Solution of State Equations

EE-601: Linear System Theory

Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi

School of Electrical Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology Goa
 Solution of Continuous LTV State Equations
Problem #1
Calculate the state transition matrix for the differential equation
𝑡 2
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡), 𝐴 𝑡 =
0 −1
• 𝑥1 = 𝑡𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 ,
• 𝑥2 = −𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑡0 )
• 𝑥1 = 𝑡𝑥1 + 2𝑏𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑡0)
• 𝑥1 = 𝑡𝑥1 + 2𝑏𝑒 −𝑡
1 1 1
−2𝑡 2 −2𝑡 2 −𝑡−2𝑡 2
• 𝑒 𝑥1 − 𝑡𝑒 𝑥1 = 2𝑏𝑒
1 1
𝑑 −2𝑡 2 −𝑡−2𝑡 2
• 𝑒 𝑥1 = 2𝑏𝑒
𝑑𝑡
1
−2𝑡 2
1
−2𝑡0 2 𝑡 −−12
• 𝑒 𝑥1 − 𝑒 .𝑎 = 2 𝑡0
𝑒 2 𝑑. 𝑏 2
 1
𝑡 2 −𝑡02
1
−2𝑡0 2 𝑡 −−12
• 𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑒 2 . 𝑎 + 2𝑒 𝑡0
𝑒 2 𝑑. 𝑏
• 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑡0) . 𝑏
• Since the state transition matrix uniquely satisfies
𝑥 𝑡 =  𝑡, 𝑡0 𝑥0 ,

1
𝑡 2 −𝑡02
1
−2(𝑡 2 −𝑡0 ) 𝑡 −−12
𝑒 2 2𝑒 𝑒 2 𝑑
•  𝑡, 𝑡0 = 𝑡0
0 𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑡0)

3
 Another method is to solve for  𝑡, 𝑡0
From definition as the unique solution
to the differential equation: 𝑋(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑡 𝑋 𝑡 , 𝑋 𝑡0 = 𝐼

11 𝑡, 𝑡0 12 𝑡, 𝑡0
 𝑡, 𝑡0 =
21 𝑡, 𝑡0 22 𝑡, 𝑡0

Differential equation uniquely satisfied by  𝑡, 𝑡0

11 𝑡, 𝑡0 12 𝑡, 𝑡0 𝐴11 𝑡 𝐴12 𝑡 11 𝑡, 𝑡0 12 𝑡, 𝑡0

=
21 𝑡, 𝑡0 22 𝑡, 𝑡0 𝐴21 𝑡 𝐴22 𝑡 21 𝑡, 𝑡0 22 𝑡, 𝑡0
𝑡 2 11 𝑡, 𝑡0 12 𝑡, 𝑡0
=
0 −1 21 𝑡, 𝑡0 22 𝑡, 𝑡0

4
This can be expressed as 4 differential equations, one each for
11 𝑡, 𝑡0 , 12 𝑡, 𝑡0 , 21 𝑡, 𝑡0 , 22 𝑡, 𝑡0

11 = 𝑡11 + 221 11 𝑡, 𝑡0 = 1,

12 = 𝑡11 + 222 12 𝑡, 𝑡0 = 0,
21 = −21 21 𝑡, 𝑡0 = 0,
22 = −22 22 𝑡, 𝑡0 =1

From the differential equations for

21 𝑡, 𝑡0 = 0, 22 𝑡, 𝑡0 = 𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑡0)

5
Substituting into the differential equations for 11 and 22

11 = 𝑡11 + 2𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑡0)

12 = 𝑡12

6
 Determination of Eigen Vectors

Case 1: All the eigen values are distinct

Case 2: Some eigen values are multiple roots of the characteristic
equation

7
 Similarity transformation

𝐴 − λi 𝐼 xi = 0

𝐴x1 = λ1 x1 , 𝐴x2 = λ2 x2 , … , 𝐴xn = λn xn

𝑀 = x1 x2 … xn

 = 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀

 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔 λ1 λ2 … λn

8
 Problem

• Determine the eigenvalues and corresponding

eigenvectors associated with a system having an A
matrix
−2 1
𝐴= 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 − 𝐼 = 0
2 −3
 + 2 −1
𝑑𝑒𝑡 = 0, 2 + 5 + 4 = 0, λ1 = −1, λ2 = −4,
−2  + 3

1 −1 𝑚11 0
𝐴 − λi 𝐼 mi = 0, =
−2 2 𝑚21 0
Both of these equations give the same result; m11 = m21. The
eigenvector cannot be further defined, and although one
particular solution is 1
𝑚11 = 9
1
general solution must be defined in terms of an unknown
scalar multiplier α1
𝛼1
provided 𝛼1 ≠ 0 𝑚1 = 𝛼
1

for the second eigenvalue λ2 = −4

−2 −1 𝑚12 0
𝑚 =
−2 −1 22 0
−2𝑚12 = 𝑚22
𝛼2 𝛼2 ≠ 0
general solution 𝑚2 = −2𝛼
2

all eigenvectors corresponding λ2 = −4

1 15 −7
−2 −30 14
10
system matrix A has no repeated eigenvalues, and that the n distinct
eigenvalues are λ1 , λ2 ,…., λn
Define the modal matrix M by an arbitrary set of corresponding
eigenvectors 𝑀= m m … m
1 2 n
nth order system the homogeneous response of each of the n state
variables xi(t) is a weigh ted sum of n exponential components
𝑛

𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = mij 𝑒 𝑗 𝑡
𝑥1 𝑡 m11 m12 … m1𝑛 𝑒 1 𝑡 𝑗=1
𝑥2 𝑡 m21
= ⋮
m22 … m2n 𝑒 2 𝑡 𝑒 1𝑡
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ 𝑡
𝑥ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑀 𝑒 2
𝑒 𝑛 𝑡
𝑥𝑛 𝑡 m31 m32 … m3n
⋮
𝑒 1 𝑡 𝑒 𝑛 𝑡
= 𝛼1 m1 𝛼2 m2 … 𝛼𝑛 mn 𝑒 2 𝑡
⋮
𝑒 𝑛 𝑡
11
 𝛼1 𝑒 1𝑡
𝑥ℎ 𝑡 = m1 m2 … mn 𝛼 𝑒 2𝑡
2
⋮
𝛼𝑛 𝑒 𝑛 𝑡

𝑒 1𝑡 0 … 0 𝛼1
= m1 m2 … mn 0 𝑒 2𝑡 … 0 𝛼2
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
… 𝑒 𝑛 𝑡
0 0 𝛼𝑛

= 𝑀𝑒 𝑡 𝛼
𝑒 1 𝑡 0 … 0
𝑥ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑀𝑒 𝑡 𝑀−1 𝑥(0)
𝑒 𝑡 = 0 𝑒 2 𝑡 … 0
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮  𝑡 = 𝑀𝑒 𝑡 𝑀−1
0 0 … 𝑒 𝑛 𝑡 12
Given a linear system of order n,x = Ax,
A has n distinct eigenvalues, the homogeneous response
of any state variable in the system from an arbitrary set of
initial conditions x(0) is a linear combination of n modal
components A = ei t , where the i are the eigenvalues of
A.

13
 Problem

−2 1
• 𝐴= λ1 = −1, λ2 = −4,
2 −3
1 1 1 1 1 2 1
• 𝑚1 = , 𝑚2 = ,M = , 𝑀−1 =
1 −2 1 −2 3 1 −1
−𝑡
𝑡
• 𝑒 = 𝑒 0
0 𝑒 −4𝑡
 1 1 1 𝑒 −𝑡 0 2 1
•  𝑡 = [𝑀𝑒 𝑀 ] =
𝑡 −1
3 1 −2 0 𝑒 −4𝑡 1 −1
1 2𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡
=
3 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡 + 2𝑒 −4𝑡

14
 Problem

𝑋ℎ 𝑡 =  𝑡 𝑋(0)

𝑥1 𝑡 1 2𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 1
=
𝑥2 𝑡 3 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡 + 2𝑒 −4𝑡 2

4 −𝑡 1 −4𝑡
𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝑒
3 3

4 −𝑡 2 −4𝑡
𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑒 + 𝑒
3 3

15
 0 100
𝐴= 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 − 𝐼 = 0
−1 0
2 + 100 = 0
λ1 = 𝑗10, λ2 = −𝑗10,
1 1
𝐴 − λi 𝐼 mi = 0 Choose arbitrary constants m1 = , m2 =
0.1𝑗 −0.1𝑗

1 1 1 −0.1𝑗 −1
M= , 𝑀−1 = −0.2𝑗
0.1𝑗 −0.1𝑗 −0.1𝑗 1

 𝑡 = 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀

𝑒 𝑗10𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗10𝑡 𝑒 𝑗10𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗10𝑡

10
2 2𝑗
=
𝑒 𝑗10𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗10𝑡 𝑒 𝑗10𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗10𝑡
−0.1
2𝑗 2
cos(10𝑡) 10sin(10𝑡)
=
−0.1 sin(10𝑡) cos(10𝑡)

16
 Systems with Complex Eigenvalues
Modal components of the response are defined by the eigenvalues of
the matrix A, as found from the roots of the characteristic equation

𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 − 𝐼 = 0

Polynomial of degree n in λ, with constant and real coefficients.

Any polynomial equation with real coefficients must have roots that are
real, or which appear in complex conjugate pairs. The eigenvalues of A
are therefore either real, or occur as pairs of the form

λ𝑖,𝑖+1 = 𝜎 ± 𝑗

In such cases there are modal response components in

the matrix 𝑒 𝑡 of the form 𝑒 (𝜎±𝑗 )𝑡 = 𝑒 𝜎𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝑡

However, when the state transition matrix is computed the conjugate

components combine, and the Euler relationships
17
 1 𝑗𝑡
sin 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑡
2𝑗
1 𝑗𝑡
cos 𝑡 = 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑡
2
may be used to express the elements of the state transition matrix in a
purely real form
𝑒 𝜎𝑡 sin(𝑡) or 𝑒 𝜎𝑡 cos(𝑡)

18
 Problem
Transform the system 𝑥1 −2 1 𝑥1 0
= 𝑥 + 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥2 2 −3 2 1

to diagonal form and find the homogeneous response to

an arbitrary set of initial conditions.
−2 1
𝐴= , λ1 = −1, λ2 = −4,
2 −3
1 1 1 2 1
M= , 𝑀−1 =
1 −2 3 1 −1
 −1
1 2 1
𝑋 =𝑀 𝑋= 𝑋
3 1 −1

19
  2 1
𝑥1 t = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡
3 3
 1 1
𝑥2 t = 𝑥1 𝑡 − 𝑥2 𝑡
3 3
𝑋 𝑡 = 𝑀 𝐴𝑀 𝑋 + 𝑀−1 B u
−1

𝑥1  t 1 2 1 −2 1 1 1 𝑥1  1 2 1 0
= + 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥2  t 3 1 −1 2 −3 1 −2 𝑥2  3 1 −1 1
1
−1 0 𝑥1 
= + 3 𝑢(𝑡)
0 −4 𝑥2  1
−
3

20
 −𝑡
 𝑡 =𝑒 =  𝑡 𝑒 0
0 𝑒 −4𝑡
𝑥ℎ  t =  𝑡 𝑋  0 : 𝑥1  t = 𝑥1  0 𝑒 −𝑡
𝑥2  t = 𝑥2  0 𝑒 −𝑡
 2 1
𝑥1 0 = 𝑥1 0 + 𝑥2 0
3 3
 1 1
𝑥2 0 = 𝑥1 0 − 𝑥2 0
3 3

21
 Eigenvectors for Complex Eigenvalues
Find the eigenvectors/values for

−2 −2 −9
𝐴 = −1 1 −3
1 1 4

−2 −  −2 −9
𝐴 − 𝐼 = −1 1− −3 = 1 −  2 − 2 + 2
1 1 4−

 = 1,1 + 𝑖, 1 − 𝑖

22
 Eigenvector for =1+𝑖

−2 − (1 + 𝑖) −2 −9 −3 − 𝑖 −2 −9
−1 1 − (1 + 𝑖) −3 = −1 −𝑖 −3 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
1 1 4 − (1 + 𝑖) 1 1 3−𝑖
−3 − 𝑖 −2 −9
−1 −𝑖 −3
0 1−𝑖 −𝑖
−3 − 𝑖 −2 −9
𝑅2 − 𝑅1/(3 + 𝑖) = 0 (6 − 12𝑖)/10 (−3 − 9𝑖)/10
0 1−𝑖 −𝑖
−3 − 𝑖 −2 −9 −3 − 𝑖 −2 −9
𝑅2 R3
0 6 − 12𝑖 −3 − 9𝑖 6−12𝑖 − 1−i = 0 6 − 12𝑖 −3 − 9𝑖
0 1−𝑖 −𝑖 0 0 0

6 − 12𝑖 𝑥2 + −3 − 9𝑖 𝑥3 = 0
6 1 − 2𝑖 𝑥2 = 3(1 + 3𝑖)𝑥3

23
 3(1+3𝑖) 1+2𝑖 −1+𝑖
𝑥2 = 𝑥3 = 𝑥3
6 1−2𝑖 1+2𝑖 2

−3 − 𝑖 𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 9𝑥3 = 0

−3 − 𝑖 𝑥1 = 2𝑥2 + 9𝑥3 = −1 + 𝑖 𝑥3 + 9𝑥3 = (8 + 𝑖)𝑥3

−5 + 𝑖
(8+𝑖) 3−𝑖 −5+𝑖
𝑥1 = − 𝑥3 = 𝑥3 , 𝑋 = 𝑥3 −1 + 𝑖
3+𝑖 3−𝑖 2
1

24
 Solution of LTV State Equation
Example: 1 0
𝑥= 𝑥
0 2𝑡

𝑥1 = 𝑥1 (𝑡)

𝑥2 = 2𝑡𝑥2 (𝑡)

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝜑(𝑡, 𝑡0 , 𝑥 0 )

𝑥1 (𝑡) = 𝑥1 (𝑡0 )𝑒 (𝑡−𝑡0)

2 −𝑡 2 )
𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑥2 (𝑡0 )𝑒 (𝑡 0

𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒 (𝑡−𝑡0) 0 𝑥1 (0)

= 2 −𝑡 2 )
𝑥2 (𝑡) 0 𝑒 (𝑡 0 𝑥2 (0)

𝑒 (𝑡−𝑡0) 0 𝑥1 (0)
𝜑(𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = 2 −𝑡 2 )
0 𝑒 (𝑡 0 𝑥2 (0)

25
 Solution of LTV State Equation
Example: 1 0
𝑥= 𝑥
0 2𝑡

𝑥1 = 𝑥1 (𝑡)

𝑥2 = 2𝑡𝑥2 (𝑡)

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝜑(𝑡, 𝑡0 , 𝑥 0 )

𝑥1 (𝑡) = 𝑥1 (𝑡0 )𝑒 (𝑡−𝑡0)

2 −𝑡 2 )
𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑥2 (𝑡0 )𝑒 (𝑡 0

𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒 (𝑡−𝑡0) 0 𝑥1 (0)

= 2 −𝑡 2 )
𝑥2 (𝑡) 0 𝑒 (𝑡 0 𝑥2 (0)

𝑒 (𝑡−𝑡0) 0 𝑥1 (0)
𝜑(𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = 2 −𝑡 2 )
0 𝑒 (𝑡 0 𝑥2 (0)

26
 Example
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑢(𝑡) 𝑥= 1 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 + 0 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑥(0) = 𝑥 0 =0
0 −1 1
Homogeneous part: (𝑡−𝑡 )
1 (𝑡−2𝑡 ) 1 (−2𝑡+𝑡 )
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒 0 𝑒 0 − 𝑒 0 𝑥1 (0)
= 3 3
𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (0)
0 𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑡 0 )

Complete Solution 𝜑(𝑡, 𝑡0 )

𝑡 𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝜑(𝑡, 𝑡0 )𝑥(𝑡0 )+ 𝑡0
𝜑 𝑡, 𝜏 𝐵 𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝜑(𝑡, 𝑡0 )[𝑥(𝑡0 )+ 𝜑 𝑡0 , 𝜏 𝐵 𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 ]
𝑡0
1 (𝑡−2𝜏) 1 (−2𝑡+𝜏)
𝑒 (𝑡−𝜏) 𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑥1 (0)
𝜑(𝑡, 𝜏) = 3 3
𝑥2 (0)
0 𝑒 −(𝑡−𝜏)

27
 𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝜑(𝑡, 0)[𝑥(0)+ 𝑡0
𝜑 𝑡0 , 0 𝐵 𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 ]

1 𝑡 1 −2𝑡
𝑒𝑡 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝜑(𝑡, 0) = 3 3
0 𝑒 −𝑡

1 𝑡 1 1 𝑡 1
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒𝑡 𝑒 − 3 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑡 𝑒𝑡 𝑒 − 3 𝑒 −2𝑡 0
== 3 3 𝑢(𝜏)d𝜏
𝑥2 (𝑡) 0 1
0 𝑒 −𝑡 0 𝑒 −𝑡

For a unit step input applied at t=0

1 𝑡 1 −2𝑡
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒𝑡 𝑒 − 𝑒 1 3 − 𝑒 𝑡 − 1 𝑒 −2𝑡
= 3 3
𝑥2 (𝑡) 3 2 2
0 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑒𝑡 − 1

1 𝑡 1 −𝑡 1 −2𝑡
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝑒
= 6 2 3
𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑒𝑡 − 1

28
 Evaluation using Similarity Transformation

Consider an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 with eigen values 1 , 2 , … … . . 𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , ……..𝑛𝑚

𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐽

𝐴 = 𝑀𝐽𝑀−1
𝑀−1 𝐴𝐾 𝑀 = 𝑀−1 𝐴 𝐴 …𝐴 𝑀

=𝑀−1 (𝑀𝐽𝑀 −1 )(𝑀𝐽𝑀−1 ) … 𝑀𝐽𝑀 −1 𝑀 = 𝐽𝑘

𝐴𝑘 = 𝑀𝐽𝑘 𝑀−1

𝐽1 𝑘 0 0 𝑖 1 0 … 0
𝐴𝑘 = 𝑀 0 𝑀 −1 0 𝑖 1 … 0
0 𝐽𝑚 𝑘 𝐽𝑖(𝑛𝑖×𝑛𝑖) =
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮
0 0 0 … 𝑖
1 𝑘−2
𝑘! 𝑖 𝑘−𝑛𝑖+1
𝑖 𝑘 𝑘𝑖 𝑘−1 𝑘(𝑘 − 1) 𝑖 …
2 (𝑘 − 𝑛𝑖 + 1)! (𝑛𝑖 − 1)
𝐽𝑖(𝑛𝑖×𝑛𝑖) = 𝑖 𝑘 𝑘𝑖 𝑘

𝑖 𝑘 29
 Example

𝐴=
0 1 1 = 2 =-1 𝑀=
1 0 1 0
−1 −2 1 1 𝑀=
−1 1

−1 1
𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐽 =
0 −1

𝑘 (−1)𝑘 𝑘(−1)𝑘−1 −1
𝐴 =𝑀 𝑘 𝑀
0 (−1)

(1 − 𝑘) −𝑘
𝐴𝑘 = (−1)𝑘
𝑘 (1 + 𝑘)

30
 Example
0 1 0 1
𝑥 𝑘+1 = 𝑥 𝑘 + (−1)𝑘 ; 𝑥 0 =
−0.21 −1 1 0

𝑦 𝑘 = 𝑥2 𝑘
0 1
𝐴= , λ1 = −0.3, λ2 = −0.7
−0.21 −1
(−0.3)𝑘 0
𝐴𝑘 = 𝑃𝑘 𝑃−1 , 𝑘 = ,
0 (−0.7)𝑘
1 1
𝐴𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑣𝑖 , and
−0.3 −0.7

1 1 1.75 2.5
𝑃= , 𝑃−1 =
−0.3 −0.7 −0.75 −2.5

31
 𝐴𝑘 = 𝑃𝑘 𝑃−1

1 1 (−0.3)𝑘 0 1.75 2.5

=
−0.3 −0.7 0 (−0.7)𝑘 −0.75 −2.5

1.75(−0.3)𝑘 − 0.75(−0.7)𝑘 2.5(−0.3)𝑘 − 2.5(−0.7)𝑘

=
−0.525(−0.3)𝑘 + 0.525(−0.7)𝑘 −0.75(−0.3)𝑘 + 1.75(−0.7)𝑘

32
(−0.3)𝑘 = 𝛽0 − 0.3𝛽1 , 𝛽0 = 1.75(−0.3)𝑘 − 0.75(−0.7)𝑘
(−0.7)𝑘 = 𝛽0 − 0.7𝛽1 , 𝛽1 = 2.5(−0.3)𝑘 − 2.5(−0.7)𝑘

 𝑘 = 𝐴𝑘 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝐼

1.75(−0.3)𝑘 − 0.75(−0.7)𝑘 2.5(−0.3)𝑘 − 2.5(−0.7)𝑘

=
−0.525(−0.3)𝑘 + 0.525(−0.7)𝑘 −0.75(−0.3)𝑘 + 1.75(−0.7)𝑘

33
 𝑘−1

𝑥 𝑘 = 𝐴𝑘 𝑥 0 + 𝐴𝑘−1−𝑖 𝐵𝑢(𝑖)
𝑖=0

𝑘−1
1.75(−0.3)𝑘 − 0.75(−0.7)𝑘 2.5(−0.3)𝑘−1−𝑖 − 2.5(−0.7)𝑘−1−𝑖
= + (−1)𝑘
−0.525(−0.3)𝑘 + 0.525(−0.7)𝑘 −0.75(−0.3)𝑘−1−𝑖
+ 1.75(−0.7)𝑘−1−𝑖
𝑖=0

𝑘−1

𝑦 𝑘 = −0.525(−0.3)𝑘 + 0.525(−0.7)𝑘 + [−0.75(−0.3)𝑘−1−𝑖 +1.75(−0.7)𝑘−1−𝑖 ] (−1)𝑘

𝑖=0

𝑘−1 𝑘−1

= −0.525(−0.3)𝑘 + 0.525(−0.7)𝑘 −0.75(−0.3)𝑘−1 (1/0.3)𝑖 +1.75(−0.7)𝑘−1 (1/0.7)𝑖

𝑖=0 𝑖=0

34