis with the experimental
hardening behavior (both isotropic and anisotropic hardening). results on the basis of the phenomenological or physical-
However, a complete description of all of these phenomena in a based constitutive models to obtain the material constants.
single constitutive model is an extremely difficult task. Therefore, However, the response of the deformation behaviors of the
some assumptions were given before some plastic flow stress mod- materials under elevated temperatures and strain-rates is
els are proposed [7]. In recent years, a number of constitutive mod- highly nonlinear, and many factors affecting the flow stress
els have been proposed or modified to describe the strain-rate, are also nonlinear, which make the accuracy of the flow
stain and temperature-dependent flow behavior of metals and al- stress predicted by the regression methods low and the
loys. These models all show that increasing the strain-rate and applicable range limited. While the attraction of artificial
decreasing the temperature can both enhance the resistance of neural networks (ANN) is that they are best suited to solve
plastic deformation and cause a rise of the flow stress. For the ori- the problems that are the most difficult to solve by tradi-
ginal constitutive models, there are always some limitations when tional computational methods. Neural networks can provide
the authors firstly proposed for their studied materials. So, some a fundamentally different approach to materials modeling
other investigators continue to modify the original constitutive and material processing control techniques than statistical
models to accurately predict the flow behaviors for the different or numerical methods. One of the main advantages of this
metals or alloys by considering the special effects of the forming approach is that it is not necessary to postulate a mathemat-
processing parameters. Then, some extended or modified constitu- ical model at first or identify its parameters using a artificial
tive models were developed. neural network.
The followings mainly present a critical review on constitutive
descriptions for metals and alloys in hot working, which were 2. Phenomenological constitutive model
reported in international publications in recent years. The constitu-
tive models are mainly divided into the following three categories Phenomenological plastic constitutive models are widely used
[8,9]: in the simulation of the forming processes of metals or alloys at
high-strain-rates and temperatures. So far, there are many phe-
(1) Phenomenological constitutive model. It provides a definition nomenological models, including Johnson–Cook (JC) model [10],
of the flow stress based on empirical observations, and con- Khan–Huang (KH) model [11], Khan–Huang–Liang (KHL) model
Y.C. Lin, X.-M. Chen / Materials and Design 32 (2011) 1733–1759 1735
[12–14], Khan–Liang–Farrokh (KLF) model [15], Fields–Backofen ginal JC model requires fewer material constants and few
(FB) model [16], Molinari–Ravichandran (MR) model [17], Voce– experiments to evaluate these constants. JC model assumes that
Kocks (VK) model [18,19], Arrhenius equation [20–23], and some thermal softening, strain-rate hardening and strain-hardening are
other phenomenological models [24]. three independent phenomena and can be isolated from each other,
The common features of phenomenological constitutive models i.e., the original Johnson–Cook model does not represent any ther-
are that they can be expressed as the functions of the forming tem- mal or strain-rate history effects, but is simple to implement and
perature, strain-rate and strain to consider the effects of these the parameters are readily obtained from a limited number of
forming parameters on the flow behaviors of metals or alloys. experiments. In general, the JC model represents a set of models
that consider that the mechanical behaviors of material are the
r ¼ rðe; e_ ; TÞ ð1Þ
multiplication effects of strain, strain-rate, and temperature. This
A phenomenological model is actually the classical approach for form is simple and has a clear physical interpretation. However,
modeling the material behaviors. Macroscopic mechanical test re- the coupling effects of strain, temperature and strain-rate are omit-
sults are fit to a convenient mathematical function. ted in the original JC model [7].
Zhang et al. [25] modified the original JC model by considering
2.1. Johnson–Cook (JC) model the effects of forming temperature on strain-hardening behavior
for IC10 alloy. The modified JC model is given as,
The Johnson–Cook (JC) constitutive model [10] is a most widely
r ¼ ½Að1 T m Þ þ BðT Þen ð1 þ C ln e_ Þ ð4Þ
known as a forming temperature, stain and strain-rate-dependent

phenomenological flow stress model, and is successfully used for a where r; e; e_ and T are same as the original JC model. BðT Þ is a
variety of materials with different ranges of deformation tempera- function of T , and can be determined as
ture and strain-rate. It assumed material is isotropic, avoiding the
rbr ð1 T m1 Þ r0:2r ð1 T m Þ
traditional concept of yield surface in constitutive equation. There- BðT Þ ¼ ð5Þ
fore, JC model has enjoyed much success because of its simplicity ðebr ð1 þ P1 T P2 T P3 ÞÞn
and the availability of parameters for various materials. The origi- where m1 ; P1 ; P 2 and P3 are material constants, rbr is broken stress
nal Johnson–Cook model can be expressed as: at room temperature and reference strain-rate, ebr is the broken
r ¼ ðA þ Ben Þð1 þ C ln e_ Þð1 T m Þ ð2Þ strain at room temperature and reference strain-rate. So, the final
modified JC model is expressed as
where r is the equivalent flow stress, e is the equivalent plastic !
strain, A is the yield stress at reference temperature and reference r ð1 T m1 Þ r0:2r ð1 T m Þ n
r ¼ Að1 T Þ þ br m
e ð1 þ C ln e_ Þ
strain-rate, B is the coefficient of strain-hardening, n is the strain- ðebr ð1 þ P1 T P2 T P3 ÞÞn
hardening exponent, C and m are the material constants which rep-
ð6Þ
resent the coefficient of strain-rate hardening and thermal soften-
ing exponent, respectively. e_ ¼ e_ =e_ 0 is the dimensionless strain- The variation of the yield stress is asynchronous with the variation
rate (e_ is the strain-rate, while e_ o is the reference strain-rate), and of the hardening component when temperature is changed. Fig. 2
T is the homologous temperature and expressed as, shows the comparisons between the modified JC model and the
experimental results. It is obvious that the predicted flow stresses
T Tr
T ¼ ð3Þ well agree with the experimental results, which confirms that the
Tm Tr
JC model modified by Zhang et al. can give an accurate estimate
where T is the current absolute temperature, is the melting temper- of the hot tensile behaviors for the IC10 alloy.
ature, and T r is the reference temperature (T P T r Þ. In Eq. (2), the According to the shortcomings of the original JC model, Vural
items ðA þ Ben Þ; ð1 þ C ln e_ Þ and ð1 T m Þ are used for describing and Caro [26] made the following work.
the work-hardening effect, the strain-rate effect and the tempera-
ture effect, respectively. The expression in the first brackets gives (1) One often observes from experimental data that amount of
the effects of strain on the flow stress, and the second represents strain-hardening (B) decreases faster than predicted by ther-
instantaneous strain-rate sensitivity, while the third term repre- mal softening rate in the original JC model. Therefore, Vural
sents the temperature dependence of flow stress. Obviously, the ori- and Caro [26] made the following modification to the strain-
1400
1500
1200
1250
1000
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
1000
800
750
T= 25 C o
600 T= 25oC
. .
500 ε=0.01s-1 400 ε=0.001s-1
250 Experimental 200 Experimental
Modified J-C predicted Modified J-C predicted
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Plasticity Strain (%) Plasticity Strain (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Comparisons between the experimental and predicted results for the studied IC10 alloy: (a) T ¼ 25 C; e_ ¼ 0:01 s1 and (b) T ¼ 25 C; e_ ¼ 0:001 s1 [25].
hardening coefficient. This relation is essentially the recog- So, Vural and Caro’s modifications introduce: (1) direct coupling
nition of the experimental evidence that thermal softening of temperature with strain-hardening; (2) enhancement in strain-
has a stronger effect on strain-hardening than on yield rate sensitivity in the dynamic regime with a smooth and continu-
stress. ous transition between two distinct deformation regimes; (3) tem-
perature-dependent rate sensitivity. Fig. 3 shows the comparisons
B ¼ B0 ½1 ðT Þp ð7Þ
between the experimental stress–strain curves with the modified
(2) The original JC model does not provide an enhanced strain- JC predictions for 2139-T8 aluminum alloy, which indicates that
rate effect at high rates, and exhibits unrealistically small the modified model satisfactorily captures the complex features
strain-rate dependence at high temperatures essentially of temperature and rate-dependent flow stress through enhanced
because of completely uncoupled nature of strain-rate sensi- coupling between temperature and strain-hardening as well as
tivity from thermal effects. Therefore, Vural and Caro [26] temperature and strain-rate sensitivity. The modified model also
proposed the following modifications to the strain-rate sen- provides flow stress prediction over the entire range of quasi-static
sitivity parameter (C) in order to include the enhanced rate and dynamic regimes by a single continuous function.
sensitivity at elevated temperatures, which is observed par- Shin and Kim [9] decoupled the three terms (strain-hardening,
ticularly in quasi-static strain-rate regime, and to introduce strain-rate hardening, and thermal softening) in the original JC
the enhanced rate sensitivity in dynamic regime. model, and proposed a simple constitutive model. The formulation
of the proposed model is as follows:
p
C ¼ C 1 T r þ C 2 Hðe_ ; e_ t ; kÞ ð8Þ
r ¼ ½A þ Bf1 expðC eÞg½D lnðe_ =e_ 0 Þ þ expðE e_ =e_ 0 Þ
T T0 m
T ¼ ð9Þ T T ref
Tr T0 1 ð12Þ
T m T ref
1 1 e_ 1
Hðe_ ; e_ t ; kÞ ¼ þ tanh k ln ¼ ð10Þ
2 2 e_ t 1 þ e2k lnðe_ =e_ t Þ where r; e; e_ ; e0 , and T ref are same to those in the original JC model,
and A, B, C, D, E, and m are material parameters. Fig. 4 checks the
where T 0 is a reference temperature and T r is room temperature. C 1
combined effect of strain-rate hardening and thermal softening by
is the rate sensitivity in quasi-static strain-rate regime ðe_ < e_ t Þ at
using the experimental data for tungsten heavy alloy. Obviously,
room temperature, and C 2 represents the enhancement in rate
the proposed model by Shin and Kim [9] can successfully describe
sensitivity in the dynamic strain-rate regime ðe_ > e_ t Þ, and is the
the experiment of the material. Such description capability for var-
transition strain-rate that separates quasi-static deformation re-
ious metals with different behaviors of strain-hardening, strain-rate
gime from dynamic one and is typically from 102 to 103 s1 . The
hardening, and thermal softening is remarkable considering the
term Hðe_ ; e_ t ; kÞdefined by Eq. (10) is a smooth approximation to
simplicity of the current model. Meanwhile, the dynamic deforma-
the Heaviside step function and continuous variation around the
tion behaviors of other materials with different strain-hardening,
transition strain-rate. The transition interval can be kept wide or
strain-rate hardening, and thermal softening, such as beryllium,
very short depending on the scaling factor defined by k.
uranium, and steel, were also reasonably described by the proposed
Therefore, the modified JC model can be expressed as
model.
p Based on the experimental results [27], the Johnson–Cook [10]
T T0
rðep ; e_ ; TÞ ¼ r0 þ B0 1 ðep Þn and Zerilli–Armstrong [28] models were established for the hot
T m rmT 0
h i e_ p compressed 42CrMo alloy steel. However, the comparisons be-
p T T0 tween the measured and predicted flow stress by Johnson–Cook
1 þ C 1 T r þ C 2 Hðe_ ; e_ t ; kÞ ln 1 ð11Þ
e_ 0 Tr T0 and Zerilli–Armstrong models indicate some significant deviations
Fig. 3. Comparisons between the experimental stress–strain curves (solid lines) with modified JC predictions (symbols): (a) temperature dependence of flow stress; (b) effect
of strain-rate and temperature in dynamic loading regime [26].
1800 1800
298 K
1500 1500 573 K
298 K 773 K
573 K 973 K
Stress (MPa) 1200 1200
Stress (MPa)
773 K 1173 K
973 K 1373 K
900 900
600 600
-1
300 800s 300 -1
1600s
Tungsten heavy alloy
Tungsten heavy alloy
0 0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Plasticity Strain Plasticity Strain
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Comparison of the current model (solid lines) with the flow stress data (symbol) of tungsten heavy alloy with respect to varying strain-rate and temperature: (a)
e_ ¼ 800 s1 ; (b) e_ ¼ 1600 s1 [9].
in most loading conditions, respectively. This is because these two phenomenon, but also the coupled effects of the temperature and
models both overlook the coupling effects of strain-rate–tempera- strain-rate on the flow behaviors of the studied alloy steel.
ture–strain. Then, Lin and Chen [27] developed a combined John- Considering the yield and strain-hardening portions of the ori-
son–Cook and Zerilli–Armstrong (JC-ZA) model to describe the ginal JC model and the coupling effects of the temperature and
relationship between the flow stress, strain-rate and forming tem- strain-rate on the flow behaviors for the alloy steel, Lin et al. [30]
perature for hot compressed 42CrMo alloy steel, and their model is also proposed one modified JC model for tensile behaviors of typi-
given as Eq. (13). In fact, Nadai and Manjoine [29] also gave one cal high-strength alloy steel, as shown in Eq. (15)
different form of combined JC–ZA model to describe the high- r ¼ ðA1 þ B1 e þ B2 e2 Þð1 þ C 1 ln e_ ÞEXP½ðk1 þ k2 ln e_ ÞðT T r Þ ð15Þ
speed tension behavior at elevated temperatures for mild steel in
1941. where A1 ; B1 ; B2 ; C 1 ; k1 ; k2 are the material constants, the meanings
of r; e; T; T r and e_ are identical to those of the original JC model.
r ¼ ðA þ Ben Þ expðC 3 T þ C 4 T ln e_ Þ ð13Þ
Comparisons (shown in Fig. 6) between the experimental and pre-
where A; B; n; C 3 and C 4 are the material constants. r is the equiva- dicted results shows that the predicted results well agree with
lent flow stress. e is the equivalent plastic strain. T is the absolute the measured ones, which confirms the validity of the modified JC
temperature. e_ ¼ e_ =e_ 0 is the dimensionless strain-rate. Since about constitutive equation by Lin et al. [30].
3–5% of the energy of plastic deformation remains in the material as Hou and Wang [31] found that though the modified JC models
the stored energy, a substantial amount of plastic work thus ap- shown in Eqs. (16) and (17) could study the plastic response of
pears as the deformation heat raising the temperature ðDTÞ in the the BCC [32] and FCC [33] metals, these two models are not suit-
test specimen. Then, Eq. (13) can be modified as able to study the plastic response of the HCP magnesium alloys.
Therefore, Hou and Wang [31] proposed another modified JC con-
r ¼ ðA1 þ B1 en Þ exp½C 3 ðT þ DTÞ þ C 4 ðT þ DTÞ ln e_ ð14Þ stitutive model, as shown in Eq. (18), to study the plastic response
Fig. 5 shows the comparisons between the experimental and pre- of the hot-extruded Mg-10Gd-2Y-0.5Zr alloy over a wide range of
dicted results, which indicates that the developed constitutive temperatures.
equations can present an accurate estimate of the flow stress for
r ¼ ðr0 þ Ben Þð1 þ Clog10 e_ Þek1 ðT T r Þ ð16Þ
hot compressed 42CrMo steel. This is because the developed com-
bined JC–ZA model not only consider the yield and strain-hardening r ¼ r0 ð1 þ C 1 ln e_ Þ þ Ben ð1 þ C 2 ln e_ Þek2 ðT T r Þ ð17Þ
180 120
50s-1
160 50s-1
100
True Stress (MPa)
True Stress (MPa)
140
10s-1 10s-1
120 80
100
1s-1 60
1s-1
80 Predicted Predicted
Measured 40 Measured
60
0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. Comparisons between predicted and measured flow stress cures with the temperatures of (a) 1223 K and (b)1423 K [27].
120 45
Predicted Predicted
Measured 0.01s-1 0.01s-1
Measured
100
True Stress (MPa)
True Stress (MPa)

0.001s-1 30
80 0.001s-1
60 0.0001s-1 15 0.0001s-1
40
0
0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Comparisons between predicted and measured flow stress cures with the temperatures of (a) 1123 K; (b) 1423 K [30].
where r0 is the initial yield stress, B, C, C 1 ; C 2 ; k1 and k2 are the r ¼ g 1 ðeÞg 2 ðe_ Þ ð20Þ
material constants.
where

n eT=T m eTr=T m 1
r ¼ ðA þ Be Þð1 þ C ln e _ Þ 1k ð18Þ 3 2 2
e eTr=T m g 1 ðeÞ ¼ 3f 1 e ð21Þ
4
where the meanings of A, B, e, n, C, T, T m 610 C for the Mg–10Gd–
1
2Y–0.5Zr alloy) and T r are same to the original JC model, and k is 3 2 2
g 2 ðe_ Þ ¼ f2 e_ ð22Þ
material constant. 4
The good agreement (shown in Fig. 7) between the experimen- and the particular form of g 1 ðeÞ and g 2 ðe_ Þ are chosen to be as,
tal data and the modified JC model correlations for the hot-
extruded Mg–10Gd–2Y–0.5Zr alloy indicates that the modified g 1 ðeÞ ¼ r0 þ E1 e aeae ð23Þ
model can accurately describe or predict the plastic response of 1
g 2 ðe_ Þ ¼ n1 ð24Þ
the hot-extruded Mg–10Gd–2Y–0.5Zr alloy under both quasi-static
1 lnlnðDepÞ
_
and a wide range of temperatures even though the current temper- ð 0Þ
atures were lower than the reference temperature.
where g 1 ðeÞ characterizes the correlation of the stress versus the
2.2. Khan–Huang (KH), Khan–Huang–Liang (KHL), Khan–Liang– plastic strain at the reference strain-rate, while g 2 ðe_ Þ represents
Farrokh (KLF) models the strain-rate-dependent behavior. r; e and e_ are von Mises equiv-
alent stress, the accumulated plastic strain and equivalent plastic
In 1992, Khan and Huang [11] proposed a constitutive visco- strain-rate, respectively. n, E1 ; r0 , a, and a are material constants.
plastic model (KH model) to simulate the behavior of coarse- Dp0 is arbitrarily to be 106 s1 in Khan and Huang’s work.
grained Al 1100 at wide strain-rates range. They proposed the con- Obviously, the shortcoming of the original KH model is that it
stitutive equation as overlooks the temperature effect. It is clear that the coupling ef-
fects of strain and strain-rate on the work hardening should be
J 2 ¼ f1 ðe2 Þf2 Dp2 ð19Þ considered for a good prediction of the work-hardening behavior
where J2 ; Dp2
and e2 are the second invariant of deviatoric stress, the of the materials. Therefore, a new relation between J 2 and Dp2 in
second invariant of the plastic deformation rate, and the equivalent the KH model was proposed in order to obtain a better correlation
strain, respectively. For the one-dimensional case, Eq. (19) can be with the experimental data [34]

rewritten as J 2 ¼ f1 e2 ; Dp2 f2 ðTÞ ð25Þ
where
T is the absolute temperature. is the equivalent strain.
f1 e2 ; Dp2 is a function describing the coupled strain and strain-rate
effects on the work-hardening behavior, and then the Khan–Huang–
Liang (KHL model) is chosen to be
n1
ln e_
r¼ AþB 1 en0 ec ln e_ ð1 T m Þ ð26Þ
ln Dp0
where T ¼ ðTðTT rÞ
m T r Þ
; r; r; e_ are von Mises equivalent stress, strain, and
strain-rate, respectively; A, B, n0 ; n1 , c and m are material constants;
T, T m and T r are the absolute, melting and reference temperatures,
respectively. Results show that the proposed constitutive model
gives an excellent correlation with the experimental response, be-
cause the strain and strain-rate have some coupling effects on the
description of work-hardening relation of the materials in the
new model.
Fig. 7. Comparison between the experimental and the predicted stress–strain In 2000, Khan and Liang [35] determined the parameter set of
curves for the hot-extruded Mg–10Gd–2Y–0.5Zr alloy [31]. KHL model from uniaxial constant strain-rate compressive and
tensile tests of antalum, tantalum alloy with 2.5% tungsten, and

AerMet 100 steel. The capability of the constitutive model to pre-
dict complex loading paths of experimental response were demon-
strated. Using von Mises equivalent strain, stress, and strain-rate,
the constitutive model gave excellent predictions of these non-pro-
portional experimental results. Therefore, the constitutive model
can be used to describe complex loading path finite deformation
of the material.
Khan et al. [12] incorporated the Hall–Petch relation ry ¼ a þ pkffiffid,
where is the yield stress, d is the polycrystalline average grain size,
a and k are material constants) into the KHL model to introduce the
yield-stress dependence on grain size. Then, the KHL visco-plastic
constitutive model was modified to include grain size dependence,
work hardening, rate sensitivity and temperature effect to present
the behavior of fully compacted nanocrystalline iron. The material
behavior of iron with grain size in nm is described by generalized
Fig. 9. Correlations of observed responses for nanocrystalline aluminum at
Hookes law before yielding, while the KHL model, modified by grain different strain-rates by using the modified KHL model for various grain sizes [14].
size effect, is used to reflect the stress/strain behavior after yielding.
Results show that the modified KHL model, Eq. (27), gave a good 8
correlation with both isothermal and adiabatic experimental < a þ pk1ffiffi for 0 6 d0:5 6 d0:5
k 1 d
results. a þ pffiffiffi ¼ ð30Þ
d : a2 þ pk2ffiffi for d0:5 6 d0:5
n1 d
k ln e_
r ¼ a þ pffiffiffi þ B 1 en0 e_ c ð1 T m Þ ð27Þ
d ln Dp0 where d is the reference grain size at which the yield stress starts
to increase appreciably. Further, an increase in strain-hardening
Meanwhile, the correlations and predictions using modified
behavior was also observed as the material grain size was reduced
KHL visco-plastic constitutive model, Eq. (28), are compared with
to nanometer realm.
those from JC model and experimental observations for Ti–6Al–
Based on the Khan–Huang–Liang (KHL) constitutive equation
4V alloy. Overall, KHL model correlations and predictions are
[12–14], Farrokh and Khan et al. [15] developed a new grain size
shown to be much closer to the observed responses, than the cor-
and temperature dependent visco-plastic phenomenological con-
responding JC model predictions and correlations [13], as shown in
stitutive equation, Khan–Liang–Farrokh (KLF), and studied the
Fig. 8.
mechanical behavior of mechanically milled ultra-fine grained
n1 c m
ln e_ e_ Tm T and nanocrystalline Cu and Al through uniaxial compressive
r¼ AþB 1 ðep Þn0 ð28Þ loading at quasi-static and dynamic strain-rates. The model was
ln Dp0 e_ Tm Tr
featured to correlate different characteristic behaviors of polycrys-
In 2006, based on the observed mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials in the plastic regime, as the result of grain refine-
talline aluminum and iron, Khan et al. [14] modified KHL visco-plas- ment. The KLF model is expressed as
tic model by including a bi-linear Hall–Petch type relation to " ! !n1 #
n2
correlate with the response of nanocrystalline aluminum, including k d lnðe_ p Þ Tm
the variation of work hardening with grain size. The modified con- r¼ aþn þ B 1 ðep Þn0
d d0 ln Dp0 T
stitutive equations, Eqs. (29) and (30), give results very close to the p c m
experimental observations on nanocrystalline aluminum, as shown e_ Tm T
p ð31Þ
in Fig. 9. e_ T m T ref
n1 c m
k B ln e_ p n0 e_ Tm T where ep ; e_ p and r are the plastic strain, the current strain-rate and
r ¼ a þ pffiffiffi 1 þ 1 ð e Þ ð29Þ
d a ln Dp0 e_ Tm Tr the flow stress, respectively. T m , T and T ref are the melting, current
and reference temperatures, respectively. Dp0 ¼ 1 s1 (arbitrary cho-

sen upper bound strain-rate), e_ p ¼ 1 s (reference strain-rate at
which some material constants are determined) and n ¼ 0:5 (while
material follows the Hall–Petch relationship). d and d0 are the aver-
age grain size of the material being tested and its corresponding
coarse-grained counterpart ðd0 50 nmÞ, respectively. a, k, B,
n2 ; n1 ; n0 , c and m are the material constants of the KLF model.
The proposed model features extra terms in which the change
in work hardening behavior as the result of grain refinement and
different temperatures
can also be simulated by implementing
n2 T m n1
d lnðe_ p Þ
and 1 ln Dp terms in equation, respectively.
d0 ð 0Þ T
Fig. 10 illustrates the experimental data along with the model
correlations for the mechanically milled Cu and Al with different
grain sizes of 720, 350, 118, 51, 32, 27 and 22 nm; and 693, 166,
82 and 75 nm, respectively, determined at the strain-rate of
104 s1 . In most cases, correlations are in good agreement with
the experimental results. It is evident that the change in yield
stress and work-hardening behaviors with variation in the grain
Fig. 8. Quasi-static and dynamic measurements for various strain-rates and size (to large strains) can be captured by the new model’s charac-
temperatures with correlations using KHL and JC models [13]. teristics. Fig. 11 shows the experimental data along with the model
Fig. 10. The KLF model correlations of the compressive visco-plastic response of mechanically milled bulk (a) Cu and (b) Al with different average grain sizes at the strain-rate
of 104 s1 [15].
Fig. 11. The KLF model correlations of the room temperature compressive visco-plastic response of (a) 10 h milled (d = 32 nm) bulk Cu and (b) 10 h milled (d = 82 nm) bulk Al
at quasi-static and dynamic strain-rates [15].
correlations for the 10 h milled Cu (d = 32 nm) and Al (d = 82 nm)

at different quasi-static and dynamic strain-rates. Results show
that the model is able to well capture the strain-rate sensitivity
of nc Cu and Al at wide ranges of strain-rate, and capable of mod-
eling the post-yield material responses at wide range of grain sizes
(from coarse-grained to nanocrystalline materials), different
strain-rates (quasi-static to dynamic) and different temperatures
(low and elevated temperatures). As its novel characteristics, the
model was featured with terms in which the change in work-hard-
ening behavior with variation in the material grain size and tem-
perature were captured.
Yu et al. [36] used the KH model to describe the flow behavior of
DP600 steel at strain-rate range from to 1600 s1 . The result
(Fig. 12) shows that although it can describe the correlation of
the stress versus plastic strain perfectly at the reference strain-rate Fig. 12. Comparisons of KH model prediction with the experimental data
ðe_ ¼ 104 s1 and e_ ¼ 1600 s1 Þ [36].
of, there is a great gap between the predicted results by KH model
[11] and the experimental data of DP600 steel at the high-strain-
rates. Therefore, they tried to propose a modified KH plastic consti- and m are material constants. The comparisons between the modi-
tutive model, Eq. (32), to describe the rate-dependent behavior of fied constitutive model predictions and the experimental data for
DP600. DP600 steel are shown in Fig. 13. Obviously, the modified constitu-
r ¼ f ðep ; e_ p Þ ¼ r0^f 2 ðe_ p Þ þ E1 ep aeae
p
ð32Þ tive model achieves very good description for the rate-dependent
p m mechanical behavior of the DP600 steel, except that difference ap-
^f 2 ðe_ p Þ ¼ 1 þ D ln e_ ð33Þ pears when the stress–strain curves begin to saturate at the
e_ p0 strain-rates 500 and 1100 s1 . However, the original KH model does
rate. However, the flow deformation behavior of AZ31 magnesium

alloy sheet exhibited an obviously recrystallization softening char-
acter at higher temperature under lower strain-rate. FB model is
inaccurate to describe the softening behavior.
97:1
n ¼ 0:031 þ 0:013 log e_ þ ð35Þ
T
244980:4
K ¼ 156:4 þ 9:1 log e_ þ ð36Þ
T
145:263
m¼ þ 0:377 ð37Þ
T
In 2003, Zhang [38] introduced a softening items) into FB model to
describe the softening behaviors.
r ¼ K en e_ m expðbT þ seÞ ð38Þ

Fig. 13. Comparison between predicted and experimental flow stress [36].
here, the meanings of K, n and m are same to the above, b is material
constant. s represents the softening ratio of magnesium alloy with
not consider the temperature effect in the original equations, and increasing of the strain, and can be described as s ¼ d ln r. Cheng
de
some modifications are still needed in order to incorporate the tem- et al. [37] modified the FB model using the similar methods pro-
perature effect into this model. posed by Zhang [38], and the modified equation containing a soft-
ening item is expressed as
2.3. Fields–Backofen (FB) model
r ¼ 18015e0:16 e_ 0:083 expð0:0078T 0:8903eÞ ð39Þ
In 1957, Fields and Bachofen [16] proposed the following com- Fig. 15 gives the comparison between calculated by the modi-
mon formula for most metal materials, fied FB model and measured flow stress. Obviously, the modified
r ¼ ken e_ m ð34Þ model containing a softening items approaches better at the soft-
ening stage. The same conclusion is confirmed by Quan et al. [39].
where K is the strength coefficient, n is the strain-hardening expo-
nent, and m is the strain-rate sensitivity exponent. This equation is 2.4. Molinari–Ravichandran (MR) model
widely used to describe the stress–strain relationship and it can
well express the work-hardening phenomenon by the strain-hard- In 2005, Molinari–Ravichandran (MR) model [17] was proposed
ening exponent (n-value) and the strain-rate sensitivity exponent to describe the flow behaviors of metals over a wide range of load-
(m-value), which are the important parameters influencing the ing conditions. This model is based on a single internal variable
hot workability of metals or alloys. that can be viewed as being related to a characteristic length scale
Cheng et al. [37] investigated the mechanical behaviors of of the microstructure that develops in the metal during deforma-
AZ31magnesium alloy sheet by uniaxial tensile tests under a tion. In addition, a scaling law for the evolution of this characteris-
strain-rate range of 0:1—0:0001 s1 and temperature range of tic (or effective) length based on experimental observations is
423–573 K. Base on the experimental results, they obtained the proposed. In MR model, the flow stress is a function of the intrinsic
material constants n, K and m of FB model as a functions of temper- resistance of the material and the strain-rate, and can be expressed
ature and/or strain-rates (shown in Eqs. (35)–(37)), and the flow as
stresses of AZ31 magnesium alloy were evaluated by FB model,
m1
as shown in Fig. 14. Comparisons between the predicted and e_
r ¼ r0 _ ð40Þ
experimental results indicate that the predicted results only well e0
agree with the experimental results before the peak stress, espe-
d
cially at high-strain-rate under low temperature. In other words, r0 ¼r
^ ðdÞ ð41Þ
d0
FB model can only describe the flow stress curves of AZ31 magne-
sium alloy sheet at strain-hardening stage under a higher strain- where e_ 0 is the reference strain-rate and m is the instantaneous
material rate sensitivity which is assumed to be a function of the
.
250 ε =0.0001s-1
423K
200
True Stress (MPa)
150 473K
100 523K
50 573K
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
True Strain
Fig. 14. Comparisons between the calculated and measured flow curves (a)
e_ ¼ 0:0001 s1 (the dotted lines for the calculated results, while the solid lines for Fig. 15. Comparison between calculated by the modified Fields–Backofen equations
the measured results) [37]. and measured flow curves (the dotted lines indicate the calculated values) [37].
temperature. The parameter m accounts for part of the thermal which is thermally activated. The internal stress is a function of a
softening behavior of material due to the change in ambient tem- single internal parameter, which allows us to describe strain-hard-
perature and also the temperature rise during adiabatic deforma- ening effects. This model is used to reproduce the behavior of four
tion (another part of the thermal softening is controlled by the multiphase cold rolled steels, which are new high performance
temperature dependence of the saturation value of the microstruc- materials for the automotive industry.
ture length and microstructure refinement rate). d is the grain size. The thermo-mechanical response of a HY-100, a HSLA-65, and a
The reduction of the internal characteristic length d with increasing low carbon (0.05% C) steels is predicted with an internal variable
equivalent plastic strain e is assumed to be governed by the follow- model, DMR model. Due to its simplicity and flexibility, the present
ing phenomenological evolution equation. model is believed to be a good candidate for describing the thermal
and visco-plastic response of metals under severe loading condi-
dd dr
¼ ½d2 ds d ð42Þ tions [41].
de ds
The laws proposed for dr and ds can be based on the theory of 2.5. Voce–Kocks (VK) model
thermally activated processes or on empirical relations depending
on temperature and strain-rate. In 1948, Voce [18] proposed the following constitutive model,
" #
nr
v r e
e_ T r ¼ rs þ ðr0 rs Þ exp ð45Þ
dr ¼ dr0 1 þ ar ð43Þ er
e_ r0 T0
" ns v s # where rs is the saturation stress value, i.e. the stress level at which
e_ T the strain-hardening rate lowers to zero. r0 and er represent the ini-
ds ¼ ds0 1 as ð44Þ
e_ s0 T0 tial yield stress and the relaxation strain, respectively. Obviously,
the Voce formulation is rate and temperature insensitive.
where dr is the microstructure refinement rate, while ds and ds0 are In 1976, Kocks [19] proposed a description for the saturation
the saturation value and the reference value (at zero strain-rate) of tress rs as function of temperature, and strain-rate. This relation-
the effective microstructure length d, respectively. The material ship has the same form as the law proposed by Hassen [42] for
parameters as ; ns and v s control the strain-rate and the temperature the beginning of dynamic recovery which was based on the calcu-
dependence of ds . Similarly, dr depends on the parameters dr0 ; ar ; nr lations of Schoeck and Seeger [43] on the stress dependence of the
and v r . activation energy for cross slip in FCC metals. The dependence of
Fig. 16 shows the comparisons between the model predictions the saturation stress with respect to strain-rate and temperature
and experimental data of annealed OFHC copper and adiabatic/ is given as
isothermal responses for the high-strain-rates. The agreement
between the model predictions and the experiments is good con- ðkT=As Þ
e_
sidering that the results cover a range of strain-rates over seven rs ¼ rs0 _ ð46Þ
es0
decades. Generally, it is not possible to have such robust predic-
3
tions especially at the very high strain-rate regimes using other where As ¼ lb ; l is the temperature dependent shear modulus, b is
constitutive models. the Burgers vector, k represents the Boltzmann constant. es0 , A and
In MR model, the internal parameter was viewed as an effective rs0 are material parameters. The reference stress rs0 is the satura-
microstructure length governed by an evolution law with temper- tion threshold stress at zero Kelvin. The initial yield stress r0 can
ature and rate-dependent coefficients. For structural design, it is be obtained as
worth having simple phenomenological laws, which include load- ðkT=A0 Þ
ing history effects. Internal parameter approaches are effective in e_ 3
r0 ¼ rk0 _ with A0 ¼ lb A0 ð47Þ
that perspective. Durrenberger et al. [40] proposed a new phenom- ek0
enological model, henceforth called DMR model, based on a single The theoretical expression for the relaxation strain er is expressed
internal parameter approach, which is partly related to the work of as
Molinari and Ravichandran [17]. In the model proposed by Durren-
berger et al., the flow stress is defined as the sum of an internal ½rs ðe_ ; TÞ r0 ðe_ ; TÞ
er ðe_ ; TÞ ¼ ð48Þ
stress, representing long range interactions, with an effective stress h0
Fig. 16. Comparison of MR model predictions and experimental data of (a) annealed OFHC copper; (b) adiabatic and isothermal responses for the high-strain-rates [17].
1
where h0 is the initial work-hardening rate. er is clearly a decreasing tion energy of hot deformation ðkJ mol Þ; r is the flow stress (MPa)
function of the strain-rate which can be for example represented by for a given stain, A, a and n are the material constants, a ¼ b=n.
the following power law, where C 1 ; C 2 are material constants. For all the stress level (including low an high stress levels), Eq.
C2 (50) can be represented as,
e_ 0
er ¼ C 1 ð49Þ
e_ e_ ¼ A½sinhðarÞn expðQ =RTÞ ð53Þ
Naderi et al. [44] used two constitutive models, the Voce constitu-
Then, the flow stress r can be written as a function of Z parameter,
tive relation in combination with the kinetic model proposed by
considering the definition of the hyperbolic law given as,
Voce–Kocks [18,19] and the phenomenological model proposed by
Molinari–Ravichandran [17], to correlate the plastic behaviors of 8 " #1=2 9
1<Z 1=n Z
2=n =
22MnB5 boron steel at the temperatures 933–1173 K and strain-
r ¼ ln þ þ1 ð54Þ
rate 0:1; 1:0; 10 s1 . Comparisons between the experimental and a : A A ;
calculated data were shown in Fig. 17. The Voce–Kocks model,
which introduced six independents (eight if the temperature
The lower the Zener–Hollomon parameter is, the larger the extent
dependence of the relaxation strain is accounted) adjustable param-
of flow softening becomes. Moreover, the higher the Zener–Hollo-
eters, gave slightly better estimations than the MR model which mon parameter, the lower the power dissipation rate is. Flow insta-
contains more parameters. However, the MR model has more flex-
bility occurring under high Zener–Hollomon parameter is
ibility since history effects, such as rapid changes in strain-rate or
manifested as flow localization.
temperature history, can be taken into account via the evolution
In the recent years, many investigations [1,45–53] have estab-
law of the internal parameter.
lished the flow stress of different metals and alloys during hot
deformation by the Arrhenius equation. However, it is found that
2.6. Arrhenius equation the effects of strain on the flow stress will not be considered in
Eqs. (50) and (53). Lin et al. [1] revised the models to describe
The Arrhenius equation is most widely used to describe the the flow behaviors of 42CrMo steel over wide range of forming
relationship between the strain-rate, flow stress and temperature, temperatures and strain-rates by compensation of strain and
especially at high temperatures. The effects of the temperatures strain-rate. They found that the values of Q, A, n and a should be
and strain-rate on the deformation behavior can be represented expressed as polynomial functions of strain.
by Zener–Hollomon parameter in an exponent-type equation.
The hyperbolic law in Arrhenius type equation gives better approx- 8
>
> Q ¼ B0 þ B1 e þ B2 e2 þ B3 e3 þ B4 e4 þ B5 e5
imations between Zener–Hollomon parameter and flow stress [20– >
< n ¼ D þ D e þ D e2 þ D e3 þ D e4 þ D e5
0 1 2 3 4 5
23]. ð55Þ
>
> ln A ¼ E 0 þ E 1 e þ E 2 e2
þ E 3 e3
þ E 4 e4
þ E5e
5
>
:
Q 2 3
a ¼ F0 þ F1e þ F2e þ F3e þ F4e þ F5e 4 5
e_ ¼ AFðrÞ exp ð50Þ
RT
In order to accurately predict the flow behavior of the 42CrMo
steel, the Zener–Hollomon parameter should be compensated by
QR
Z ¼ e_ exp ð51Þ 1
multiplying both sides of Eq. (51) by e_ 3 . Then, the modified Ze-
T 0
ner–Hollomon parameter, Z , can be expressed as,
8 n

<r
> ar < 0:8 QR
FðrÞ ¼ expðbrÞ ar > 1:2 ð52Þ Z 0 ¼ e_ 4=3 exp ð56Þ
> T
:
½sinhðarÞn for all r
Fig. 18 shows the comparisons between predicted and mea-
in which, e_ is the strain-rate ðs1 Þ, R is the universal gas constant sured flow stress curves of 42CrMo steel. It can be easily found that
1
ð8:31 Jmol K1 Þ, T is the absolute temperature (K), Q is the activa- the proposed deformation constitutive equations can gives an
Fig. 17. Stress–strain correlations between experimental data and constitutive models (a) de=dt ¼ 0:1 s1 and (b) de=dt ¼ 1 s1 [44].
140 300
120 250
o
850 C
100
True Stress (MPa)

True Stress (MPa)
o
850 C 200
o
950 C
80 o
950 C
150 o
1050 C
60 o
1050 C 1150 C
o
100
40
o
20 Predicted 1150 C 50 Predicted

Measured Strain rate=50s-1
Measured Strain rate=0.01s-1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(a) (b)
Fig. 18. Comparisons between predicted and measured flow stress curves of 42CrMo steel under strain-rates of (a) 0:01 s1 and (b) 50 s1 [1].
accurate and precise estimate of the flow stress for 42CrMo steel, where rp is peak stress and ep is the strain corresponding to the
and can be used for the analysis problem of metal forming peak stress, rp can be calculated from Arrhenius equation including
processes. Zener–Hollomon parameter. ep can be obtained from:
The proposed modifications by Lin et al. [1] was verified by
Mandal et al. [47] and Samantaray et al. [51]. Mandal et al. [47] ep ¼ a1 dn01 e_ m1 expðQ =RTÞ ð58Þ
modified the material constants by incorporating fourth-order
polynomial function of strains, and their model can accurately pre- In which m1 ; n1 and a1 are the material constants, d0 is the initial
dict the high-temperature flow stress of a Ti-modified austenitic grain size, Q is the activation energy, and R is the universal gas
stainless steel. Samantaray et al. [51] modified them with third-or- constant.
der polynomial function of strains, and their modified constitutive The new material parameter (L) was established by considering
model is effective for describing the high-temperature flow behav- the coupling effects of temperature and strain-rate on the flow
iors of modified 9Cr–1Mo (P91) steel. In addition, this modification stress of materials.
method by strain compensation is also useful for the aluminum al-
loy [54].
L ¼ ae_ b ecT ð59Þ
2.7. Other phenomenological models Fig. 19 shows comparisons between the predicted and mea-
sured stress–strain curves for 42CrMo steel under different form-
Recently, Lin et al. [24] developed a new comprehensive consti- ing temperatures and strain-rates. Obviously, an good agreement
tutive model to predict stress–strain curve up to the peak stress for between the measured and calculated values is obtained, because
42CrMo steel. A new material parameter L (or the attenuation coef- the coupling effects of temperature and strain-rate on the flow
ficient), which is sensitive to the forming temperature and strain- behaviors were considered by introducing one new material
rate, was proposed in the developed constitutive model. parameter, L. However, the limitation of this constitutive model
is its disability of predicting the flow stress at very low strains
ep e Le
r ¼ rp 1 e ð57Þ (for example, less than 0.05), because the values of work-harden-
ep ing rate are very high when strain is very small.
280
-1 -1
-1 -1 200 10 s
240 10 s
-1 -1 160
True Stress (MPa)
True Stress (MPa)
200 1 s -1 -1
-1 -1
1 s
160 0.1 s 120 -1 -1
-1 -1 0.1 s
120 0.01 s
80 -1 -1
0.01 s
80
40
40
0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
True Strain True Strain
(a) (b)
Fig. 19. Comparison between predicted and measured flow stress curves of 42CrMo steel under four different strain-rates and forming temperatures of: (a) 850 °C; (b) 950 °C
[24].
Besides the above-discussed models, there are some other fa- als. In contrast, for FCC materials, the effects of the strain, strain-
mous and useful phenomenological models, such as the models rates and temperatures on the flow stress are synchronously con-
proposed by Perzyna [55], Bergström [56,57], Nes [58], Toros and sidered, and the strain dependence is strongly affected by the other
Ozturk [59], Vural et al. [60], and so on. However, due to the limi- two variables. In fact, the coupling effects of the temperature,
tations of the pages of this paper, these models will not be dis- strain and strain-rate should be considered in an effective constitu-
cussed in details. tive model. Therefore, some modified ZA models have been pro-
posed in recent years.
3. Physical-based models Zhang et al. [71] thought that the parameters in ZA model are
regarded as constants at various conditions during the whole de-
The material constants of the macro phenomenological models form processes, which do not agree with the actual process and
can be obtained through fitting and regressing experimental data. will decrease its prediction accuracy. Therefore, a modified ZA
However, it is obvious that there are some potential deficiency in model was proposed by considering the integrated effects of the
phenomenological models, therefore experimental results cannot temperature, strain-rate and deforming process on the flow behav-
well described, especially when in the relatively high-strain-rate iors of alloy IC10 over a wide range of temperatures and strain-
and temperature conditions. Because during hot and dynamic rates. The modified ZA model can be expressed as
deformation process, the internal microstructure of material
e_
changes extensively, however those phenomenological models r ¼ c0 þ c1 exp c003 T þ c04 T ln f ðTÞ
rðeÞrðe_ Þ
are not able to give an accurate interpretation. Then based on the n
physical mechanism to establish constitutive models which con- þ c5 e ðFor BCC materialsÞ ð67Þ
sidering the mechanism of deformation such as dislocation dynam-
ics, thermal activation and so on seems necessary. Until recently, r ¼ c0 þ c2 e1=2

many physical-based models such as Zerilli–Armstrong (ZA) model e_
[28], Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) model [6], Preston–Tonks– exp c003 T þ c04 T ln f ðTÞ ðFor FCC materailsÞ
rðeÞrðe_ Þ
Wallace (PTW) model [61], Rusinek–Klepaczko (RK) model [62],
ð68Þ
Voyiadjis–Almasri (VA) model [63], Bonder–Partom (BP) model
[64], Cellular Automaton (CA) model [65], and some other physi- They assumed that the dislocation density increases linearly with
cal-based models [66–70]. the plastic strain, then
rðeÞ ¼ q0 þ M e ð69Þ
3.1. Zerilli and Armstrong (ZA) model
where q0 is the initial dislocation density, M is a material constant
The ZA model [28] is derived based on dislocation mechanisms, concerning with the increasing rate of dislocation density. The
which in fact play a main role in determining the inelastic behavior parameters c0 ; c1 ; c5 ; n; c003 ; c04 (for BCC material), or c0 ; c2 ; c003 ; c04 (for
of a metal and its flow stress under different load conditions. The FCC material) can be determined through the least square method
effects of strain-hardening, strain-rate hardening and thermal soft- based on a reference stress–strain curve.
ening on the flow behaviors of the metals and alloys are consid- For FCC material,
ered. They divide the flow stress into two components, thermal
and athermal, (1) when T ¼ T r ; e_ – e_ r then f ðTÞ ¼ 1; rðe_ Þ can be calculated
from Eq. (70)
r ¼ ra þ rth ð60Þ

e_ lnððrPr c0 Þ=ðrQ c0 ÞÞ
where ra is the athermal flow stress, rth is the thermal flow stress. rðe_ Þ ¼ exp ð70Þ
The thermal stress is given as
e_ r c04 T
M DG0 bT (2) when T – T r ; e_ ¼ e_ r then rðe_ Þ ¼ 1; f ðTÞ can be determined

rth ¼ e ð61Þ from Eq. (71)
Ab
b ¼ C 3 þ C 4 ln e_ ð62Þ Tr ln½ðrQ c0 Þ=ðc2 e1=2 Þ
f ðTÞ ¼ exp ð71Þ
T ln½ðrPr c0 Þ=ðc2 e1=2 Þ
where M is direction factor, DG0 is free energy of thermal activation
at 0 K, A is activation area at 0 K, b is burgers vector, b is a parameter For BCC material,
associated with strain and strain-rate.
For BCC metals, A is constant. While for FCC metals, A is in pro- (1) when f ðTÞ ¼ 1; rðe_ Þ can be calculated from Eq. (72)
1
portion to e2 . Therefore, the thermal activation components for
e_
these two type metals are given as rðe_ Þ ¼
e_ r
rth ¼ C 1 expðC 3 T þ C 4 T ln e_ Þ ðFor BCC materialsÞ ð63Þ 0 1
ln rPr c0 c5 enP = rQ c0 c5 enQ
exp @ A
1
r ¼ C2 e2 ðC 3 T þ C 4 T ln e_ Þ ðFor FCC materialsÞ ð64Þ
c04 T
Meanwhile, combining the athermal activation stress and the effect
ð72Þ
of yield stress on grain size into one component C 0 , two different
relations for FCC and BCC metals can be given as (2) when T–T r ; e_ ¼ e_ r then rðe_ Þ ¼ 1; f ðTÞ can be determined
from Eq. (73)
r ¼ C 0 þ C 1 expðC 3 T þ C 4 T ln e_ Þ þ C 5 en ðFor BCC materialsÞ h i
ð65Þ Tr rQ c0 c5 enQ =c1
ln
1 f ðTÞ ¼ exp ð73Þ
r ¼ C 0 þ C 2 e2 expðC 3 T þ C 4 T ln e_ Þ ðFor FCC materialsÞ ð66Þ T ln ðrPr c0 c5 enP Þ=c1
where C 0 ; C 1 ; C 2 ; C 3 ; C 4 ; C 5 ; n are material constants .
It is remarkable that the dependence of the flow stress on the In order to determined the functions rðe_ Þ and f ðTÞ, the plastic
strain is not affected by temperature or strain rate for BCC materi- strain of points P and Q should be first chosen out. Here, rPr is
the stress of a random point P at the reference stress–strain curve, in which T ¼ T T ref with T and T ref being the current and refer-
and can be calculated as ence temperatures, respectively. C 1 ; C 2 ; C 3 ; C 4 ; C 5 ; C 6 and n are the
material constants.
e_ r
rPr ¼ c0 þ c2 e1=2
Pr exp c003 T r þ c04 T r ln f ðTÞr ð74Þ The predictability of the proposed model is assessed by compar-
rðePr Þrðe_ Þr
ing the experimental and predicted results, as shown in Fig. 21. The
While rQ is the stress of the point Q at a different stress–strain results clearly demonstrate that the modified ZA model predicts
curve, and can be calculated as the elevated temperature flow behavior of alloy D9 over the entire
ranges of strain-rate, temperature and strain with good correlation
e_
rQ ¼ c0 þ c2 e1=2
Q exp c003 T r þ c04 T ln f ðTÞ ð75Þ and generalization, because the modified model considers the ef-
rðeQ Þrðe_ Þ fect of isotropic hardening, strain-rate hardening, thermal soften-
Fig. 20 shows the comparisons between the predicted stress– ing and the coupled effects of temperature-strain-strain rate on
strain curves from the original/modified ZA model and experimen- the flow stress.
tally measured results. Compare with the results of original ZA Gao and Zhang [73] proposes a new constitutive model to de-
model, the predicted data of the modified ZA model fit better with scribe the dynamic plasticity of FCC metals using the thermal acti-
the experiments, which show that the modified ZA model is vation mechanism of dislocation motion. In their model, the
effective. constitutive parameters are directly linked with the characteristics
In order to investigate the hot flow behavior of Titanium-mod- of microstructures of materials. The expression of their model is gi-
ified austenitic stainless steel (alloy D9), Samantaray et al. [72] also ven as,
proposed a modified ZA model by considering the effects of ther- ( 1=q )1=p
mal softening, strain-rate hardening and isotropic hardening, as e_ e_
r ¼ r^ a þ Yb en exp c3 T ln _ 1 c4 T ln ð77Þ
well as the coupled effects of temperature, strain, strain-rate and es0 e_ 0
temperature on flow stress. The proposed modified ZA model can
be represented as where Y b ð¼ kr ^ s0 Þ, is the actual reference thermal stress,
3 3
c3 ¼ k=ðg s0 lb Þ and c4 ¼ k=ðg 0 lb Þ; e_ 0 ¼ m0 bqm v 0 is defined as the
r ¼ ðC 1 þ C 2 en Þ expfðC 3 þ C 4 ÞT þ ðC 5 þ C 6 T Þlne_ g ð76Þ
reference strain-rate. p and q are a pair of parameters representing
1400
1500
1200
1250
Flow Stress (MPa)
Flow Stress (MPa)
1000
1000
800
T= 293K T= 973K
750 .
. 600
ε=0.0001s-1
ε=0.01s-1
500 400
Experimental Curve Experimental Curve
250 Z-A Model Predicted Curve 200 Z-A Model Predicted Curve
modified Z-A Model Predicted Curve modified Z-A Model Predicted Curve
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Plastic Strain (%) Plastic Strain (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 20. Comparisons between the predicted and measured stress–strain curves of IC10 at different experimental conditions: (a) T ¼ 293 K;e_ ¼ 0:01=s; (b)
T ¼ 973 K;e_ ¼ 0:0001=s [71].
400 -1
Strain rate = 0.001 s
-1 Strain rate = 1 s
Experimental data 500 Experimental data
350
Predicted data Predicted data
300
True Stress (MPa)
True Stress (MPa)
400
250
200 T 300
T
150
100 200
50
100
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
True Strain True Strain
(a) (b)
Fig. 21. Comparison between experimental and predicted flow stress, in the temperature domain 1073–1473 K and strain-rates of (a) 0:001 s1 and (b) 0:01 s1 [72].
700 can be related directly to the square root of the dislocation density,
pffiffiffiffi
OFHC Copper r ¼ alb q, where a is a material constant, l is the shear modulus;
400 s-1 adiabat
600 b is the distance between atoms in the slip direction [80]. In the
isotherm steady-state condition, the dislocation can be obtained as
500 296K
qDRV ¼ U=X ð80Þ
True tress (MPa)
400 Therefore, the flow stress during work hardening-dynamical

696K
recovery period under hot deformation can be given by the follow-
300 ing expression in terms of the strain:
0:5
200 r ¼ r2DRV þ r20 r2DRV eXe ð81Þ
1096K
100 where r is the flow stress, e is the strain, r0 and rDRV are the yield
Exp. data
Model prediction stress and the steady-state stress due to dynamic recovery,
0 respectively.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
True strain (2) Constitutive models considering dynamic recrystallization
Fig. 22. Comparison between the predicted and experimental data for annealed
OFHC copper at different temperatures with the strain-rate of 4000 s1 [73]. At high temperatures and low strain-rates, the dynamic
recrystallization phenomenon is more and more obvious. The
volume fraction of dynamic recrystallization, X D , can be expressed
the shape of crystal potential barrier, n; C 3 ; C 4 are the material con- as [21]
stants. T is the absolute temperature.
The constitutive equation developed above is one-dimensional e ec nd
X D ¼ 1 exp K d ðe P ec Þ ð82Þ
corresponding to the experimental data of uniaxial loading. How- ep
ever, it can be transformed into the tensor form of three-dimen-
sional cases when the flow stress is replaced by von Mises stress. where ec is the critical strain for occurring dynamic recrystalliza-
Fig. 22 compares the predicted and experimentally-measured flow tion. K d and nd are dynamic recrystallization parameters depending
stress. Obviously, the model well describes the flow behavior of on chemical composition and hot deformation conditions.
OFHC copper within a broad temperature range at high-strain- Meanwhile, the progress of the dynamic recrystallization, X D ,
rates, especially in the case of high temperature that the original can also be written as
ZA model does not apply.
rDRV r
Besides the above-discussed ZA and modified ZA models, there XD ¼ ðe P ec Þ ð83Þ
are some other important modifications and applications of ZA
rp rDRX
model [74–77]. However, due to the limitations of the pages of this
where rDRX and rp are the steady-state flow stress due to dynamic
paper, these models will not be discussed in details.
recrystallization and peak stress, respectively.
Then, the flow stress during dynamical recrystallization period
3.2. Constitutive model considering dynamic recovery and dynamic under hot deformation can be given by the following expression
recrystallization in terms of the strain and the steady-state flow stress:
Lin et al. [6] divided the complete thermal deformation process nd
e ec
of most metal material into four stages. Stage I (work hardening r ¼ rDRV ðrp rDRX Þ 1 exp K d ðe P ec Þ
ep
stage), Stage II (Transition stage), Stage III (Softening stage) and
Stage IV (Steady stage), especially at relatively low strain-rate, ð84Þ
which are clearly shown in Fig. 1.
Lin et al. [6] proposed the flow stress constitutive equations of the
work hardening-dynamical recovery period and dynamical recrys-
(1) Constitutive models considering dynamic recovery
tallization period for 42CrMo steel, respectively, and their models
can be expressed as,
According to the work hardening and dynamic recovery, the
evolution of the dislocation density with strain (or time) during
(1) Constitutive models considering dynamic recovery:
deformation is generally considered to depend on the following
two components: 8
>
>
>
r ¼ r2DRV þ r20 r2DRV eXe 0:5
dq=de ¼ U Xq ð78Þ >
>
>
> X ¼ 432:7153Z 0:0838
>
>
>
>
where dq=de is the rate of increase of dislocation density with >
> rDRV ¼ 122:0 lnf½Z=ðA1 Þ1=8:143 þ f½Z=ðA1 Þ2=8:143 þ 1g1=2 g
>
>
strain; U represents the work hardening, which is a multiplication >
>
< A ¼ 1:297 102 1ð850 CÞ A ¼ 1:819 1018 ð1050 CÞ
term and can be regarded as constant with respect to strain; Xq 1 1
is the contribution due to dynamic recovery through dislocation > A ¼ 3:757 1019 ð950 CÞ A ¼ 1:359 1017 ð1150 CÞ
>
>
> 1 1
annihilation and rearrangement, and X is often called the coefficient >
>
>
> r ¼ 122:0 lnf½Z=ðA Þ1=7:676
þ f½Z=ðA 2=7:676
þ 1g1=2 g
>
> 0 2 2 Þ
of dynamic recovery [78,79]. Integrating Eq. (78) gives >
>
>
>
>
> A2 ¼ 6:459 102 0ð850 CÞ A2 ¼ 2:703 1019 ð1050 CÞ
q ¼ eXe ðU=XeXe þ q0 U=XÞ ð79Þ >
:
A2 ¼ 1:269 1020 ð950 CÞ A2 ¼ 7:386 1018 ð1150 CÞ
where q0 is the initial dislocation density (when e ¼ 0). Previous
ð85Þ
studies have shown that the effective stress is negligible compared
to the internal stress at high temperature, so that the applied stress (2) Constitutive models considering dynamic recrystallization:
8 n h nd io
>
> e e The peak stress rp can be written as a function of Zener–Hollo-
> r ¼ rDRV ðrp rDRX Þ 1 exp K d ep c
> ðe P ec Þ
>
> mon parameter, considering the definition of the hyperbolic law.
>
> 8
>
> ep ¼ 0:00292Z 0:10198 " #1=2 9
>
>
> 1 <Z 1=n Z
2=n =
>
> K d ¼ 0:0270Z 0:0831
>
> rP ¼ ln þ þ1 ð88Þ
>
>
>
a : A A ;
>
> nd ¼ 1:857941
>
<
rDRV ¼ 122:0 lnf½Z=A1 1=8:143 þ f½ðZ=A1 Þ2=8:143 þ 1g1=2 g The peak strain can be calculated from
>
> 21 18
> A1 ¼ 1:297 10 ð850 CÞ A1 ¼ 1:819 10 ð1050 CÞ
> ln eP ¼ ðln Z B1 Þ=B2 ð89Þ
>
>
>
> A1 ¼ 3:757 1019 ð950 CÞ A1 ¼ 1:359 1017 ð1150 CÞ
>
> In Eq. (87) there are only contains two parameters n; w. n is taken as
>
>
>
> rDRX ¼ 122:0 lnf½Z=ðA3 Þ1=5:267 þ f½ðZ=ðA3 ÞÞ2=5:267 þ 1g1=2 g an adjustment parameter by which the regular law can be obtained
>
>
>
>
>
> A3 ¼ 3:968 1019 ð850 CÞ A3 ¼ 3:180 1018 ð1050 CÞ at various deformation temperatures. Strain-rates and w depends on
>
>
>
: deformation temperature and strain-rate.
A3 ¼ 1:229 1019 ð950 CÞ A3 ¼ 1:006 1018 ð1150 CÞ
ln r ln rP
ð86Þ h ¼ ð90Þ
ln ne
Comparisons between the experimental and predicted results are @h =@ e ¼ ke b ð91Þ
show in Fig. 23. It can be easily found that the proposed deforma-
w ¼ k=2 ð92Þ
tion constitutive models give an accurate and precise estimate of
the flow stress for 42CrMo steel under most deformation Comparisons between the model prediction results and experimen-
conditions. tal results are shown in Fig. 24, which indicates that the proposed
model of flow stress is in good agreement with the experimental
This model proposed by Lin et al. [6] combines work hardening tests data. When the value of the strain is small, the accuracy of
with DRX in terms of recrystallized volume fraction. However, model prediction will decline slightly because DRX does not occur.
there are approximately many independent parameters that have As far as the elevated deformation is concerned, as the value of the
to be determined through material test. This feature results in strain is usually much larger, this model can be widely applied to
complication for the application of the model. Theoretically, the the hot deformation of magnesium alloy AZ31B.
atomic diffusibility and the driving force of dislocation migration Mirzadeh and Najafizadeh [82] developed a new formula to pre-
are dependent on the temperature, and the dislocation density dict the DRX flow curve in a simple form with the peak stress, peak
and the accumulation of grain boundary energy are dependent strain, and four material constants for 17-4PH stainless steel. The
on the strain-rate. Therefore, Liu et al. [81] thought that the peak material constants can be determined by nonlinear regression of
stress is taken as the function of the temperature and the strain- one or more experimental flow curves. The calculated constants
rate according to the creep equation. Since the DRX is a thermally are essentially independent of deformation conditions. Their mod-
activated process, the recrystallized volume fraction can be re- el can be expressed as,
garded as the function of strain through Avrami equation. The 0:4 0:8 1:2
descending of flow stress is mainly dominated by the recrystallized
r e e e
¼aþb þc þd ð93Þ
volume fraction. So, the flow stress at different strain is regarded as rp ep ep ep
the function of the peak stress and the strain. They proposed a new The peak stress and strain are easily determined from the
model to describe the dependence of the flow stress on various experimental flow curves. These characteristic features can also
temperatures, strain-rates and strains, and the new model is ex- be expressed in terms of Zener–Hollomon parameter.
pressed as,
rP ¼ 0:66 Z 0:18 ð94Þ
r ¼ exp½wðe ep Þ2 ln ne þ ln rp ð87Þ
eP ¼ 18 103 Z 0:11 ð95Þ
250 200
Predicted Values Predicted Values
Measured Values Measured Values
200 160
50s -1 50s-1
True tress (MPa)
True tress (MPa)
150 120
10s-1 10s-1
100 80
1s-1 1s-1
0.1s-1 0.1s-1
50 40
0.01s-1 0.01s-1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(a) (b)
Fig. 23. Comparisons between predicted and measured flow stress curves of 42CrMo steel at temperatures of (a) 1323 K and (b) 1423 K [6].
200 240
--- Measured value --- Measured value
Caculated value 200 Caculated value
160
True stress (MPa)
True stress (MPa)

523K 160
120 573K
623K 120
673K
80
80
673K
40 623K
40
573K
523K
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(a) (b)
Fig. 24. Comparison between model prediction results and experimental results of AZ31B: (a) e_ ¼ 0:01 s1 ; (b) e_ ¼ 1 s1 [81].
modeled as a generalized Voce law. Their model especially consid-

ered the nonlinear dislocation drag effects that are predominant in
a strong shock regime, and can be expressed as,
1
s^ ¼ s^s þ ðs0 s^y Þ
p

s^ s^y
^s s
ln 1 1 exp ps
s0 s^y

phw s^s s^y
exp exp p 1 ð97Þ
ðs0 s
^y Þ s0 s^y
where s^ is a normalized floe stress, and s

^ ¼ s=G (s is the shear stress
and G is shear modulus). w is the plastic stain. s^s and s ^y are work
hardening saturation stress and yield stress in the thermal activa-
Fig. 25. Comparison between the experimental and calculated flow stress by the
proposed equation. (The solid lines represent the calculated results [82].)
tion regime, respectively.
s^s ¼ maxfs0 ðs0 s1 Þerf ½k Tb lnðcn=

_ wÞ; _ cnÞ
_ s0 ðw= _ bg ð98Þ
The flow curves obtained by this model were in a very good
b _ _ _ _ y2 _ _
s^y ¼ maxfy0 ðy0 y1 Þerf ½k T lnðcn=wÞ; min½y1 w=cnÞ ; s0 ðw=cnÞb g
agreement with experimental results, as shown in Fig. 25. As can
be seen, the fitting is very good, which confirms the better applica- ð99Þ
bility of this equation for flow stress calculation.
Guan et al. [46] proposed a new stress model by introducing where w_ is the plastic strain-rate, the material constants s0 and s1
temperature-compensated strain-rate (Zener–Hollomon parame- are the values that s
^s stakes at zero temperature and very high tem-
ter) to investigate the hot deformation behavior of AZ70 magne- perature, respectively. y0 and y1 have analogous interpretations. k
and c are dimensionless material constants. Scaled temperature T b
sium alloy over wide deformation degrees, strain-rates and
is defined by T b ¼ T=T m where T is temperature and T m is melting
temperatures. The formulation can be expressed as,
temperature. The parameter n_ is the equivalent scaling factor, and
8 2 3
< r ¼ A þ B0 ln Z þ B1 ðln ZÞ þ B2 ðln ZÞ
> defined by,
A ¼ C 0 þ C 1 ln e þ C 2 ðln eÞ2 þ C 3 ðln eÞ3 ð96Þ 1=3 1=2
>
: Q 1 4pq G
Z ¼ e_ exp RT n_ ¼ ð100Þ
2 3M q
here A; B0 ; B1 ; B2 ; C 0 ; C 1 ; C 2 and C 3 are material constants, which can where q is the density and M is the atomic mass. n1 has the mean-
be obtained through fitting experimental data. Some comparisons ing of the time required for the time required for a transverse wave
between the predicted and experimental stress for AZ70 at different to cross an atom, thereby the term ðw= _ is the dimensionless
_ cnÞ
temperatures and strain-rates indicate that calculated stresses have strain-rate variables. Shear modulus G is taken to be a function of
a good fitness with experimental ones. Consequently, the model can density and temperature: Gðq; TÞ ¼ G0 ðqÞð1 a T b Þ, where a is the
provide a theoretical guideline on hot forging process and numeri- G dependency on scaled temperature and G0 is the shear modulus
cal simulation of AZ70 alloy. at absolute temperature. Constants y0 ; y1 ; y2 ; y1 ; s0 ; s1 ; s1 ; k; c; p
and b can be found from flow stress experiment. The parameter h
3.3. Preston–Tonks–Wallace (PTW) model is determined from the work hardening slop data and other mate-
rial parameters such as G0 ; a, and n are usually obtained from other
In 2003, Preston et al. [61] presented a model of metallic plastic sources in the literature.
flow suitable for numerical simulations of explosive loading and Then, Preston et al. [61] fit their model in the thermal activation
high velocity impacts. The dependence of the plastic strain-rate regime to low rate and Hopkinson-bar data on six pure metals and
on applied stress at low strain-rates is of the Arrhenius form but two stainless steels, namely Cu, U, Ta, Mo, V, Be, 304SS, and 21-6-
with an activation energy that is singular at zero stress so that 9SS. Comparisons of their model predictions to the measured
the deformation rate vanishes in that limit. Work hardening is stress–strain data confirmed the validity of their models.
Kim et al. [83] thought that the PTW model with appropriate here E0 ; T m and h denote the Young’s modulus at T ¼ 0 K, the melt-
parameters most effectively describes the effects of strain-rate ing point and the characteristic homologous temperature, respec-
and temperature in a wider range, except for strain-hardening. In tively. The internal stress is defined by
order to account for the observed strain-hardening at 106 s1 _p
as well as at lower strain-rates in terms of the mechanism of ther- r l ðeP ; e_ P ; TÞ ¼ Bðe_ P ; TÞðe0 þ ep Þnðe ;TÞ ð105Þ

mally activated dislocation glide, they modified the strain-harden- T e_ max m
Bðe_ p ; TÞ ¼ B0 log ð106Þ
ing term in the original PTW model by employing the Voce Tm e_ p
equation, given as !!
T e_ p
_ nðe_ P ; TÞ ¼ n0 1 D2 log ð107Þ
s^ ¼ s^y þ AeCloge ð1 eBe Þ ð101Þ Tm e_ min
where s
^y is the initial yield stress defined as where B0 is the material constant,m is the temperature sensitivity, n0
is the strain-hardening exponent at T = 0 K, D2 is the material con-
s^y ¼ maxfy0 ðy0 y1 Þerf ½k Tb lnðcn=
_ e_ Þ; y ðe_ =cnÞ
0
_ g b
ð102Þ
stant and e_ min is the lower limit of the model. The effective stress
and A, B, and C are material constants. A represents the maximum is obtained using Arrhenius relation which couples temperature
strain-hardening amount for unit strain-rate. B controls the satura- with strain-rate, Eq. (108),
tion speed of the hardening. C represents the dependency of the
T e_ max m
maximum hardening amount on the strain-rate. r ðe_ p ; TÞ ¼ r0 1 D1 log ð108Þ
As seen in Fig. 26, results indicate that the modification was Tm e_ p
successful and that the modified PTW (MPTW) model can be used where r0 is the effective stress at T ¼ 0 K;D1 is the material con-
for the description of the deformation behavior of tantalum in stant, e_ max is the maximum strain-rate accepted for a particular
wider ranges of strain, strain rate and temperature than any other material and m* is the constant allowing to define the strain-rate
existing models. and temperature dependency [87].
The experimental observations indicate that using the original
3.4. Rusinek–Klepaczko (RK) model RK formulation some particular aspects concerning the thermo–
visco-plastic behavior of aluminum alloys cannot be defined accu-
An original visco-plastic constitutive relation, Rusinek–Klep- rately. Rusinek et al. [88] presented two extensions of the RK mod-
aczko (RK) model, was proposed by Rusinek and Klepaczko [62] el. They define respectively the macroscopic negative strain-rate
in 2001. It permits to model the visco-plastic behavior of the sheet sensitivity (NSRS) and the viscous drag that may be exhibited by
metal tested in the wide range of strain-rates. The original RK mod- Aluminum alloys under certain loading conditions. One of the
el constitutive relation takes into account the strain-hardening, the extensions is conducted by adding a new term to the equivalent
strain-rate sensitivity and temperature effects. The original RK Huber–Mises stress r . The formulation of the extension model is
model is based on an additive decomposition of the total stress expressed as
[84,85]. The stress is an addition of two terms rl and r , which de-
EðTÞ
fine respectively the strain-hardening and thermal the activation r ðep ; e_ p ; TÞ ¼ ½rl ðep ; e_ p ; TÞ þ r ðe_ p ; TÞ þ rns ðe_ p ; TÞ ð109Þ
processes. The first one is called internal stress and the second E0
one effective stress. The term acting as multiplicative factor of where rns ðe_ p ; TÞ is the stress-component accounting for the NSRS
the stresses addition EðTÞ=E0 defines the Young0 s modulus evolu- which is dependent on strain-rate and temperature. The original
tion with temperature [86] as Eq. (103). expression proposed is defined by
EðTÞ !!
r ðeP ; e_ P ; TÞ ¼
½rl ðeP ; e_ P ; TÞ þ r ðe_ P ; TÞ ð103Þ e_ trans Tm e_ p
E0 rns ðe_ p ; TÞ ¼ rns
0 log 1 D3 log ð110Þ
T Tm e_ p T e_ max
EðTÞ ¼ E0 1 exp h 1 ð104Þ
Tm T
600 600
500
500
True stress (MPa)
True stress (MPa)
400
400
300
300
200
EXP, 473K,2800s-1
200 EXP, 873K,2200s-1 100 EXP,1073K,2900s-1
MPTW, 473K,2800s-1
MPTW,1073K,2900s-1
MPTW, 873K,2200s-1
100 0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
(a) (b)
Fig. 26. Prediction capability of MPTW for experimental data at moderately high-strain-rates ð2200 2900 s1 Þ and elevated temperatures [83].
where rns 0 and D3 are material constants describing the stress de- rath ðe_ p Þ ¼ v ½1 expða e_ p Þ / e_ p ð113Þ
crease due to dynamic strain aging (DSA) and the reciprocity be- !
2
M B
tween strain-rate and temperature, respectively. Such reciprocity a¼ ð114Þ
is obtained using Arrhénius equation as it was reported previously qm b2 sy
for the effective stress r ðe_ p ; TÞ. The transition between positive and
NSRS is denoted by e_ trans and it can be obtained from experiments. where v is a material constant, a represents an effective damping
Fig. 27 show the agreement between analytical predictions and coefficient affecting the dislocation motion and sy is a high-temper-
experiments for different strain-rate, which considerably means ature yield stress.
that the model describes the DSA effect accurately. Fig. 28 compares the analytical predictions of the original for-
Another extension of the RK model [88] was proposed to define mulation of the RK model with those corresponding of the exten-
the viscous drag taking place in some FCC metals when subjected sion model. It can be found that the viscous-drag component
to high rate of deformation. The extension is carried out by adding added to the RK model allows for correct definition of the material
a new term to the equivalent Huber–Mises stress r . The updated behaviors at high rate of deformation. The viscous-drag component
formulation of the model gives exhibits great relevance on the description of the material behav-
EðTÞ iors when subjected to elevated initial temperature and high rate
r ðep ; e_ p ; TÞ ¼ ½rl ðeP ; e_ p ; TÞ þ r ðe_ p ; TÞ þ rath ðe_ p Þ ð111Þ of deformation. It compensates the underestimation on the flow
E0
stress at high-strain-rate that would be obtained using just the
where rath ðe_ p Þ is the stress-component accounting for the viscous Arrhenius equation as mechanism to describe the rate sensitivity
drag which is just dependent on strain-rate. In comparison with of the material, So, the predictions provided by the extended RK
the NSRS component, this new term is not multiplied by the depen- models get satisfactory agreement with the experimental data.
dency of the Young’s modulus with temperature, and is given as The strain-rate sensitivity of many FCC metals cannot be de-
! ! fined using only the reciprocity strain-rate-temperature proposed
M2 B by Arrhenius equation. At high-strain-rates, those materials show
rath rath ; e_ p / e_ p ð112Þ
qm b2 a strong increase of the flow stress due to viscous drag. Such
behaviors are defined by the addition of an athermal stress-compo-
where M is the Taylor factor, B is the drag coefficient, qm is the mo- nent to the original formulation of the RK model. Such procedure
bile dislocation density and b is the magnitude of the Burgers vec- allows for a correct definition not just of the strain-rate sensitivity
tor. The specific term of rath is given as, but also of the temperature sensitivity of the material.
Fig. 27. NSRS description using extended RK model and comparison with experiments at room temperature: (a) 0:00041 s1 ; (b) 0:51 s1 [88].
Fig. 28. Description of the flow stress evolution along plastic strain using RK and extended RK models and comparison with experiments at 500 K: (a) 2591 s1 ; (b) 5192 s1
[88].
In 2010, base on the original RK model, Rusinek et al. [8] pre- Fig. 29, the experimental data are compared with analytical predic-
sented another extension physical-based constitutive relation for tions of the model for two different initial temperatures at a high-
defining the thermo–visco-plastic behaviors of FCC metals with strain-rate e_ ¼ 4000 s1 . In both cases the model defines correctly
dependence on strain on thermal activation processes. strain-hardening and flow stress level of the material.
EðTÞ
r ¼ ½r þ r
l þ r vs ð115Þ
E0 3.5. Voyiadjis–Almasri (VA) model
where each term here is defined as follows: In 2008, Voyiadjis and Almasri [63] developed a constitutive
model, Voyiadjis–Almasri model (VA model), to describe the
(a) The temperature-dependent Young’s modulus EðTÞ=E0 factor mechanical behavior of face centered cubic (FCC) metals under a
is expressed as, wide range of temperatures and strain-rates, based on the depen-

T Tm dence of the activation energy on temperature, strain-rate, and
EðTÞ ¼ E0 1 exp h 1 ;T > 0 ð116Þ stress. An expression for the flow stress is proposed in terms of
Tm T
micromechanical terms such as mobile dislocation density and
where E0 , and T m and h denote the Young’s modulus at T ¼ 0 K, the Burgers vector, as well as macro-mechanical based state variables
melting temperature and the characteristic homologous tempera- such as stress and material constants that include threshold and
ture, respectively. transition temperature. The formulation is given as,
(b) Internal stress-component r l is given as

T
r l ¼ Y ð117Þ r ¼ ðBenp Þ 1 þ B1 Tðe_ p Þ1=m B2 T exp A 1 þ Ya ð122Þ
Tt
where Y is the flow stress on un-deformed material. 2 31=m
(c) Effective stress-component r
is given as K 4

v ~ qm
0 mb
5
B1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ð123Þ
Q s ml
~ k1 k2 bq k3 q 1
T e_ max 1=n2 b m f
r ðep ; e_ p ; TÞ ¼ r0 1 n1 log ð118Þ Qc
Tm e_ p B2 ¼ ð124Þ
AT t Q s
where n1 and n2 are material constants describing temperature and
rate sensitivities of the material, respectively. T m is the melting where T t is the transition temperature, beyond which the thermal
temperature and e_ max the maximum strain-rate level for a particular activation energy maintains a constant. A is a constant value. m is
material. the strain-rate sensitivity. Q c is the thermal activation energy at
(d) Viscous drag component r v s is given as T t . e is the equivalent plastic strain-rate, b is the Burgers vector.
qm is the average mobile dislocation density; qf is the average for-
r v s r v s ðM; qm ; B; b; e_ p Þ / e_ p ð119Þ
est dislocation density. k1 is a constant coefficient related to the
where M is the Taylor factor, B is the drag coefficient, qm is the mo- multiplication of mobile dislocations; k2 is a constant coefficient re-
bile dislocation density and b is the magnitude of the Burgers lated to the mobile dislocations mutual annihilation and trapping;
vector. k3 is a constant coefficient related to the mobile dislocation immo-
bilization through interaction with forest dislocations. m ~ is the
Based on experimental observations, Kapoor and Nemat-Nasser Schmidt orientation tensor which has a maximum value of 0.5,
[89] set the following relations, and l is the dislocation distance., and v 0 ¼ d=t w is the reference dis-
location velocity, where d is the average distance the dislocation
r v s ðe_ p Þ ¼ v½1 expðaÞe_ p ð120Þ moves between the obstacles, and t w is the time that a dislocation
!
2
M B waits at an obstacle. Y a is the part of stress that is temperature
a¼ ð121Þ independent.
qm b2 sy
In Fig. 30, the analytical predictions of the three models (RK
where v is a material constant, a represents an effective damping [62], NNL [69] and VA [63] models) and their comparisons with
coefficient affecting the dislocation motion and sy is the athermal experiments for two different strain-rate levels at room tempera-
yield stress. ture are depicted [63]. Under quasi-static loading, Fig. 30a, all mod-
Rusinek et al. [8] investigated the behavior of BCC metal OFHC els offer predictions in a agreement with experiments. Flow stress
copper, based on the modified RK model present in literature. In level and strain-hardening are well described. The maximum
Fig. 29. Description of the flow stress evolution with plastic strain using the MRK model and comparison with experiments at 4000 s1 : (a) T 0 ¼ 500 K; (b) T 0 ¼ 700 K [8].
Fig. 30. Description of the flow stress evolution with strain-rate using the MRK, NNL and VA models and comparison with experiments at room temperature: (a) 0:1 s1 ; (b)
8000 s1 [63].
disagreement appears for NNL model at large deformation. Under mended by Bodner and Partom that D0 ¼ 104 s1 for quasi-static
high loading rate, Fig. 30b, the predictions obtained from the modeling and D0 ¼ 106 s1 for dynamic modeling.
MRK model offer a better fitting with the experimental data in Chen et al. [90] proposed a modified BP model to study the
comparison with other constitutive descriptions. In this case, mechanical properties and constitutive relationships of 30CrMnSiA
although NNL and VA relations describe properly the strain-hard- steel after heating at high rate. The modified BP model considers
ening evolution, they underestimate the flow stress level the thermal softening effect in a simple way,
(Fig. 30b). Rusinek et al. [63] analysis that predictions provided !n !
by the MRK model get satisfactory agreement with the experimen- p 2D0 r 1 3A2
dx ¼ pffiffiffi exp ð127Þ
tal data taken as reference. This agreement is comparable to that 3 jrj 2 r2
obtained using NNL and VA models for the whole range of strain-
1 2 n þ 1 1=n
rates and initial temperatures considered as shown in Fig. 30. From A2 ¼ Z exp C 1 T 0n 1 ð128Þ
3 n
the analysis of the thermal activation behaviors proposed by each !
formulation, the main importance of taking into account the rate- W_p
Z ¼ Z 1 þ ðZ 0 Z 1 Þ exp m ð129Þ
temperature reciprocity in order to describe the material behaviors Z0
is revealed. This consideration places the MRK and NNL models in _ p ¼ rdp
W x ð130Þ
certain advantage in comparison with the VA and NNL models for
describing the deformation behaviors of annealed OFHC copper. T T0
T ¼ ð131Þ
The RK model is revealed as a good alternative to other physically T melt T 0
based relations proposed in the literature for modeling behaviors p
where dx ; W_ p and T are the plastic strain-rate, plastic work, and the
of determined FCC metals. Combination of physical background non-dimensional temperature, respectively. Z 0 ; Z 1 ; D0 ; m; C 1 and n1
with a limited number of material constants makes it attractive are constitutive constants. Z denotes the deformation history of
for applications, where a proper definition of rate and temperature material, and it is related to the dislocation history of material ,
sensitivities of the material is required. and it is related to the dislocation density while n relates to disloca-
tion velocity.
3.6. Bodner–Partom (BP) model Based on the Anand model [91], they suggest a new constitutive
model where a hyperbolic sine function is adopted to depict the
In 1975, Bodner–Partom model (BP model) was proposed by relationship among flow stress, strain-rate and temperature. This
Bodner and Partom to represent elastic–visco-plastic strain-hard- function encompasses exponential and power law regimes, and it
ening material behavior for large deformations and arbitrary load- can be applied to a wide range of strain-rates and temperatures,
ing histories [64]. An essential feature of this model is that the total the new model is given as,
deformation rate is considered to be separable into elastic and
inelastic components, which are functions of state variables at all r ¼ ðr0 þ K 1 em Þ expðC 1 T n1 Þ þ C sin1 ½ðzÞ1=n ð132Þ
stages of loading and unloading. This model is independent of e_ p
any yield criteria or loading and unloading conditions. The viscos- z¼ ð133Þ
A expðQ =RTÞ
ity, work hardening and other effects in terms of the microstruc-
tural evolution of materials under thermo-mechanical loading where R is the gas constant, T absolute temperature, and Q the
were considered. In particular, the Bodner–Partom model, which activation energy, r0 ; K 1 ; m; C 1 ; n1 ; C; n and A are the constitutive
has a reliable theoretical background, has been applied success- constants. In order to check these constitutive models and material
fully in many fields. The formulation of Bondner–Pattom model constants, experimental results and theoretical predictions are
is given as compared and shown in Fig. 31. It is clear that the constitutive mod-
2n ! els adopted in this paper account reasonably well for the
2 r nþ1 Z mechanical behaviors of 30CrMnSiA in the ranges of temperature
e_ p ¼ pffiffiffi D0 exp ð125Þ
3 jrj 2n r and strain-rate considered here.
R
m rdep
Z ¼ Z 1 þ ðZ 0 Z 1 Þ exp ð126Þ 3.7. Cellular Automaton (CA) model
Z0
where Z 0 ; Z 1 ; m; n and D0 are the material parameters. D0 is the max- The accuracy of nucleation parameter is a critical factor in
imum strain-rate that the material can experience. It was recom- the simulation of microstructure evolution during dynamic
2000 2000
1600 1600
Flow Stress (MPa)

Flow stress (MPa)
1200 1200
ε = 0.1 ε = 0.1
strain rate = 1s-1 strain rate = 0.001s-1
800 800
Experimental Experimental
Huanget al. Huanget al.
400 400
Bodner-Partom Bodner-Partom
Power-Law Power-Law
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Temperature (ºC) Temerature (ºC)
(a) (b)
Fig. 31. Comparison of theoretical and experimental values on thermal softening of 30CrMnSiA at a strain-rate of (a) 1 s1 and (b) 103 s1 [90].
recrystallization (DRX). Based on the flow stress curve under hot model is constructed through least square method. The flow chart
deformation conditions, Jin et al. [92] proposed a new approach of the identification procedure, which combines the CA model and
to identify the nucleation parameter during DRX, in which a cellu- ARSM-based optimization, is shown in Fig. 32.
lar automaton (CA) model [65] is applied to quantitatively simulate In Fig. 33, the simulated stress–strain curve is compared with
the microstructure evolution and flow stress during hot deforma- the measured results of an oxygen-free high-conductivity (OFHC)
tion. Unlike the conventional constitutive models, CA model is an copper during DRX at the temperature of 775 K and the strain-rate
inverse analysis method. The CA method deals with an array of cell, of 0:002 s1 . The simulated flow stress is calculated from the mean
the evolution of which is characterized by the state of cell that can value of dislocation density on the simulation lattice at each time
be determined by the neighborhood and transformation rule. With step [92]. Fig. 33 shows that the new method can effectively deter-
progressing deformation, the variation of dislocation density can mine the nucleation rate and improves the simulation accuracy of
be calculated by the following equation. flow behaviors for OFHC copper.
With the same method, Jin et al. [93] investigation on strain
dq pffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffi dependence of dynamic recrystallization behavior of a low carbon
¼ k1 q k2 q ð134Þ
de steel deformed at 1173 K and 0:1 s1 using cellular automata (CA)
model. Fig. 34 shows the comparison of simulated DRV and DRX
where k1 and k2 are the parameters representing work hardening
curves with the measured DRX for the constant nucleation model
and dynamic recovery, respectively.
and dislocation-related nucleation model, respectively. Chen
When the dislocation density exceeds the critical value qc for
et al. [94] studied microstructural evolution of 30Cr2Ni4MoV rotor
nucleation of DRX, new nuclei form on grain boundaries. For
steel during the high-temperature austenitizing and dynamic
two-dimensional cellular automaton, a nucleation rate I is defined,
recrystallization (DRX). Fig. 35 is the comparison the simulated
on the unit length of grain boundary where q > qc , as the number
and experimentally-measured flow stress–strain curves under dif-
of new nuclei generated per unit time. For each cell along boundary
ferent thermo-mechanical conditions, indicating there are good
where dislocation density exceeds a critical value, its nucleation
accordance between simulated DRX curves with the measured
probability P N in the time step Dt is given by
DRX in Fig. 35.
I Dt It is important to develop thermo-mechanical processes models
PN ¼ ð135Þ in order to predict and control the microstructure evolution and
N CA
the mechanical properties of the steel during the manufacturing
where N CA ¼ 1=LCA is the number of cells along per unit length of process. Currently, most of the existing models are empirical or
boundary, and LCA is the cell length. semi-empirical because high temperature plastic deformation in-
The transformation probability PG can be expressed as volves complex physical phenomena such as mechanics, metal-
lurgy and heat transfer. As mentioned above, investigation on
v i Dt dynamic recrystallization behavior by the CA method is based on
PG ¼ ð136Þ
LCA physical metallurgical principles. As a result, the methodology
To ensure that both P N and P G are less than 1, an upper limit of developed in literatures [92–94] can be used to identify the value
Dt has to be set. Therefore, the upper limit of Dt can be defined as of model parameter and to explore its correlation with thermo-
the ratio of the cell size LCA to the maximum growth velocity v max . mechanical process parameters, which will contribute to the
development of analytical model for thermo-mechanical process.
2
LCA k2 LCA
Dt ¼ ¼ ð137Þ 3.8. Other physical-based model
v max msk1
2
Jin et al. [92] applied the adaptive response surface method Using the thermal activation theory, Cai et al. [66] by proposed
(ARSM) as optimization model to provide input parameters to CA a novel constitutive relation to describe the mechanical behavior of
model and evaluate the outputs of the latter. The flow stress is sim- materials in a wide range of strain-rate and temperature. The pro-
ulated by CA model at the sample points and the response surface posed model combines the advantages of ZA [28] and MTS [95]
Fig. 32. Flow chart of new method by coupling CA and ARSM [92].
This model has something in common with the MTS model in

the description of the activation energy profile, and shares the tem-
perature and strain-rate coupling term with the ZA model. Also,
the comparisons of the predictions of the stress strain curves at dif-
ferent strain-rates and temperatures with the experimental results
shows a good agreement with relevant experimental results,
demonstrating that it can well characterize the strain-rate and
temperature-dependent behavior of materials in a wide range of
strain-rate and temperature.
4. Artificial neural network (ANN) model
Generally, the hot deformation behavior of materials is usually

described by the above-reviewed phenomenological or physical-
Fig. 33. Comparison of simulated and measured stress–strain curves of OFHC
copper [92]. based models. The response of the deformation behaviors of the
materials under elevated temperatures and strain-rates is highly
nonlinear, and many factors affecting the flow stress are also non-
models. It can appropriately predict the dependence of the flow linear, which make the accuracy of the flow stress predicted by the
stress on the strain-rate and temperature, as well as the variation regression methods low and the applicable range limited. How-
of the activation volume with the thermally activated stress and ever, the field of neural networks can be thought of as being related
temperature. The new model is expressed as to artificial intelligence, machine learning, parallel processing, sta-
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi tistics, and other fields. The attraction of artificial neural networks
r ¼ c1 þ c3 l 1 ec2 e þ c4 l½ð1 þ qÞðe_ =e_ 0 Þc5 T 11=p ; (ANN) is that they are best suited to solve the problems that are the
for BCC ð138Þ most difficult to solve by traditional computational methods. Arti-
ficial Neural networks can provide a fundamentally different
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r ¼ c1 þ l 1 ec2 e ðc3 þ c4 ½ð1 þ qÞðe_ =e_ 0 Þc5 T 11=p ; approach to materials modeling and material processing control
techniques than statistical or numerical methods. One of the main
for FCC ð139Þ
advantages of this approach is that it is not necessary to postulate a
where ci ði ¼ 1; 2 . . . 5Þare model parameters. l is shear modules. mathematical model at first or identify its parameters using a neu-
Taking p ¼ 1, the flow stress of BCC crystal can be written as, ral network. In recent years, some efforts have been made to the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi applications of ANN in industry or academic study [96–111].
r ¼ c1 þ l0 eb0 T c3 1 ec2 e þ c6 ðe_ =e_ 0 Þc5 T c4 ð140Þ Artificial neural networks (ANN) are a large class of parallel
processing architectures, which can mimic complex and nonlinear
where c6 ¼ c4 ð1 þ qÞ. relationships through the application of many nonlinear
Constant nucleation model 160

Dislocation-related nucleation model
160
True stress (MPa)

True stress (MPa)
120 120
80 80
40 simulated DRX curve 40 simulated DRX curve

measured DRX curve measured DRX curve
simulated DRV curve simulated DRV curve
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a) (b)
Fig. 34. Comparison of the simulated DRV and DRX curves with the measured DRX curve at 1173 K and 0:1 s1 for (a) the constant nucleation model; (b) the dislocation-
related nucleation model [93].
120 120
True stress (MPa)
True stress (MPa)

90 1243K, 0.1s-1 90 1243K, 0.1s-1
1243K, 0.01s-1
1243K, 0.01s-1
60 60
1243K, 0.001s-1 1243K, 0.001s-1
30 1343K, 0.01s-1 30 1343K, 0.01s-1

1443K, 0.01s-1 1443K, 0.01s-1
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a) (b)
Fig. 35. Comparison the simulated and experimental flow stress–strain curves under different thermo-mechanical conditions: (a) experimental; (b) simulated by CA method
[94].
Forward
Imput Layer Hidden Layer Output Layer
wij y1 wjk
x1 1 1 1 z1
x2 2 2 y2 2 z2
Output
Target
x3
3 3 y3 3 z3
xI I K
J yJ zK
Backward
Fig. 36. Schematic structure of back propagation neural network [96].
processing units called neurons. The relationship can be ‘learned’ grouped in different layers designed as an input layer, hidden lay-
by a neural network through adequate training from the experi- ers and on output layer, as shown in Fig. 36. Signals are supplied to
mental data. It can not only make decisions based on incomplete the neurons of the input layer; each neuron of this layer then gen-
and disorderly information, but can also generalize rules from erates an output signal, which is transferred to the neurons of the
those cases on which it was trained and apply these rules to new hidden layer. The output signals are generated by the last layer
cases. Usually, the structure of an ANN is hierarchical with neurons (output layer). Of course, there is no theoretical limit on the num-
140 Strain rate=0.01s-1 T=1050oC

Experimental Results Experimental Results
ANN Prediction 200
120 ANN Prediction
50s-1
100 o
True stress (MPa) 850 C
True stress (MPa)

150
o
80 950 C 10s-1
1s-1
60 o 100
1050 C
0.1s-1
40
o 50
1150 C 0.01s-1
20
0 0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(a) (b)
Fig. 37. Comparisons between the experimental and predicted flow stress of 42CrMo steel using the BP ANN. (a) e_ ¼ 0:01 s1 ; (b) T ¼ 1050 C[96].
ber of hidden layers but typically there is just one or two. A max- are included, due to the length limitations of this review article.
imum of four layers (three hidden layers plus an output layer) are Some important conclusions can be made as followings.
enough to solve problems of any complexity [96].
The multilayer feed forward network with back propagation (1) The phenomenological models do not call for detailed
(BP) learning is the most popular of all ANN models [96–101]. understandings of the physical phenomena involved in
The feed forward back propagation neural network is actually com- the deformation process, and the constitutive relationship
posed of two neural network algorithms: (a) feed forward and (b) between the flow stress and process variables can be
back propagation. It is not necessary to always use ‘feed forward’ determined by the regression analysis. Until recently, many
and ‘back propagation’ together, but this is usually the case. phenomenological models were established for different
The convergence criterion for the network is determined by the metals or alloys, but not all of them can well describe
average root mean square (RMS) error between the desired and the flow stress. Therefore, some new or modified models
predicted output values, given as, were proposed based on initial phenomenological models.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Besides, various influencing factors, including strain, tem-
1 XN
1 Xp perature and strain-rate, on the flow stress are usually
ERMS ¼ ðdji yji Þ2 ð141Þ
N i¼1 p j¼1 not independent. So, the coupling effects of the processing
parameters on the flow behaviors should be paid more
where ERMS is the average RMS, N is the number of training or test- attention to the development of the constitutive models
ing data, p is the number of variables in the output, dj ðnÞ and yj ðnÞ in the future.
are the target output and network output for neuron j, respectively. (2) Physical-based models take into account the thermal defor-
For the predictions of flow stress of the hot deformed material, mation mechanism of metal in the deformation process,
strain ðeÞ, strain-rate ðlog e_ Þ and temperature (T) are often used as which includes working hardening due to dislocation and
the inputs of the model, while the flow stress ðrÞ is the output of dislocation interactions, and dynamic softening ascribe to
the ANN model. Meanwhile, ANN requires that the range of both thermal activation. Investigations show that there is an
input data and output data should be 0-1, consequently, the data intensive competition between working hardening and
must be unified. dynamic softening in real metal hot deformation process.
Lin et al. [96] investigated the effects of deformation strain on Most of the physical-based models involving the theory of
the flow behaviors of 42CrMo steel by ANN model. Fig. 37 shows thermodynamics and kinetics of slips can give a reasonable
the comparisons between the experimental and predicted flow description of flow stress. However, there are many material
stress of 42CrMo steel using the BP ANN under strain-rate of parameters in the physical-based constitutive models, and
0:01 s1 and deformation temperature of 1050 °C. As can be seen the determination of these material parameters requires
from Fig. 37, a very good correlation between experimental and some precision apparatuses. Therefore, physical-based mod-
predicted result has been obtained, which indicates that the excel- els are often very difficult for many investigators without
lent capability of the developed ANN model to predict the flow the precision apparatuses. Meanwhile, their complexities
stress level, the strain-hardening and flow softening stages is limit their use in the commercially used finite element
obvious. software.
(3) Artificial neural network (ANN) models provide an efficient
5. Conclusions alternative, and are increasingly used in modeling and pre-
diction of the hot deformation behavior of materials. The
This paper reviews the constitutive models of metals or alloys attraction of artificial neural networks (ANN) is that they
during hot working, which have been reported on the international are best suited to solve the problems that are the most diffi-
publications in the recent years. According to their mechanism and cult to solve by traditional computational methods. How-
characteristics, these models are divided into three categories: ever, the successful application of ANN model is strongly
phenomenological, physical-based and artificial neural network dependent on the availability of extensive, the high quality
models. For each kind of these models, some typical examples data and characteristic variables, and the modeling offers
were given and discussed in this paper. However, not all models no physical insight.
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A Critical Revie of Experimental Results and Constitutie Descriptions For Metals and Alloys in Hot Working

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中国科技论文在线 Materials and Design 32 (2011) 1733–1759 http://www.paper.edu.

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials and Design

A critical review of experimental results and constitutive descriptions for metals

1. Introduction measured data, a number of research groups have made efforts to

True Stress (MPa)

True Stress (MPa)

tensile tests of antalum, tantalum alloy with 2.5% tungsten, and

correlations for the 10 h milled Cu (d = 32 nm) and Al (d = 82 nm)

rate. However, the ﬂow deformation behavior of AZ31 magnesium

r ¼ K en e_ m expðbT þ seÞ ð38Þ

True Stress (MPa)

20 Predicted 1150 C 50 Predicted

True Stress (MPa)

M DG0 bT (2) when T – T r ; e_ ¼ e_ r then rðe_ Þ ¼ 1; f ðTÞ can be determined

Flow Stress (MPa)

True Stress (MPa)

400 Therefore, the ﬂow stress during work hardening-dynamical

True stress (MPa)

modeled as a generalized Voce law. Their model especially consid-

where s^ is a normalized ﬂoe stress, and s

s^s ¼ maxfs0 ðs0 s1 Þerf ½k Tb lnðcn=

Flow Stress (MPa)

This model has something in common with the MTS model in

4. Artiﬁcial neural network (ANN) model

Generally, the hot deformation behavior of materials is usually

Constant nucleation model 160

True stress (MPa)

40 simulated DRX curve 40 simulated DRX curve

True stress (MPa)

30 1343K, 0.01s-1 30 1343K, 0.01s-1

Fig. 36. Schematic structure of back propagation neural network [96].

140 Strain rate=0.01s-1 T=1050oC

True stress (MPa)

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