A2 Global Development Revision.

Topic 1: Globalisation
Topic 2: Defining and Measuring Development
Topic 3: Theories of Development and Underdevelopment
Topic 4: Development Aid and its role in International Development
Topic 5: Industrialisation, Urbanisation and Development
Topic 6: Agencies of Development
Topic 7: Employment, Education and Health
Topic 8: Gender and Development
Topic 9: War and Conflict
Topic 10: Population and Consumption
Topic 11: Environment

Topic 1: Globalisation
Globalisation: The increasing connectedness between societies across the globe. Time-Space
Compression is where the world appears to have shrunk because technology allows us to get info
from across the world instantly. Tim-Space Distanciation is where events in remote places have a
greater impact on our life in Britain and vice-versa (think 911).

Positivists: Globalisation is a good thing; it is a worldwide extension of Capitalism which will lead to
economic growth, eradication of poverty and spread of democracy (Closely associated with Neo-
Liberalists).

Pessimists: Globalisation is a bad thing; it is Western, mainly American Imperialism whose ideas are
being imposed on the rest of the world, TNCs in particular benefit from economic globalisation
(Closely associated with Marxists).

Transformationalists: Globalisation is too complex to understand through one ‘grand theory’; It is

foolish to reject the concept but it has been exaggerated.

Traditionalists: Globalisation has been radically exaggerated; Nation States and local communities
still have the power to resist it.

Economic globalisation- The emergence of a globalised economic system consisting of increasingly

interconnected world trade and consumption.

+ = Economic globalisation creates wealth and jobs when local companies can’t; this raises the
aspirations of the locals and provides jobs for women so that gender equality can improve. It also
encourages more international trade which will provide more money for those local economies and
the rest of the world. More money means improved health and education for most countries
(countries that are part of the global trade network also tend to have higher GDPs).

- = Economic globalisation hasn’t benefited everyone: most of Sub-Saharan Africa is still in poverty
and even in wealthy countries there are a huge number of unemployed and homeless people.
Increase in global trade has also had an increase on illegal trade. Trade depends on industrial
manufacturing which uses up fossil fuels and creates lots of pollution. TNCs exploit workers and their
local natural resources (Shell in Nigeria). Many people are forced out of their homes or given poor
paying jobs that are taken away from them as soon as another cheaper workforce is found.
Traditionalists would say that these effects are no different to what was experienced during
colonialism.

Cultural globalisation- The spread of similar goods and services across the world has led to a similar
pattern of consumption; modern communications has led to instantaneous global news and info;
centuries of migration have led to diverse cultures and possibly the growth of a global culture where
more people across the world share similar values and ideas.

+ = Cultural globalisation promotes democracy, shared values and the commitment to human rights
and freedom from oppression by communist dictators. This also means an increasing respect for
meritocracy and the decline of patriarchal systems of control and increasing gender equality.

- = Cultural globalisation involves ‘Americanisation’ where ‘shallow’ popular culture undermines

local traditions. Media conglomerates such as Disney, Microsoft, Sony etc. have achieved a near
monopolistic control of newspapers, film, advertising and satellites. They are able to influence
business, international agencies and governments and consequently, to threaten democracy and
freedom of expression (Coca-colonisation).

Transformationalism = Increasing consumerism isn’t just good or bad; cultural globalisation is

characterised by hybridity where new brands collide with local culture and are modified by those
cultures e.g. Bollywood. Giddens argues that de-traditionalisation is a good thing because it
promotes a more cosmopolitanism culture where there is less ‘tradition for the sake of tradition’ so
people have much more freedom in relation to marriage, religion and politics etc. This means that
culture is more fluid and democratic as more people have a say in how culture will inform their lives.

Political globalisation(The Decline of the Nation State)- The rise of power of Corporations,
International Social Movements (like the Green Movement) and increasingly international problems
such as the Environmental crisis, and the threat of nuclear destruction all mean that the power of
any one national government to control global events is declining.

Transformationalism = Globalisation is characterised by new political formations. For example,

China is a Communist country which doesn’t allow voting but supports Capitalism, while many
African ‘democracies’ are so corrupt they can’t really be called democracies. Also, many countries
have proved more than capable of resisting American force- mostly the Middle East.

Some TNCs are becoming bigger, wealthier and more powerful than some Nation States for
example, BP has more overall profit than the Democratic republic of Congo, and this means they
have more influence over people than Nation States. Some global problems such as global warming,
terrorism and poverty have become too great for Nation States to completely fix, small solutions are
made but nothing that deals with the problem.
 Topic 2: Defining and Measuring Development

Economic Development: Typically measured by GNP (gross national product): the total value of
goods and services produced in a country in a year. A country with a developed economy will
typically produce and sell high value products or service- both at home and abroad.

Social Development: refers to the improvement of the broader standard of living in a country:
education (literary rate), life expectancy, health (infant mortality rate), democracy (voting, fair
elections) and gender empowerment. Social development is usually positively correlated with
economic development.

Classifications of development-

Three Worlds: First World is the industrialised capitalist world (USA, Western Europe, Japan,
Australia and New Zealand), Second World is the industrialised communist world (The Soviet Union
and Eastern Europe) and the Third World is the rest of the world.
This system of classification is bad because the categories are too general, especially within the third
world where there is huge diversity. Also, it has the assumption that western, non-communist
industrialised countries are the best.
Brandt also had an even simpler North/South divide which assumed that the south was
underdeveloped because they were reliant on trading basic raw materials such as agricultural goods,
whereas those above the line traded more valuable manufactured goods.

The World Bank’s Economic Classifications: TWB classifies all World Bank member countries (188)
and all other economies with populations of over 30,000 (214). Economies are divided according to
GNI per capita (gross nation income per head) and are split into; Low income, Lower middle income,
Upper middle income or High income.
And advantage of this system is it is non-political, however it ignores inequalities within countries.

Other classifications include: The BRIC Nations (new but rapidly developing), The Bottom Billion
(Afghanistan, Bolivia, Ghana etc. who lack any income growth), LEDCs (Low HDI rating, Economic
vulnerability, GNI per capita below $1000), MEDCs (Post-industrial economies, high HDI and GDP, big
service sector rather than industrial sector) and Tiger Economies (South Korea, Hong Kong, Dubai
who have rapid economic growth and increased standard of living).

Measurements of development-

GNP/GDP: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total economic value of goods and services (in US $)
produced in the borders of a country in the course of a year. Gross National Product is the same but
includes the value of all services produced both at home and abroad. GNP is more commonly cited.

Purchasing Power Parity- This take into account the cost of living in different countries into the GNI
and so gives you more of an idea of the actual standard of living for the average person.

Advantages: provides snapshot indicators of the huge difference between the developed and
underdeveloped countries. It also clearly shows which countries are the poorest so institutions like
the World Bank can give financial aid. It is easier to measure the impact of social policies and certain
events on economic growth.

Disadvantages: doesn’t accurately measure quality of life or inequalities (e.g USA has extreme
poverty). It doesn’t tell us how much wealth stays in the country, TNCs may extract a lot of the
wealth. Production in developing countries is often subsistence base and consumed locally in the
community, not sold in the market place so does not have any formal economic value. Goods
obtained on the black market aren’t measured. There are inconsistencies in measurement. GNP is a
very western concept and some countries may not want economic growth but have other goals (e.g.
Bhutan).

The Human Development Index (HDI)- Used by the UN as a summary measure for assessing long
term progress in three basic dimensions: health (life expectancy), education (the average number of
years of education adults over 25 have received and how many years children can expect) and
standard of living (GNI/PPP). Each country is then given a rank between 0 and 1. If a country scores
between 1-0.788 it is developed, the rest are developing.

Advantages: it provides a much fuller picture than just GDP, allowing for fuller comparisons to be
made. It enables aid to be targeted more effectively. It shows that two countries with the same level
of economic development may have different levels of social development. Some argue this is a
more human centred approach.

Disadvantages: There are doubts about the accuracy of some of the stats because of the difficulty in
collecting the data. Not all important aspects of development can be measured quantitatively. Bryan
Caplan critics the way the countries are scored (0-1), effectively rich countries cannot improve their
ranking in certain categories.

The Millennium Development Goals- There are eight goals developed during the UN Millennium
Summit which are: Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty, achieve universal primary education,
promote gender equality, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS,
malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability and develop a global partnership for
development.

Advantages: There is a much broader range of development goals than the HDI and a broader range
of indicators (60) which provides higher validity. It includes developed nations as development
targets too.

Disadvantages: The goals aren’t very ambitious. They don’t place enough emphasis on sustainable
development. They leave out peace and security. The MDGs seem to give up on the idea of
‘economic growth’- they are about poverty reduction rather than prosperity.

Other measurements include- Gross National Happiness (economic, environmental, physical,

mental, workplace, social and political wellness- subjective so easily manipulated and low in validity),
The Gender Inequality Index (reproductive health, empowerment and labour market
participation)and the Global Peace Index (extent to which countries are involved in ongoing
domestic or international conflicts).
 Topic 3: Theories of Development and Underdevelopment

Modernisation theory: Developed in the late 1940s with three major aims: To explain why poorer
countries have failed to develop (focusing mainly on cultural ‘barriers’ to development), to suggest
that developing countries needed help from the western world so that they could modernise and
lastly to provide a specifically non-communist solution to poverty in the developing world- it is and
American theory that aims to spread Capitalism to the developing world before communism gets
there.

Preventions of development- Particularism: Placing people in jobs based on family connections

rather than ability.
Collectivism: Putting the group before self-interest e.g. kids leave school to support parents.
Patriarchy: Prevents half the population from contributing to economic growth.
Ascribed status: Being born into a role. This blocks opportunities for the most able.

Modern promotions of development- Universalism: the idea that the best jobs are open to anyone
(promotes competition).
Individualism: frees individuals to leave families/villages and use their talents to better themselves.
Ideal of gender equality: Means all of the population are more likely to be included in development.
Achieved status: Encourages hard work through competition.

Rostow’s 5 stages of development:

1) Traditional society (village based, subsistence living, traditional values, need western help).
2) Preconditions for take-off (western aid for industrialisation: biotech, factories: fuel for ‘take off’).
3) Take-off (more business, emergence of middle class, exportation of goods, wealth, ‘trickle down’).
4) Drive to maturity (more trade so more taxes- government can afford education, healthcare etc.)
5) Age of High mass consumption (consumer culture).

Evidence for Modernisation Theory: Indonesia; partly followed modernisation theory in the 1960s
by encouraging western companies to invest and by accepting loans from the World Bank. However,
their president maintained a brutal regime comparable to Hitler. Still, the World Bank praised his
economic transformation as a success.
The eradication of small pox; in the 1950s there were 50 million cases per year. After USA and USSR
funding smallpox was totally eradicated by the 1970s.

Criticisms: No countries have fully followed the theory, nor has any country followed Rostow’s
model fully. It is a very old theory which was partly created to justify western capitalist countries,
many of whom were colonial powers at the time.
-It assumes that western civilisation is technically and morally superior to traditional societies. Many
developed countries have huge inequalities and other problems.
-Dependency theorists argue that it isn’t about helping developing countries but about changing
societies so they are easier to exploit.
-Neo-Liberalism is critical of the extent to which it stresses the importance of foreign aid, but
corruption often prevents aid from getting to where it needs to be. Much of the aid is siphoned off
by corrupt elites and government officials, creating more inequality.
-PCD argues that the model assumes that countries need the help of outside forces. This can be seen
as demeaning and dehumanising for local populations.
-There are also ecological limits to growth. Many modernisation projects have led to the destruction
of environment.
Dependency theory: Dependency theory developed in the 1970s as a response to Modernisation
theory. The best known dependency theorist is Andre Gunder Frank who argued that the
underdevelopment of the third world makes possible the development of the West. Unlike
modernisation theory, dependency theory sees the obstacles to development being imposed from
the outside rather than being internal to developing countries. Dependency theory argues that
developing countries fail to develop because they are kept in a state of dependency by the West,
rather than their lack of development being because of their inappropriate cultural values.
Underdevelopment is because the development of the west has come about through their exploiting
labour and resources in the developing world and the solution to this is for developing countries to
break free from Western control.

Neo-Colonialism- Dependency theorists believe that although most colonised countries are now
independent, they are still economically exploited by developed countries. These new forms of
exploitation are more subtle than colonialism, but the effect is still to keep the developing world in a
state of dependency on the West.
Neo-Colonialism takes the following forms:
-Unfair Trade Rules (See Topic 4, Trade)
-Tied Aid – Aid packages (which often take the form of loans) from the World Bank often come with
strings attached – In return for a development loan, for example, a country might be asked to
privatise certain sectors and allow Western companies in to run those services, ultimately
benefitting western interests.
-Land Grabs – These are currently happening all over Africa – Where a western company buys up
thousands of hectares of land in Africa with the intention of planting it with food or biofule crops for
export back to western markets. In such cases the western companies take advantage of the cheap
land and gain much more than the African nations selling the land in the long term. In some case
studies of land grabs thousands of indigenous peoples are displaced.
- Free Trade Zones (See Topic 4)

Criticisms- Some countries appear to have benefited from Colonialism – Goldethorpe pointed out
that those countries that had been colonised at least have the benefits of good transport and
communication networks, such as India.
-Modernisation theory would argue that at least some satellite nations have benefited from TNC
investment, as with the Asian Tiger economies such as Korea benefited from investment by Japanese
TNCs. However, such countries only managed to develop by running up massive debts.
-Economic growth has only occurred at the expense of most workers working very long hours with
few benefits.
-Neo-Liberalists point out that it would be wrong to purely blame western TNCs for the dependency
of Satellite Nations. Elites in developing countries have worked with TNCs and governments, making
sure they benefit from investment and aid packages. The Commission for Africa noted that poor
governance, in terms of corruption, is to blame for the lack of development in many African
countries.

World Systems Theory-

Wallerstein created the World Systems Theory which argues that countries only industrialise if it
benefits the West and that it isn’t in the interest of the West for every country to industrialise and
grow economically. He sees the World Economy as being split into 3 regions:
The Core- who consume high tech ‘end products’ (cars, computers etc.) which are also ‘post-
industrial’ service economies.
The Semi-Periphery- The ‘industrialising, sweat-shop manufacturing’ areas who turn raw materials
into high end products for the ‘top billion’.
The Periphery- is the poorer countries and regions who export raw materials to the semi-periphery.
What makes Wallerstein’s theory different is that he argues that countries can be upwardly or
downwardly mobile in this world system. The reason why developing countries can move up and
vice versa for developed countries is because of the Capitalist system; the central logic of this system
is the search for profit. Thus as new products and services are constructed, so some countries
become rich and others impoverished.

Neo-liberalism- Governments prevent development. When governments get too large they restrict
the freedom of dynamic individuals who drive development forwards. Similarly neoliberals argue
that even in Capitalist countries where there are too many rules, regulations, and taxes, it’s harder
to do business and so harder for economies to develop.
Neoliberals are also critical of the role of Western Aid; they point out the many corrupt African
dictatorships which were often propped up by aid money from Western governments.

How can countries develop- Neoliberalism insists that developing countries should remove
obstacles to free market capitalism and allow capitalism to generate development. The argument is
that, if allowed to work freely, capitalism will generate wealth which will trickle down to everyone.

The policies proposed are those that were first tried in Chile in the 1970s, then in Britain in the 1980s
under Thatcher. They include:
Deregulation - Removing restrictions on businesses and employers involved in world trade (reducing
tax on Corporate Profits, or reducing the amount of formal rules, for example reducing health and
safety regulations).
Fewer protections for workers and the environment – For the former this means doing things like
scrapping minimum wages, permanent contracts. This also means allowing companies the freedom
to increasingly hire ‘flexible workers’ on short-term contracts.
Privatisation– selling to private companies industries that had been owned and run by the state
Cutting taxes so the state plays less of a role in the economy.

Criticisms-
-Those countries that have adopted free market polices have developed more slowly on those
countries that protected their economies
-Dependency theorists argue that neo-liberalism is merely a way to open up countries so they are
more easily exploitable by TNCs.
-TNCs don’t tend to invest in the poorest countries, only in LDCs and NICs.

PCD- People Centred Development Theorists agree with Dependency Theory about why some
countries are underdeveloped: because of a history of exploitation and extraction by western Nation
States and TNCs. PCD theorists are also very critical of the role of large institutions in development –
They argue that big development projects aimed at macro level goals such as increasing GDP often
do not improve the lives of people ‘on the ground’. In this sense, Sen argues, development needs to
be about giving people independence so they have real power and choice over their day to day
situations, it shouldn’t be ‘top down’ coming from the west, via governments and then trickling
down to the people. PCD theorists reject Western Definitions of ‘underdevelopment’ – just because
some cultures are rural, non-industrialised, and not trading, doesn’t mean they are inferior.

Development techniques: People centred development means ‘ground up development’ –

empowering local communities. Because of this, there are potentially thousands of pathways to
development: The thousands of small scale fair trade and micro finance projects around the world
are good examples of PCD style projects embedded in a global network.
-Bhutan is a good country level example of PCD principles – globalising on their own terms.
-Indigenous peoples living traditional lifestyles, effectively rejecting most of what the west has to
offer is another good example.

At a global level, PCD theorists believe that any development projects embarked upon should
embody three core principles: Social Justice (no exploitation), Inclusivity (they should be democratic
and designed with local communities) and Sustainable (projects shouldn’t degrade local
environments).

Criticisms

-All the other theories argue that, eventually, if a poor country really wants to improve the lives of its
people en masse in the long term, it needs money; this can only come from industrialisation and
trade.
-Focussing solely on small scale development projects still leaves local communities in developing
countries relatively poor compared to us in the West.
-In a globalising world it simply isn’t realistic to expect developing countries to be able to tackle
future problems if they remain underdeveloped, eventually population growth, climate change,
refugees, drugs or loggers are going to infiltrate their boarders, and it is much easier to respond to
these problems if a country has a lot of money.
 Topic 4: Aid and International Development

Official Development Aid: It comes from national governments and international aid agencies. These
take two forms:
Bilateral aid: Involves developed countries giving money directly to developing world governments.
57% of foreign aid is bilateral with India and Bangladesh receiving the majority.
Multilateral aid: Involves the UK donating money to international agencies like The World Bank
which finances infrastructure projects (building power plants, dams and roads through providing
loans with low interest rates) and The European Commission which allocates grants and emergency
food aid.

Arguments FOR Official Development Aid: From the 1950s to 70s, aid programs seemed to have a
positive effect on many developing countries as economic growth and quantitative measures such as
infant mortality rate decreased. However this this progress stalled around the late 1970s. Western
governments and the World Bank still continue to finance massive development projects such as
dam and road building in many developing countries. Jeffry Sachs believes that large scale aid can
work when it is practical, targeted, science based and measurable. He points out the following case
studies:
- The eradication of small pox; in the 1950s there were 50 million cases per year. After USA
and USSR funding smallpox was totally eradicated by the 1970s.
- The Green revolution in China; rice yields increased by 2-3 times leading to surplus rice being
produced for export.

Arguments AGAINST Official Development Aid: (Neoliberalism) Aid stifles the development of small
businesses by making them dependant on foreign aid from abroad because local businesses can’t
sell what the aid is providing. (Neoliberalism) Aid encourages corruption: Moyo believes at least 25%
of World Bank Aid is misused, one example being Uganda in the 1990s where only 20% of
government spending on education made it to local primary schools. (Dependency theory) There is a
political agenda to aid; the allocation of UK or US aid has often depended on whether the political
ideology of the developing country has met with Western Approval. They argue the main point of aid
is to make the recipients dependant on the donors. (PCD) Top down aid is often irrelevant to the
countries receiving it- Much official development aid has focused on monstrous projects such as
building of dams and roads which have sapped local initiative, harmed the environment and lead to
social injustices. (PCD) Focusing on aid for developing countries suggests that Africans are helpless.
Brown argues that concerts such as Live Aid perpetuate the idea of Africa as a helpless continent
incapable of helping itself whereas the opposite is actually true.

Non-Governmental Organisation Aid: NGOs are groups of concerned citizens who are independent
of the government and business, and are thus non-political and non-profit organisations. NGOs
typically have a charity status and raise funds through public donations and grants from
governments and other international development institutions. Many NGOs are tiny and focus on
specific areas. However, some are global institutions, have huge budgets and work in several
countries on numerous types of development project.

Four functions of NGOs: 1) The development function, this involves focusing on small scale aid
projects such as local irrigation schemes or developing rural health and education schemes alongside
local communities. 2) The empowerment function, this involves striving to give local communities a
role in how aid projects are developed. 3) The education function, Oxfam is a good example of an
NGO that puts a lot of money into developing education for schools and advertising to keep
developing world issues in the public consciousness. 4) The ‘emergency aid function’, when natural
or social disasters occur (earthquakes, hurricanes, famine) NGOs are often the front line in the
delivery of emergency aid.

Advantages of NGO Aid- They are generally smaller and thus more responsive to the needs of local
communities.
There is no political agenda and thus aid is not ‘tied aid’- it is freely given.
They can provide a more continuous supply of aid compared to governments which can be effected
by elections.
They are more likely to help the poorest of the poor, unlike TNCs who will only invest in slightly more
developed countries that are more stable because these provide a better prospect for profit.

Disadvantages of NGO Aid- NGOs provide a tiny amount of aid compared to governments and the
World Bank this means NGOs can only do a limited amount in comparison. They cannot help to bring
out industrialisation or serious economic growth.
They spend much of their money on glossy advertising campaigns rather than helping the developing
world- a good 25% of money raised.
A lot of aid campaigns portray images of Africans starving and helpless, this perpetuates the idea of
Africa as a helpless continent.
NGO Aid can often be misguided, doing more harm than good such as with the ‘buy a goat
campaign’.

Trade: There is an obvious relationship between trade and economic growth. The world’s top five
exporting countries export (and thus profit from) 40% of the world’s goods. The bottom 50 countries
export less than 1% of the world’s goods.

Arguments FOR Trade: Modernisation Theory and Neo-Liberalism both argue that developing
countries need to increase their share of world trade to be more competitive, Neo-Liberalists think
aid just breeds dependency so really trade is the only strategy left for development.
(Neo-L) Developing countries need to maximise their competitive advantage in order to achieve
growth. They have two advantages over the developed world- they have more natural resources and
because they are poorer they have a potential workforce that can be paid relatively low wages.
However, they lack the knowledge to turn these two resources into profit so they need investment
from wealthy individuals and TNCs.
Many developing countries have set up huge Free Trade Zones in order to attract TNCs. These are
special areas typically close to ports which offer incentives such as tax breaks, low wages and lax
health and safety legislation.

Arguments AGAINST ‘Free’ Trade- Dependency Theory and People Centred Development argue one
of the main problems is that many developing countries are too dependent on low value exports.
The economies of many developing countries are dependent on one product (e.g. Ethiopia is
dependent on income from coffee exports). This means fluctuations in prices of that product can
have devastating effects. Low wages also make it difficult for the workers to support their families.

Fair Trade: Fair trade means that producers get a fair price for their products and that they receive
at least enough to cover the costs of production, regardless of the price for their products in the
global market. Fair trade also encompasses a number of other justice based principles. Typically if
goods bear the fair trade logo it should mean that:
Workers have good working conditions and pay.
The products are produced in a way that is sustainable.  
Workers are allowed to organise democratically, as in a co-operative.
There is stability: There is a long term relationship between producers and purchasers.
No child labor is involved.
Trades Unions are recognized.
Increasing the highest standards of fair trading means that workers received a ‘social premium’ for
their labour: Enough of a wage to invest in education etc.
 
Criticisms of Fair Trade- Some critics claim that by focusing on achieving a fair price for poor farmers,
the movement doesn't address issues of mechanisation and industrialisation - radical changes that
might allow farmers in the developing world to stop doing back-breaking work and break out of the
poverty cycle.
Fair trade can tie farmers into a relationship of dependence with charity-minded shoppers in the
West.
Some argue that fair trade really only provides a few ‘extra pennies’ for farmers in the developing
world, not really allowing them to catch up to the level of the West.

Unfair rules of Trade- Dumping: Rich countries dump subsidized produce on developing countries,
driving down the price of local produce - with devastating effects on the local economy. This
unbalanced playing field has made many poor farmers even poorer, or forced them off their land
completely.
Restricted Market Access: Rich countries limit and control poor countries' share of the world market
by charging high taxes on imported goods. As a result, many poor countries can only afford to export
raw materials, which give far lower returns than finished products.
Forced Liberalisation: Rich countries have long used the IMF and World Bank, and aggressive
bilateral trade deals, to push open the door of poor countries' markets to a flood of cheap products
but now rich countries plan to use the binding rules of the WTO to kick that door down altogether.
Poor Labour Rights: Companies' demands for faster, more flexible, and cheaper production in their
supply chains are undermining the very labour standards that they claim to be promoting. Women
workers (and their families) pay the price. Many face insecure contracts, intense production
pressure, and intimidation in the workplace. Governments, competing to attract investment and
boost exports, too often exacerbate the problem. Instead of strengthening protection for labour
rights, they have simply traded them away.
 Topic 5: Industrialisation, Urbanisation and Development

Industrialisation: Where a country moves from an economy dominated by agricultural output and
employment to one dominated by manufacturing. It should promote economic and social
development in the following ways:
-A country can produce a wider range of higher value goods- both for sale at home and export
abroad.
- It encourages the emergence of other businesses to meet the needs of factories- coal mining to
provide power for example.
-Means a country will be less dependent on manufactured imports from abroad.
-It requires workers, who will be paid wages, which gives them more money and stimulates demand
in the economy and further economic social development.
-It requires an educated workforce which encourages the government to invest in education.
-It leads to urbanisation.

Arguments FOR Industrialisation-

Modernisation Theory argues that industrialisation led to the West becoming developed and so this
is what developing countries should do. In the 50s-60s modernisation theorists suggested the West
should provide Official Development Aid to developing countries, providing an initial injection of
capital and expertise to enable them to build factories and power stations and infrastructure to kick
start industrialisation. There are a couple of examples of countries which have at least partially
successfully industrialised through this kind of help- the most obvious being Indonesia, Botswana
and to a lesser extent India.

Dependency Theory argues that industrialisation is crucial for ‘independent development’- but it is
just as crucial that developing countries control the process of industrialisation, not the West. This
was the position adopted by Russia in the 20s-30s and China in the 60s- where two communist
governments controlled the industrialisation process. Even though tens of millions dies during these
periods of forced industrialisation, today these two countries make up 2/4 of the BRIC Nations.

Arguments AGAINST Industrialisation-

Wallerstein created the World Systems Theory which argues that countries only industrialise if it
benefits the West and that it isn’t in the interest of the West for every country to industrialise and
grow economically. He sees the World Economy as being split into 3 regions: The Core- who
consume high tech ‘end products’ (cars, computers etc.) which are also ‘post-industrial’ service
economies. The Semi-Periphery- The ‘industrialising, sweat-shop manufacturing’ areas who turn raw
materials into high end products for the ‘top billion’. The Periphery- is the poorer countries and
regions who export raw materials to the semi-periphery.
People Centred Development Theory argues that the whole concept of industrialisation being
essential to development is very Eurocentric- this is how most of Europe developed and so
modernisation theorists assume every other underdeveloped country needs to do the same. Bhutan
is an example of a country that has not industrialised but has a good standard of living (measured by
HDI).
Industrialisation can cause pollution.
Developing countries that industrialise make themselves vulnerable to control by ‘post-industrial’
economies.
Industrialisation can lead to mass unemployment.
Urbanisation: The growth of cities, typically involving the movement of populations from rural areas.
Today more than 50% of the world’s population live in cities.

Modernisation theory sees urbanisation as having an overall positive impact, arguing that cities are
better environments to promote positive economic and social change. They do this by:
-Giving a boost to economic growth by attracting industrial-capitalists into setting up factories
because there is access to a large pool of labour.
- They encourage the emergence of a new entrepreneurial middle class who aspire to modern
lifestyles.
-Cities weaken ties of individuals to families in rural areas which challenges and overcomes tradition
values.
-Cities can promote development because it’s easier for governments to establish healthcare and
education in areas with dense populations compared to dispersed rural areas.

Dependency theory sees urbanisation as primarily benefitting the wealthy. All the positive aspects of
living in a city (satellite communications, exclusive shop, housing, entertainment) are only available
to the relatively well-off. Increasing amounts of the urban poor work in low paid service sector jobs,
hidden away in sub-standard housing just about earning a ‘living wage’.
Also, the modernisation idea of industrialisation leading to urbanisation and development is a myth.
What actually happens is there are too few jobs for the floods of people, so there is widespread
unemployment and people in slums who form an urban underclass.

Urbanisation grows in two ways: natural increase (improved food supplies, better sanitations, and
advances in medical care) and immigration to cities caused by push and pull factors.

Push factors-
-Overpopulated countryside that can’t support more people.
-Economic, political racial or religious conflicts.
-Land tenure patterns and changes in agriculture.
-Being forced off of farming land so it can be converted into monoculture cash crops.

Pull factors-
-Excitement, vitality and opportunity to meet others like themselves.
-Jobs, housing, entertainment and freedom from the constraints of village traditions.
-Modern communications draw people to cities by broadcasting images of luxury and opportunity.

Government policies
-government policies often favour urban over rural areas in ways that both push and pull people into
cities.
-developing countries spend most of their budget on improving urban areas.
-governments often manipulate exchange rates and food prices for the benefit of more politically
powerful urban populations but at the expense of rural people.

Problems that come with Urbanisation-

-Environmental problems.
-Inadequate provision of basic social services.
-Poverty and inequality.
-High crime rates.
-Insecurity of tenure.
-The rural-urban divide.
 Topic 6: Agencies of Development

Agencies of development are organisations and institutions that play a part in development such as:
TNCs, The World Bank, The United Nations, NGOs, Nation States and Global Civil Society.

TNCs- They believe ‘free trade’ is the best path to development. Transnational Corporations have
benefited hugely from the trade rules established by the WTO. Today, 51 of the 100 largest
economies in the world are run by TNCs rather than Nation States.
 
They usually operate in more than one country and have no clear national base
They seek to maximise profits and reduce costs by constantly seeking out the cheapest places to
manufacture their goods
They are globally mobile. They have sufficient resources to be able to move operations around the
globe.
They are responsible for three quarters of global trade.
 
The Modernisation and Neo-Liberal view of TNCs is that Corporations provide a number of benefits
to the developing world that can help to kick start development. Neo-Liberals believe that
developing countries should actively encourage TNCs by changing government polices to create
favourable conditions for inward investment by TNCs (See Topic 4, Trade).

Benefits of TNCs:
 -Encourage international trade which could increase economic growth, access to overseas markets
(See Topic 1, Economic globalisation)
 
The dependency theory on TNCs-
 -Argue that TNCs are there to exploit natural resources and cheap labour costs and benefits
themselves
-TNCs spreading out make countries and workers more dependent on them.
-Money takes flight from the country; the poorest often don’t see the benefits.
 
Criticisms of TNCs-
 -Bakan argues that TNCs exercise power without responsibility. They are programmed to exploit and
dehumanise for profit.
 -Removal of indigenous peoples in pursuit of profit. Shell in Nigeria have exploited natural resources
with ruthlessness and indifference. Indigenous peoples have had their land forcibly seized and,
despite international protests, have been removed at gunpoint from their homelands by local elites
working on behalf of TNCs
 -Exploitation of workers: Conditions may be extremely poor and pay low. Primark and Matalan both
use sweatshops.
-Ecological damage – Coca cola in Kerala
-Interference in local politics/ human rights abuses  – In 2003 the Trades Union movement pushed
for a boycott of Coke because of the company’s alleged use of illegal paramilitaries to intimidate,
threaten and kill those workers who wished to set up a Trades Union at a bottling plant in Colombia.
-Destabilising the local economy/ insecurity- No commitment to local areas, as soon as wages
become cheaper they will move on, leaving unemployment in their wake
-Destroying local businesses 
The World Trade Organisation- Establishes world trade rules
-The stated goal is to promote fair and free trade across all nations
-149 states are WTO members, constituting over 90% of all world trade with a further 31 in the
process of joining. 
-The WTO functions through a number of high-level ministerial conferences with each set of trade
negotiations (involving multiple meetings of the various member states’ delegations) often referred
to as a trade ‘round’.
 
Criticisms of the WTO-The richest countries and corporations are more effective at getting their
voices heard. They often set the agenda for debates and issues of the developing countries are not
listened to.
-WTO rules often end up benefitting Western countries and corporations. Free trade often means
that developing countries have to open up their boarders to western Transnational Corporations.
-Basically, the WTO puts the rights of corporations to make a profit before the basic human rights of
people in the developing world.
-The WTO lacks transparency: Many negotiations take place behind closed door
-It has huge power but its members are not democratically elected by the wider population

The World Bank: The World Bank believes that economic growth through industrialization and free
trade are essential for countries to develop. They argue that there five key factors necessary for
economic growth: -Strengthening governments and educating government officials.
-Infrastructure creation, such as the building of dams
-Development of Financial Systems
-Combating corruption
-Research, Consultancy and Training
 
Structural Adjustment Policies- The World Bank has been criticized for forcing SAPs onto developing
nations. Countries were required to adopt the following neo-liberal policies in return for
development aid and development loans.
-Allow ‘Free trade’ – by removing restrictions on imports and exports
-Regulate private companies less: have slacker employment and environmental laws
-Cut taxes on Transnational Corporations
-Privatisation – selling to private companies industries that had been owned and run by the state

Criticisms of the role of the World Bank in International Development-Those countries that have
adopted free market polices have developed more slowly on those countries that protected their
economies
-Dependency theorists argue that World Bank policies are merely a way to open up countries so they
are more easily exploitable by Transnational Corporations.

Nation States: Nation states are what elected governments come to control when they come to
power. The state in Britain is responsible for the welfare services (health, education, social security);
the legal system (prisons, police and the armed forces); the taxation regime (which funds the state);
and a range of other things too. States can be large (in which case industry and services are
publically owned) or small (in which case industry and services tend to be privately owned). Nation
States in the developed world tend to be much larger than Nation States in the developing world.
-The state can help development by protecting fragile economies in the early stages of economic
growth, as happened in China. 
-The state can hinder development through government corruption as in many of the African
dictatorships.
 
Dependency theory- Western Nations caused underdevelopment in the first place: Through
Colonialism. The Nation State should play a key role in development but developing nations should
isolate themselves from the global capitalist system.

Neo-Liberalism- Nation states can hinder development by interfering with free trade. Nation States
should have less of a role in development. Development should primarily be done by TNCs.  The
WTO and Structural Adjustment policies have reduced the power of Nation States to regulate
Transnational Corporations.

People Centered Development/ Global Civil Society- NGOs believe that some development should
go around National Governments and work with local communities and people. Also point out that
the militaristic nature of western states does little to help peace which is crucial to development.

NGOs- (See Topic 4)

Global Civil Society- Comprises a loose collection of NGOs, activist groups and others, overlapping
with the anti-globalisation movement. Globalisation means that there is an emerging global civil
society made up of groups whose interests transcend nation states. Issues covered include a range
of environmental groups, anti-corporate groups, women’s rights, human rights groups, and anti-
arms campaigners. These groups are broadly against neo-liberalism and trade liberalisation and the
role of TNCs in exploiting the developing world. They come together to protest G8, IMF and WTO
meetings through the staging of alterative summits when these events take place and at the annual
World Social Forum.
 
 Achievements of Global Civil Society
-Gives the poor a voice that they do not have in the WTO or World Bank
 -Holds Global Corporations to account  
 -Has made progress on a range of development issues, most notably the drop the Debt and Fair
Trade campaigns
 
Arguments against global civil society 
 -Could argue it’s unaccountable
 -It is unclear how much solidarity, cohesion, or shared purpose there is within it.
 -Many elements are vociferously critical of western governments and TNCs, but it is difficult to see
how developing nations can make any progress without the expertise of these institutions. 
 -Many of the alternatives to global capitalism suggested by GCS are regarded by some as wishful
thinking.
 
 Topic 7: Employment, Education and Health

Education: Education (typically measured by the literacy rate and average number of years in
schooling) is a key indicator of development – it makes up part of the HDI and is second Millennium
Development Goal. In the United Kingdom, universal education from the ages of 5-18 is funded by
the state - every child has access to 11 years of education for free.
Despite huge progress over the last decade, education provision in the developing world is still much
worse than it is in the UK. The global community hardly spends anything on Education in the
developing world - Aid commitments to basic education fell by 22% to US$4.3 billion in 2007.

There are a number of ways in which providing universal primary and secondary education can lead
to development:
-Teaching children to read and write means they are able to apply for a wider range of jobs – and
potentially earn more money, rather than being limited to subsistence agriculture.
-Increasing the education/skills of a population means the country will be more competitive globally.
-School can be used to pass on advice about how to prevent diseases and thus improve health.
-Schools can be places where free food and vaccinations can be administered– improving the health
of a population.
-Learning to read means children are more able to engage with politics, potentially making a country
more democratic – democracy is positively correlated with higher levels of development.

Barriers to educational development:

-Not enough money being spent on primary education – very large class sizes, limited teaching
resources, poor standard of buildings, not enough teachers – let alone the resources to monitor the
standards of teaching and learning.
-Widely dispersed populations in rural areas means children may have difficulty getting to school.
-The persistence of child labour - Parents in rural areas often pull children out of education to work.
This is one of the main reasons why there are high drop-out rates even in primary education – in
some African countries –such as Mali and Ethiopia – despite high enrolment rates of 80-90%, only
around 50% of children finish primary education.
-Poor levels of nutrition reduce children’s capacity to learn effectively.
-Poverty means parents often lack money to pay for fees (for private education).
-War and Conflict.
-Patriarchal cultural values – means girls suffer most from lack of education

Modernisation theory: Argue that education is crucial to development. They favour the Western
style education system and curriculum, able to spread modern values i.e. entrepreneurial values and
skills. Higher education is essential to train future political and business leaders. A fully modernised
society will need a well educated population.
Dependency theory: Dependency theorists see education as it is normally practised as a form of
cultural imperialism, imposing western values. They argue that education was one of the main ways
colonial powers exercised control over their colonies – existing education was replaced by new
systems which trained a small elite into the colonial powers values and rewarded them with jobs.
Developing countries inherit inappropriate education systems geared to the needs of the minority.
Copying Western style education is today not appropriate, when the situation of developing
countries is so different.
Employment- ‘Formal paid employment’ compared to ‘subsistence agriculture’ can encourage
development in three ways:
-Wages can be spent on education etc.
-Wages can be taxed and increase government revenue.
-Wages are a more stable form of income than subsistence agriculture- leads to savings, banking,
loans and more business.

Limitations:
-Lack of regulation of TNCs means that workers often end up getting exploited.
-Unfair trade rules (See Topic 4, Trade)
-Child Labour- children are kept out of school- prevents development.
-Patriarchy and gender inequality- means women get paid a lot less than men.

Modernisation theory: More people need to go into paid employment. Employment encourages
developing nations to adopt modern Western Values - meritocracy and individualism.
Dependency theory: TNCs have too much power for ‘trade’ to lead to development. Countries
compete in a ‘race to the bottom’ – offering fewer worker rights in order to attract TNCs. Workers
need to organise nationally and internationally to protect their rights and demand equal pay.
PCD- Formal ‘Paid employment’ is not necessarily the best route to development. Alternatives
include- Subsistence agriculture (traditional cultures), Micro-credit for small businesses, Fair trade.
Neo-Liberalism- Developing countries should try to attract TNCs. TNCs offer good pay and conditions
by local standards. The money will then trickle down to the rest of the population. Encourages the
population to adopt the correct capitalist values, and help develop a skilled labour force.

Health: There are four basic measurements of health in development:

-Life Expectancy – The average number of years people are expected to live in a country (which if
you remember makes up one of the three indicators of the Human Development Index).
-Child Mortality – The number of children which die before their first birthday (measured per
thousand).
-Maternal Health – The number of women who die as a result of pregnancy or childbirth.
-Disease indicators – The proportion of the population that has AIDS, Malaria, diarrheal and other
infectious diseases.
In developing countries, the main causes of death are: Lower respiratory infections, Diarrheal
diseases, HIV/AIDS, Heart disease, Malaria, Tuberculosis, Prematurity and low birth weight, Birth
asphyxia and birth trauma and Neonatal infections.

Reasons for poor health: Lack of an improved water source, Poor Sanitation, Malnutrition,
Underdeveloped public health, War and Conflict and Poverty.

Techniques for improving health: Long term economic growth, Biomedical intervention, Improving
water sources and sanitation, Better diets (improving women’s rights and maternal health), Political
solutions (ending corruption and conflict), Providing cheaper drugs and Controlling Corporations.

Modernisation theory: Biomedical intervention e.g. smallpox.

 Topic 10: Population and Consumption

Malthusianism: Thomas Malthus argued that populations increase at a faster rate than the ability of
those populations to feed themselves. This would lead to a natural process of famine, malnutrition
and conflict over scarce resources that would increase death rates and so bring the population back
into line with available resources. The Malthusian view essentially sees the problem of
overpopulation as a purely natural process, and one that sorts itself out through a natural process of
rebalancing.
Behind Malthus’ theory lies the assumption that there are certain natural limits to population
growth and once these limits have been reached, natural checks occur.

Neo-Malthusianism: Erlich agreed with this except he believed that overpopulation wouldn’t just
lead to those natural processes but to desertification and deforestation as well.

Criticisms:
-‘Overpopulation’ is actually about decreasing death rates, rather than increasing birth rates:
What this means is that ‘overpopulation’ should not really be regarded as a problem, it is really a
sign of things getting better in the developing world.
-They are too pessimistic about the capacity of science and technology to feed the world.
-Dependency theory blames TNCs and the West for taking land in the developing world which
exacerbates resources in those countries.

Higher birth rates: Modernisation theory says it’s due to traditional religious values, traditional
masculinity (not wanting contraception), patriarchy (women have little control over their own
bodies) and preference of sons (have more kids if they get a girl).
Dependency theory argues it is poverty that causes overpopulation, Adamson argues it is rational to
have many children for many reasons.

Modernisation solutions: One child policies (like China), family planning and educating women.