Tall Buildings- IX Prakriti Goyal

GCAD16320
30 September 2020

Ques. A note on the fire evacuation of tall Buildings.

Issues and problems with respect to conventional egress in buildings include-

- Limited capacity, the physical difficulty and slow rate of evacuation through stairs, during occupant
evacuation
- the inherent limitations of evacuating persons who are mobility challenge
- The lack of alternative when a single event compromise stair and, when used in emergency situation,
elevators

Concerns related to high rise building –

- No. of floors, above and below
- Structural system-based concerns
- The building is core type or not?
- If not Core type, what structural system do the building possess
- If it’s a core type, is the core centre or some other type
- Does the building possess a central HVAC system?
- Static and Dynamic features of building
Material related concerns
- Whether the load of the floor is taken by the structural frame?
- Is there any I – section to support the floors?
- Is there any fire proofing material used to protect the steel components?
- Concerns regarding the roof construction of the building: The material type of the roof, the type of
equipment on the roof, the load that is carried by these structural components are the concerns regarding
the roof construction.

The impact of building uses on design and behaviours -

- OFFICE BUILDINGS. They generally present open floor concept design (compartmentation is
difficult), occupants are prepared to evacuate. Fire systems are well maintained and staff is available
- RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS: longer pre-evacuation times, occupants are reluctant to leave their
property, compartmentation may be available.
- HEALTH CARE FACILITIES: presence of people with disabilities, staff training is crucial, possible
availability of compartmentation

EVACUATION STRATEGIES-

1. Rescue Chutes
Fire escape chute is an emergency exit that permits
rapid, mass evacuation from high-rise buildings
during life threatening emergencies. Escape chutes can
be used from most high areas, where there is a
possibility of being trapped by fire, terrorism, criminal
attack, that could result in the event of life or serious
injury due to non-availability of alternative means of
emergency egress. Escape chutes today are becoming
an accepted alternative means of emergency evacuation
from high-rise buildings and industrial plants. Escape
chutes are now available in various formats that
allow evacuees to descend vertically or slide down.
The chute is a cylindrical or trough shaped device, typically made of fire resistance fabric or
netting. As it is set at an angle, people can slide through it without difficulty. The upper end of the tube
enters the room. When fire is discovered, the people in the building sit in the upper part of the tube,
slide down it, and land on the ground below. Some of the benefits of the fire escape chute are:
• Capacity to evacuate about 30 people a minute;
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• Descent 50 floors in about 100 seconds;

• Chute access from every floor; and
• Protection for evacuees and any physical condition.

2. Suspended Rescue Platform System (SRP)

A suspended rescue platform system is defined as “an enclosed platform (cabin) or set of enclosed
platforms, moving along guides or other means, on the exterior of a building, intended for the
evacuation of multiple occupants from a building”. An escape rescue system is a building-wide
system composed of two or more devices; each is an array of five collapsible cabins. The system is
permanently stored on the roof in a folded position. Upon deployment, each array is lowered to the
ground. It then unfolds, enabling emergency responders to board the cabins. Two arrays will evacuate
300 people simultaneously. Each array is then lowered to the ground and the evacuees exit as it refolds.
The system repeats this cycle, transporting responders up and into the building and evacuating
occupants as required. The Platform-based systems enjoy a number of prominent advantages:
• They are effective for all building heights;
• They require no special skill or unfamiliar actions by evacuees;
• They are “systemic” (building-wide) solutions;
• They are suitable for all ages and physical conditions of evacuees, including disabled people;
• They have the ability to transport emergency responders and their equipment up and into the
scene;
• They enable rescue personnel to control the evacuation process; &
• They can evacuate many occupants with each rescue cycle.

3. Controlled Descent Devices (CDDs)

The Controlled Descent Devices (CDDs) are escape systems that use
a simple harness, cable and breaking device to control the rate of
descent. A CDD is an equipment designed to accomplish the
withdrawal (emergency egress) of occupants from a building and
transporting them from a dangerous area to a safe area. CDDs may be
automatic or manually operated. Persons may use CDDs, acting by
themselves or with the assistance of others. CDDs are permanently
installed, usually near a window, or a balcony, or near another exterior
exit point that may be used for egress in an emergency.

4. Non-Structured Dependent Device

Non-Structured Dependent Devices are escape systems that do not
require contact points with the building or the ground during descent. This can be best described as
parachute and process for escape in similar to base jumping.

OTHER DEVICES USED

1. Evacuation of Mobility Impaired

The traditional view of mobility impairment is that of
occupants confined to wheelchairs or similar devices. There
are a variety of conditions that may require an alternative
egress plan to be sought, for example, those with temporary
disabilities, e.g. broken limbs, sports injuries, pregnancy, etc.
Adequate provisions for the evacuation of mobility impaired
occupants is a fundamental requirement in all buildings –
whether tall or not. In tall buildings, special consideration for
their protection should be considered. Injured, infants, aged
or disabled occupants can be now safely evacuated using
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special devices such as Evacuation Chairs, Wheelchair Stair Climbers.

2. Helicopter / Rooftop Helipads

In certain cases, helicopters have been successfully used to assist with building evacuations. Many tall
buildings are provided with helipads as part of the building’s functional use, for example, a hospital or
a high end residential/hotel/office. In such situations, the use of helipad would be a good additional
safety feature. However, there were difference of opinions amongst the professionals on the use of
helicopters in high-rise building firefighting operations.
Fire authorities often insists for the provision of helipads on tall buildings, for the purposes of both
occupant evacuation and firefighting operations. As per NBC, 2005, Part-4 Annex C-10, provision for
helipad should be made for high rise buildings above 60 m in height. However, use of helicopters have
many limitations, like: the number of people that can be evacuated by helicopter in a single trip is
usually relatively small; the rescue operation must be carefully planned and executed; the landing of
helicopter on the roof of a burning building is, in itself, an extremely dangerous operation; lack of
visibility due to smoke or high winds could make it difficult for the helicopter to land.

EVACUATION STRATEGIES
In the event of a fire, its occupants need to know what action should be taken to leave the building safely
along protected escape route. In very tall buildings, full building evacuation via stairways might be
impracticable in the event of a fire. Many evacuation strategies have been developed and experimented in
many countries and few of them are listed below. Due to limitations of space, only salient aspects of these
strategies are discussed here:
• Total Building Evacuation;
• Progressive Evacuation;
• Phased Evacuation;
• Partial Evacuation;
• Self-Evacuation; and
• Stay-in-place Approach.

1. Total Building Evacuation

Total evacuation involves the evacuation of all building occupants at once from a building to an outside area
of refuge or safety. Once the alarm signal is sounded, all building occupants are expected to evacuate to the
staircases which lead to the ground floor. During a total evacuation, elevators would collect occupants from
the highest floors first, shuttle them to the exit level and return for another load. Even elevators could be
programmed to move those with the longest distance to go first.
Occupants evacuating in stairs could be exposed to other kinds of dangers such as tiredness, becoming dizzy
or slipping on surfaces, especially when descending thousands of steps of stairs in high-rise buildings. The
large number of occupants descending down the staircase may also hamper the fire-fighting access to the
fire floor through staircases. Although the total evacuation is the simplest strategy to implement, it is usually
only ordered by the fire department.

2. Progressive Evacuation
In progressive evacuation, occupants can remain in the rescue area or area of rescue assistance, for a period
before evacuating the building, either by themselves or with assistance from emergency responders or others.
Occupants are only evacuated from the building to the exterior as a last resort. The relocation of occupants
can either be horizontal – to an adjacent compartment on the same floor, or it could be vertically to a
dedicated region further down the building from the fire floor i.e., a refuge area/floor. Progressive evacuation
might be used for occupants with disabilities.

3. Phased Evacuation
In phased evacuation, the occupants on the most critical floors like fire floor and floors nearby will be
evacuated first. Only the occupants within the compartment on fire, need to be evacuated from the building
immediately. The remaining occupants of the building are evacuated subsequently as necessary. Of course,
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they need to be alerted about the incidents. Many high-rise buildings in the world uses phased evacuation in
case of fire. Controlled phase evacuation is relatively complex. The concept of phased evacuation relies
heavily on sophisticated communication system and training. In phased evacuation queuing time into
staircases can be reduced.

4. Partial Evacuation
Partial evacuation is also known as “zoned evacuation” or “staged evacuation”. It provides for immediate,
general evacuation of the areas of the building, nearest the fire incident. A partial evacuation may be
appropriate, when the building fire protection features assure that the occupants away from the evacuation
zone, will be protected from the effects of the fire for a reasonable time. Evacuation of additional zones may
be necessary, in the event that a fire or smoke condition exists. In such cases, occupants will evacuate at
least two floors below the fire floor, re-enter the zone, and wait for instructions.

5. Self-Evacuation
Self-evacuation refers to occupants evacuating by themselves, before emergency responders have arrived on
site, using available means of evacuation, i.e. elevators and stairs.

6. Stay-In-Place Approach
In Stay-in-place, the occupants remaining in the room with an exterior window, a telephone, and a solid or
fire-resistant door. In case of a fire, when all exits from a floor are blocked, the occupants should go back to
their room, close the door and seal the cracks, wave something at the windows and phone for help. Stay-in-
place evacuation approach is generally used for evacuating the disabled occupants.

EXAMPLE –

o Challenge-
What to do in case of fire emergency? How to evacuate the building?
o Solution
The building doesn’t need to be evacuated in case of sudden fire.
- the structure has 9 Special Refuge rooms built from layers of RCC and fire proofing sheets
that can withstand fire for 2 hours. Each room has special air supply through fire resistant pipes
and seal fire proof doors.
- early warning system that activates smoke detectors, heat alarms, and high-power fans. These
fans force clean air through fire resistant ducts into the building and pushes smoke out of stair
well, Keeping the evacuation route clear.
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Architectural Considerations

The fire resistance of an element of construction is a measure of its ability to withstand the effects of fire in one
or more ways, as follows:
▪ Resistance to collapse, i.e. the ability to maintain loadbearing capacity (which applies to
loadbearing elements only).
▪ Resistance to fire penetration, i.e. an ability to maintain the integrity of the element.
▪ Resistance to the transfer of excessive heat, i.e. an ability to provide insulation from high temperatures.

Some materials have inherent fire resistance, others need to have steps taken to improve this resistance. There
are three main methods of doing this:
▪ Oversizing: deliberately increasing the size of an assembly so that part of it can be destroyed without
affecting the structural performance of the rest.
▪ Insulation: the provision of a layer of insulating materials around the assembly to protect it from the heat of
a fire.
▪ Dissipation: ensuring that heat applied to an assembly is rapidly dissipated to other materials or to the air, so
that the temperature of the assembly is not raised to a critical level.

According to the Building Regulations Approved Document B, the structural elements which require fire
protection are those which support a roof, but this does not normally include single-storey buildings. Exceptions
to this are where an element of structure provides support or stability to elements, such as:
▪ A separating wall.
▪ A compartment wall.
▪ An external wall which must retain stability to prevent fire spreading to adjacent buildings.
▪ A support to a gallery or roof which also forms the function of a floor.

Most multi-storey, non-residential buildings in England are two, three and four storeys in height, and the
majority are classed as offices, shops, commercial and assembly. This means that their dominant period of fire
resistance is 60 minutes.
Once the length of time a structure must survive has been established, it is possible to design the structural
elements to provide that degree of safety.

Fire compartmentation:
▪ Prevents the rapid spread of fire which could trap the occupants of a building.
▪ Reduces the chance of fires growing and minimises the danger to occupants, fire-and-rescue services, and
people in the vicinity of the building.
▪ Limits the damage caused to a building and its contents.
The degree of sub-division that should be provided by fire compartmentation will be dependent on:
▪ The use of the building.
▪ The fire load in the building.
▪ The height of the building.
▪ The availability of a sprinkler system.

Active Design Strategies

These are measures that operate only in the event of a fire. They are mostly concerned with the particular
problem of smoke control and the limitation of the spread of smoke throughout a building.

Active pressurisation
▪ Even when well designed, it is inevitable that doors on escape routes will have to be opened and
that smoke will therefore flow into the protected area. This danger can be reduced by
using lobby access to staircases which provide a form of 'airlock' where only one door will be open at
any time.
▪ An alternative approach is to pressurise protected areas such as corridors and stairs. Fresh
air is supplied to the area to be kept smoke-free and the air pressure is maintained above that of
surrounding rooms. If a door into the pressurised area is opened, air will flow out rather than smoke
flowing in.
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Active venting
▪ The simplest way of stopping smoke spreading within a building is to allow smoke to escape to the
outside. This will not extinguish the fire but it will tend to contain smoke to its area of origin and gain
time for people to escape and for measures to extinguish the fire to be taken.
▪ In a single-storey building, this can be done through roof vents. In multi-storey
buildings smoke ventilation systems using mechanical vent extraction can be used.
▪ It may be possible to assume that initially smoke will exit directly through roof vents. But as
the fire grows, a layer of smoke will build up beneath the ceiling or roof. This layer will get thicker as
the fire grows and the smoke level will gradually descend.
▪ Smoke venting systems must be designed to ensure that the smoke being added to the smoke layer is
exactly balanced by that being expelled through the vents so that the depth of the smoke layer remains
constant and does not descend to a level where it endangers the occupants (2.5m clear height).
▪ Limiting the horizontal spread of smoke can be achieved by installing smoke curtains which
are barriers that come down from the ceiling and create smoke reservoirs. Smoke curtains may be
permanently in place or triggered to fall by fire.