Copyright © IFAC 10th Triennial World Congress, 1.

5- 3 CONTROL OF VEHICLES -
I\Iunich , FRG, 1987 ENGINE CONTROL 11

A REVIEW OF le ENGINE MODELS FOR

CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN
J. D. Powell
,\lnhallim/ ElIgill enillg Departllll'llt, Stfllllord Ulliversitv, Stall(ord, Ca/ijimlia, USA

A bst ract. Ma n y ad va nces in engine modelling ha ve been made over the last 15 year s. Th is paper
attempts to re view the significant advances in the field and to relate the different types of model s
to their rele vance for engine control design. Improving the state-of-the-art in engine modeling has
e nabled better control of engines in many ways. Models have been developed for optimization of
the stead v state engine control calibrations as well as for dynamic corrections to the calibrations.
Thc mod~l s have made possible better analysis of engine / vehicle performance and in man y case s
have contributed to d esign improvements in subsystems whose functions were previou sly not full y
understood.

Ke vwords. Modelling; Models; Optimal control; Automobiles; Control system analysis;

INTRODUCTION INPUT-OUTPUT MODELS

Engine modelling efforts for control have been underway
for less than 20 years. During that time, much progress
has been made; but, much progress is still needed to arrive
at a truly predictive capability that would allow analysis
and design of engine control systems by computer alone.
There have been many different formulations of engine
models. Some are based entirely on measurements of
relevant engine outputs for varying levels of the control
inputs and are often referred to as "input-output" models.
On the other hand, some are based primarily on physical
principles, although no models of this variety have been
able to avoid the need to measure experimentally a few
pertinent values for calibration. For purposes of some
organization of this paper, I will divide the discussion
along the lines of input-output vs. physical models;
however, in reality, all models developed to date have
some input-output flavor and the distinction is sometimes
quite blurred.
Engines for automotive applications often operate in a
transient state where their load and speed are changing
rapidly. Furthermore, the exhaust emission regulations are
defined in terms of a highly transient test cycle. As a
result, control systems must be designed to operate
effectively for transient engine conditions. In spite of
this, there has been considerable work done on models that
are based on steady state engine conditions. These models
are useful for two reasons: 1) they can be used to design
controls that can , with a few adjustments, operate well for
the transient case, and 2) they require only steady state
engine testing which is far easier, cheaper, and more
repeatable than transient testing.
It is interesting to note that most of the activity during
the 1970s was directed toward steady state models.
Furthermore, this activity was primarily based on the
input / output approach. Physical models for control had
their genesis in the late 1960s and were developed through
the 1970s, but did not come into widespread use for
control design until the 1980s.
Although this paper is devoted to a discussion of engine
models, it should be pointed out that any complete study
of the effects of control variables needs to be evaluated in
terms of their effect on the vehicle system , Vehicle
models are beyond the scope because one has to stop
somewhere; not because of a lack of importance to the
overall problem.
Steady State
Long before the advent of computers and the desire to
create math models to describe engine behavior, engines
were tested at a constant speed and torque. During this
testing, the spark advance (SA) and air-fuel ratio (A/F)
would be slowly varied to obtain the best fuel
consumption. With the arrival of emission regulations,
variation of the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate was
also required as well as the measurement of the exhaust
emISSIOns. The first steady state (SS) models were
essentially a computerized copy of this procedure. They
allowed a computer to store and sift through the massive
amounts of data that resulted and allowed for analytical
studies of control strategies including the optimal selection
of the three control variables: SA, A / F, and EGR.
Virtually all authors reporting on these kinds of methods
used a least square fit (or "regression") procedure to find a
set of coefficients in a polynomial that provided the best
match of the input / output (I / O) relationships. For
example , in the I/ O equation:
(I)
there would be a large number of measurements of the
output, y, all at different combinations of the independent
variables, N, T, and S. The a's are the coefficients. In
actual cases, there would be up to 80 coefficients because
the equations would often have as much as five
independent variables and include many higher powers
(e .g. a4 term in (1») and cross terms.
Prabakar (1975) used thcse procedures to provide a model
for an optimization procedure that resulted in values for
SA and A / F that minimized fuel consumption subject to
constrained emission levels.
Blumberg (1976) developed a technique whereby the
emissions and fuel economy over a federal test cycle could
be expressed reasonably accurately by a weighted sum of a
small number (8 to 13) operating points. Fig. 1 shows the
engine operating region with a I3 point model
approximation. This idea was combined with regression
fits of engine test data including the effects of the
controls (SA, A / F, & EGR) and shown to provide an
efficient method of representing the fuel economy and
emissions of a vehide over a driving cycle (Baker and
Daby, 1977; Vora, 1977). These models were then used to

235
236 J. D. Po\\'ell

A detailed discussion of the use of regression methods for

Tlm. (eee) v .. [""ne Torque and RPM "'atria eng ine modelling was given by Hubbard (1975) including
information on the quality of fit achievable for CO, Hc,
[",in. Torque (ft-lilt)
NO x ' fuel consumption and power. His models were used
-15 -15 -5 5 15 15 15 45 55 . , n IS . , 105
in the analysis of a spark advance contro l scheme
lOO (Hubbard, Dobson, and Powell , 1976) .
• 00
Radtke, Frank, and Beachley (1976) showed that static I / O
models such as Eq. (I) could be obtained by running the
1000 eng in e through a transient test cycle. The match of the
resultant mode l with the test data, however, was degraded
1200
from that typically found from steady state testing.
l
~
Q
...
1400

1100
IS
5-26-1~
; Menzik and Blumberg (1978) reported on methods to check
the validity of interpolation and to determine the
appropriate ordcr of fit. Their data suggested that using 5

...~
• 11 11 I independent variables (SA, A / F, EGR , speed, and load)
I I . . . . II1
gave simi lar fit quality to that obta in ed with separate fits
Z 5 4 14 7 lit
with 3 independent variables at each speed and load.
"...
Z 2 14 51 SI
5
I
4
4.2
5 2
However , Glaser (1981) showed data where a significant
degradation was evident in the 5 independent variable fits.

2 5 7 As indicated above , a concern with these steady state

2400
models was the engine test time required to acquire the
data. For 12 speed / load points and 5 va lu es of each of the
2600
• 3 con tr ols, 1500 test points were required' With average
times at each point typically 2 minutes or more, this
2800
required about 2 weeks of test cell time if all
instrumentation worked perfectly. An additional concern
was the lack of good agreement between the steady state
based models and the emissions measured from a vehic le in
s~ T~ r_ the transient test cycle.
RPM ~ I - I
2600 58 0 In an effort to reduce the engine test time, an automated
2900 70
facility was developed (Tennant and colleagues, 19 79) that
0
used an average test time of 23 seconds for each test point.
1400 20 189 Thermal transients were prevented from corrupting the
1100 25 245 data by devising a rapid slewing through the speed / load
1700 50 156
operating ranges in v~rious paths specifically so that
temperatures would vary and could be used in the
2100 75 48 regressions as an additio nal independent variable. The
750 10 205 regression fit quality was slightly degraded by the method
1100
1250
-le
-7.5
•
112
over that reported for steady state testing; however , when
evaluated over transient cyc le tests, the model showed an
error of 11 % for NO x and considerab ly less for the other
ItOO 2 20e dependent variables. The impro ved match over that
2600 1t5 11 reported by other steady sta te modelling methods may
have been partly due to the incorporation of the dynamic
2250 50 82 correction for the cylinde r wall temperature. However , in
1100 50 74 this author'S opinion, the improved match is primarily
due to the excellent consistency in the control
implementation between the tran sient ca se and the "steady
Fig. I. Engine speed -torqu e matrix describing thc time state" testing. Unlike other comparison s whcre the steady
distribution for a 3000 lb. inertia weight vehicle with a state models were based on an engine dynamometer
manual four-specd transmission and a 2.79: I ax lc ratio implementation and the transient tests were done in a
driving the CVS schedule. (Baker and Daby, 1977) vehic le on a chassis dynamometer with a different control
mechanization, the work of Tennant and colleague s (1979)
used the same engine dynamometer in stallation for both
find the se t of controls (SA, A / F, & EGR) that minimized sets of tests wit h excelle nt capability to control SA, A/ F,
& EGR to a high bandwidth. As with other modelling
fuel consumpt ion while meeting specified levels of driving
cycle emissions (Auiler, Zbrozek, and Blumberg, 1977; efforts, this model was also applied to generate the
Rlshav y, Hamilton , and Ayers, 1977). The re sulting optimal calibratio n of the controls (Rao and colleagues,
analysis tool made it possible to determine trade-off curves 1979).
between fuel economy and emission levels with a reduced
level of vehicle testing. Most of the methods above co nsidered the catalyst
performance to be independent of the engine contro ls.
It is interesting to note that during this time pe riod, a However, it is more desirable to develop a separate model
serious competitor to the model based computational for the ca tal yst in order to allow evaluation of the
approach to engine optimization was to perform on-line catalyst's con tributi on to the overall vehicle performance.
optimization of engines on a test stand (Cassidy, 1977; Such a model was developed by Blumberg, Wu, and Auiler
Dohner , 1978a, 1978b). This was perhaps a reflection of (1981) and, coupled with steady state mapping techniques,
some skepticism that engine models would become produced a system analys is methodology for de s ign of
sufficien tl y accurate for control optimization and that the three-way catalyst equipped vehicle contro l systems. The
engine test time requircd for modelling would be excessive. catalyst model was generated by a regression fit of the
Although the time for one engine optimization using the conversion efficiencies of CO, Hc, and NO x vs. exhaust
on-line methods was competitive with a stead y state temperature, exhaust gas mass flow rate, and A / F.
mapping procedure, the methods produced optimized
controls for a specific engine / vehic le combination and A description of a steady state I/ O mapping technique
needed to be repeated for each substa nti ve change in the appl ied to European emission control design activities was
vehicle configuration. reported by Barker (1982). It is based on the work of
81umberg and hi s co lleagues at the Ford Motor Co. in the
U.S.
 Control System Design
Dynamic Models
In generating a model of a dynamic system, it is difficult
to avoid using some knowledge of the physics of the
process. Therefore, it could be justified to categorize all
dynamic models as physically based. However, for the
sake of some organization, I have lumped some of the
dynamic models into the I/ O category because they seemed
to be mostly motivated by observations of the output
rather than derivation of the differential equations from
physical principles.
The name given to extracting a model from observations
of I/ O data is "System Identification" and has been the
subject of several books and hundreds of papers. A economy , it was important to understand the control
chapter reviewing the basic ideas is contained in Franklin
and Powell (1980).
Hubbard (1975) observed the time response of an A/ F
controller to a step input on a port injection CFR engine.
The data suggested that the model should be a pure delay
and 1st order lag. This model was verified by using it to
predict the amplitude and frequency of the A/ F limit
cycle resulting from the non linear characteristic of the
zirconia sensor.
As part of the development of a novel engine fuel control
system, Stivender (1978) observed experimentally that the
transfer function (dynamic model) between air commands
and the A / F response was comprised of pure delay terms
and 1st order zeros and poles. He then used the inverse of
this transfer function as the basis for the air controller,
since this would theorctically yield perfect control of A/ F
if the numerical values in the transfer function and its
form had been correct. However , rather than performing
an experimental determination of the model, he
experimentally adjusted the parameters in the controller
(or model inverse) so that the A / F showed no response to
throttle steps. [n fact , he determined the proper parameter
values as a function of coolant temperature. Although the
goal of the work was not to produce a mod e l, the
parameters determined for the controller essentially define
a model.
A dynamic fuel model was used by Blumberg, Wu, and
Auiler (1981) in their SS mapping procedure that included
the catalyst model. They showed that the parameters in
the model (1st order lag time constant and delay time) are
uniquely related to the frequency and amplitude of the
A / F controller limit cycles (also shown by Hubbard
(1975)). They utilized that relationship as a method of
identifying the model. [n mapping the engine over its
entire operating region, limit cycle characteristics were
recorded and used to determine the model parameters at
all points. It was found that they were essentially
inversely proportional to rpm.
Hamburg and Klick (1982) performed ramp and frequency
response experiments on a throttle body injector (TB[)
equipped engine and observed the A/ F using a fast
Lamdascan. Using data from three operating points, they
obtained a transfer function which was then used
successfully in a controller. Validating the controller at
onc of the operating points used to generate the model
showed that the A/ F excursions were eliminated.
Evaluation of the controller during a transient cycle
covering a wide range of loads and speeds reduced the
A/ F excursions by about a factor of two.
A determination of the linearized transfer function
between TBI command and engine torque response as well
as the transfer function between engine torque and
exhaust CO was reported by Chang and Sell (1983). A
frequency response technique was used to evaluate the
numerical values of the parameters in the models. The
TB[ input commands were excited sinusoidally and the
magnitude and phase of the resulting outputs were used to
find the best fit values of the parameters. The model s
performed well in predicting the engine response for thc
three speed / load conditions from which they were
obtained.
237
Using the automated mapping procedure of Tennant and
colleagues (1979) during engine warm-up, Cohen and
colleagues (1984) obtained a map of the engine fuel flows
and emissions as a function of engine coolant and catalyst
bed temperatures. Dynamic 1st order models of the
temperatures were also obtained during the mapping which
enabled simulation of emissions and fuel flow during cold
starts. The model was used in an optimal control
formulation to obtain corrections to the warmed-up
controls as a function of coolant temperature.
It is interesting to note that most of the I/ O modelling was
done in the 1970s. To meet the stringent exhaust emission
standards and to meet the public demand for good fuel
problem as quickly as possible. I/O models were the most
expedient method to that end and served well in the
endeavor. Their limitations are that testing of the specific
hardware configurations to be controlled needs to be made,
the necessity to test over the full operating range, and the
la~k of potential for a predictive capability to determine
(he performance of hardware without building a
", ototype.
PHYSICAL MODELS
Understanding the physical processes in the IC engine has
been an on-going effort since its invention. These
concepts are discusscd in most textbooks on engines with
those by Obert (1973) and Taylor (1977) being two of the
most widely used. A recent textbook by Ferguson (1986)
discusses much of the current knowledge and contains
computer models of many of the processes.
This papcr's goal is to concentrate on those models
directed toward engine control, which is defined to be
those models that include some discussion of the effect of
control variables, primarily SA, A / F, & EGR. Therefore,
models developed for the purpose of basic understanding
or to invcstigate the effect of engine design variables are
excl uded.
Steady State
An excellent argument can be made that there are no
steady state processes in a reciprocating IC cngine. I will
use this term to mean the condition where engine speed
and load are approximately constant and the resulting SS
models would thcrcfore represent the engine outputs that
are measured from SS engine testing. In other words, the
condition whcre air flows , fucl flows, and engine
temperatures have reached a steady (but oscillating) state.
A key feature of a useful model is the ability to predict
exhaust emissions. The ability to do this was reported by
La voie, Hcywood, and Keck (1970) and expanded to show
thc effect of the three control variables on NO x by
Blumbcrg and Kummer (1971) and on Hc by Blumberg,
Lavoie, and Tabaczinski (1971). Single cylinder CFR
neasurements establishing the accuracy of these
predictions was reported by Komiyama and Heywood
(1973). Thesc models require information on the pressure-
time diagram, data that can only be obtained by engine
testing.
In an attempt to reduce the necd for pressure information,
Benson, Annand , and Baruah (1975) developed an
empirical combustion law which required a burning rate
parametcr. Using their empirical combustion law, Baruah,
Benson, and Ballouch (1978) predicted the performance of
a four cylinders engine including the EGR flow
characteristics. The model agreed well with experimental
data acquired at two EGR levels. An extension of their
model to include the flow to a catalyst and the catalyst
conversion efficiency is described in Baruah, Benson, and
Gupta (1978) and also agrees well with experiments.
Sherman and Blumberg (1977) developed models of the
induction processes to enable model predictions of valve
timing effects on cylinder pressure, thus allowing
evaluation of their influence on fuel consumption and
emissions. Use of the model for an extensive parametric
238 J. D. Powel!

study of various design and control levels is reported by on Diesel dynamic models have direct application to the SI
Novak and Blumberg (1978). It also illustrates an case.
important idea in assessing the relative merits between I/O
and physically based models. Figure 2 shows the NO vs Watson and Marzouk (1977) reported on a model whic h
burn duration for several values of the EGR ~ate. included turbocharger inertias, compressor and turbine
Cylinder pressure data was taken from an engine in a maps, and an analytical combustion model. It used a
range between the dashed lines and used to calibrate the numerical simulation of the pressure in the inlet manifold
combustion model in that region. However, the model which was evaluated with suffi ciently small time steps so
predicted NO x in a much broader range with an unknown that the variations in the pressure throughout one cyc le
but probably reasonable accuracy. A characte ri stic of an was determined. Winterbone, Thiruarooran, and Wellstead
I/O model is that extrapolation outside the data base is (1977) suggested a method for cutting the step size and
usually disastrous with errors of factors of 10 not unusual' computation by using the "manifold filling" concept.
Although this method produced lower resolution on the
pressure prediction, it produced substantial savings in the
1500 RPM compu ta tion times of the simu la tions. Watson (1981)
70 IMEP showed the use of th is kind of model to predict the
16'1 A/F performance of a fuel controller through transients.
30.0 MBT Further improvements were reported (Watson, 1984) which
7'1 C.R. included thermal models of the cylinder walls and the
exhaust manifold walls . Furthermore, the paper discussed
o EGR the issues in simulation accuracy vs computation time.
The simulation as configured delivered a factor of 40
improvement in computation time over his previous model.
Tsai and Goyal (1986) reported additional computationa l
Ir'10.0 efficiencies by a linearization method. Rather than
7 8.0 10% EGR evaluate the nonlinear equations continually, they were
used in an "initia lization" mode to find several linearized
CL. \
:z: 6 .0 \ transfer functions that spanned the operating regions. The
...... \ linearized models were then used in the actual simulations .
E 5.0 \ He rcported a factor of 60 reduction in computation time
~ 4.0 \ over the continual evaluation of the non linear equations.
0 \20% EGR
z 3.0
Cl)
\
Tanaka and Durbin (1977) reported on extensive
experimental measurements from a carburetor sing le
cylinder engine with a very lo ng inlet manifold. A model
2 .0 of the fuel film motion along the inlet wall was devcloped
and matched the experiments very well.

Powell ( 1979) described a model for SI engines including

I .0 '------'-_.L----'-_.l......---'-_...l--....L_-'------'
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0-100". MASS BURNED
10 20 30 40 50
10-90~ MASS BURNED DURATION [C.A DEGj
Fig. 2. Simulated Effects of Burn Duration
on NO x Emissions at Different EGR
Levels. Novak and Slumberg (1978)
Heywood and colleagues (1979) reported on a cycle
simulation using a Wiebe function for heat release in place
of a combustion law. Determination of the Wie1:-c
parameters and verification of the model was done with a
single cylinder CFR engine. In addition, the model was
used to predict the performance of a 5.7L engine with
burn durations measured from typical engines of that size.
Dynamic Models
The basic physical laws governing the flows, thermal
transients, and accelerating inertias in an engine are
discussed in the engine textbooks referenced in the
previous section. T he control system textbook by
Franklin and Powell ( 1986) covers the principles of
finding dynamic models and app lying them to control
system analysis. It includes a design examp le of an A/ F
feedback controller.
Much of the early work in IC engine dynamic modelling
was applied to Diesels. This is likel y due to the fact that
Diesels are typically turbocharged which creates a much
slower set of dynamic response characteristics than non-
turbocharged ones which are, therefore, more important to
the overall performance prediction. Although the
emphasis in this paper is on SI engines, much of the work
the inlet air and EGR dynamics, eng in e inertia, and
control system delays. Fuel transport delays were assumed
negligible to represent a port fuel injection system. He
utilized Slumberg's (1976) SS I/ O model to obtain the
sta ti c calibration of the controls , thus obtaining an
60 analytica l capability to evaluate contro l system dynamics.
Dobner (1980) described a model which also included the
inlet air and EGR dynamics, cngine inertia, and control
system delays. In addition, he included dynamics that
recognized that the fuel was divided between the gaseous,
droplet, and liquid states. The static performance was
obtained from generic curvcs such as given in Obert
(1973). He presented further va lid ation of the technique
(Dobner, 1983) to show reasonable agreement wit h stnriv
statc engine tests. The model was also linearized (Coats
and Fruechte, 1983) to obtain a model for idle speed
control. Simple tests were described that can be done on a
vehicle to determine the parameters. Experiment and
model were compared in time and frequency response and
shown to have good agreemen t.
Hires and Overington (1981) performed extensive tests on
an engine and developed a dynamic model including the
effects of liquid fuel films. Thc model was uscd to
develop a transient enrichment function and its
effectiveness is measured and shown to be very good.
Aquino (l981) also developed a fuel model including the
liquid film dynamics and the effect of the manifold wall
temperature. He used it to evaluate the relative
performance of speed-density vs mass-flow fuel metering.
The transient fuel tests used by Slumberg, Wu, and Auile r
(1981) were described in detail and applied to the ana ly sis
of a stoichiometric controller by Powell, Wu and Aquino
(1981). Fuel transients were reduccd by a factor of two.
The two references in the previous paragraph noted that
the fuel system time co nstant s were inversely proportional
to engine speed. Morris, Hopkins, and Sorcherts (1981)
capitalized on this observation and created a discrete
version of the model where the sample time was one
 Control System Desigll
engine cycle. This created a modei whose parameters were
approximately constant rather than being highly dependent
on engine speed. Morris, Warlick, and Borcherts (1982)
used the discrete model to design an idle speed controller.
It was able to predict that the use of spark advance to
help control idle speed yielded significant benefits by
providing an analysis tool for the two feedback loop
system. Design of the system would have been difficult
using trial and error experimental methods. The model
was demonstrated further by Morris and Powell (1983) to
demonstrate the use of optimal control for the idle speed
controller.
The difficulty with many of the methods described in
both the I / O section and here has been that many hours of
engine test are required to obtain some assurance that the
model is reasonably accurate. In recognition of that,
Powell, Lawson, and Hogh (1987) described a real time
systems analysis tool that expedited much of that process.
The installation combines a high performance computer
with an engine test stand where model parameters for the
simulation can be obtained quickly from the engine and
transferred instantaneously to the computer to be used for
control analysis. Control systems can then be evaluated
using the dynamic computer simulation running in real
time or the actual engine.
CONCLUSIONS
Engine modelling has come a long way. But no model
reported to date can predict the SS or dynamic
performance of an engine without significant amounts of
test time. It appears as if the use of physical models will
ease the test requirements by allowing for better
interpolation and extrapolation of data.
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Ando, H., and M. Motomochi (198 7) Contribution of Fuel
Transport Lag and Statistical Perturbation in
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SAE Paper No. 870545.
Aquino, CF. (1981) Transient A/ F Control Characteristics
of the 5 Liter Central Fuel Injection Engine. SAE
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Auiler, J.E. , J.D. Zbrozek, and P.N. Blumberg (1977)
Optimization of Automotive Engine Calibration for
Better Fuel Economy - Method s and Applications.
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Barker, T.D. (1982) Engine Mapping Techniques, Int. J. of
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239
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240 J. D. Powell
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