Граматика Рівень C1 (для вчителів проф.

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1.Subjective & objective grammar. Inner division of grammar
When we speak of grammar as a part of a language it will be objectivegrammar.
When we speak of grammar as a course or book it will be subjective grammar.
The second is only the reflexion of the first. This distinction become clear when we try to answer the
question how many grammar?
When we speak of objective grammar, the answer is only - one, but when subjunctive-many and different.
There are different types of books and courses in grammar:1.primary grammar for beginners 2.advanced
grammar for students 3.comparative or typological grammar. 4.Historical grammar as a part of history of
certain language. 5.General grammarians a part of theoretical linguistics. 6. Theoretical grammar of a certain
language.
There are some approaches of grammar studies such as:descriptive gramm.,prescriptive
gramm.,transformational gramm.,generative gramm.,contrastive gramm.
Inner division of grammar.
Formally there have a tradition to include into grammar only grammar issues but questions concerning
phonology, word-building and composition.
But there was also a tendency to dissolve morphology into syntax. But nowadays grammarians separate
morphology from syntax.

2.Inner division of grammar & relation between morphology & syntax

Formally there have a tradition to include into grammar only grammar issues but questions concerning
phonology, word-building and composition.
But there was also a tendency to dissolve morphology into syntax. But nowadays grammarians separate
morphology from syntax.
1. Morphology and syntax below to different structural levels of language. Morphology deals with words
and their grammar properties which belong to the conceptual levels of language.
Syntax is connected with phrases and sentences which belong to the communicative level of language.
2. Morphology and syntax are different methods in dealing with linguistics units.
Syntax regards language facts in linear aspect. Morphology studies grammar properties of words which are
grammar categories.
3. Morphology and syntax have different tasks. Morphology studies parts of speech and their
characteristics. Syntax - types of phrases and sentences.
With subdivide grammar into morphology and syntax for scientific and methodological purposes. In actual
speech they work together. Case- forms are morphological by their nature but they don’t exist for the sake of
morphology only. They also exist to express syntactic functions.
The same is true about another grammar categories such as person, number and gender which are always
reflected in syntax.

3.Grammatical categories and grammar forms.

Degrees of comparison: positive, comparative(er,more), superlative( est,the most).
Grammar meanings are strictly correlated. It means that there cannot exist any grammar meaning without it
contra-part. Such meanings are correlated on some wider grammar conception.
For example a grammar meaning of nouns: singular number and plural number both mean number.
Tenses like present, past, future are also correlated on the conception of tense.
Correlation can be defined as opposition of meaning of some order that is belonging to the same wider
conception.
The meaning of tense can be correlated only with another meaning of tense but not with number or degree of
comparison.
In the basis of any grammar correlation there is always some wider conception. This wider conception is a
grammar category.
Grammar correlated meanings make the smallest gr.system of meaning and form which is called a grammar
paradigm. A paradigm is the smallest gr.system of correlated meanings and forms, based on only one
grammar category.
In Ukraine some grammarians say that we have more than 6 cases of noun. Because the instrumental case
may have a whole number of meaning. For example, “пишу пером”, “дім побудований батьком”, “йду
лісом”.
There are different shades of meaning in the given about nouns in the instrumental case.
In the first example – instrumental
in the 2th – agent
in the 3th – location
in the 4th – temporal referents
in the 5th – functional meaning
A grammatical form is any material means of expressing a grammatical meaning.
There are different types of grammatical forms:
1) inflexions( e.g. work – works- worked)
2) self-gradation ( e.g. begin-began-begun)
3) superlative forms, that are forms divided for different roots( e.g. good- better- the best)
4) formal verbs that are axillaries( e.g. be, do, have, shall, will)
5) word order
6) intonation and stress
The absence of positive indicator of a certain grammatical meaning including in a paradigm is a zero
form.The form “ask” in comparison with “asked” has a zero termination and in comparison with “will ask”
has a zero auxiliary.
1) ask, asks, asked – syntactical
2) have asked, was asked, have been asking, was asked - analytical
When one grammatical meaning is expressed by more than one word of which at least one must be purely
formal, that grammar form is an analytical one.
The Lexical and Grammatical in language.
It is necessary to discriminate between lexical and grammatical facts in language.
Without this discrimination we will run the risk either to omit sth belonging to grammar or include into
grammar what does not belong to it.
A) books, pens, trees, forks
B) My father works at a factory, His mother teaches at school, His sister goes to school.
If we examine these columns we see that each unit has sth individual that distinguished it from the rest.
Included, books are not pens, and trees are not forks. In each sentence in column B we can see own lexical
content. On the other hand it’s easy to notice that all elements in both columns have sth in common. In
column A all words are nouns in plural form. If we compare sentences in column B we notice the same
pattern, similar elements of structure and common tense form.
Now, we can make some conclusion that what is individual in language units is not grammar, and what is
common in this units belong to grammar. Another very important feature of the grammar in language is that
grammatical meaning is based on strict correlation. We distinguish the plural number in column A because
you know that they can be a singular number. We can distinguish the present tense because they are past and
future tenses. In lexical opposition we will not find correlation but antonymous. E.g, day-night, white-
black. Another conclusion is the principle feature of the grammar in language is that it includes common
trades of language units and that the common is based on a strict correlation.
Other distinctive features of the grammar in language are:
1) grammar organizes lexis enabling us to make communicative units that are sentences.
2) Grammar is a closed system not easily admitting new elements while lexis is an open system that all own
new words.
3) Grammatical facts are compulsory.
4) While lexis is expressed in language, mostly by roots, grammatical facts are usually expressed by
inflexions, information and word order.
We can define Grammar as part of language that organizes lexis and contrite the structure of language.
Grammar is based on common features of language units and on strict correlation.
Relation between grammar and lexis
We can speak about several aspects of relations between lexis and gr.
One of all, about historical transition: chiefly from lexis to grammar, as for example, the formation of
auxiliary verbs or the formation of continuous or perfect tenses out of word-combination.
In the functional aspect we can speak of:
1) Through neither lexis nor grammar, function in actual speech independently, they preserve their own
autonomy.
2) Lexis and grammar indirect in expressing something similar notion sharing between them a semantic
field.
3) But the most important, is the resistance of lexical meaning to some grammar meaning.
e-g. not all verbs are used in continuous tenses and not all nouns may have both numbers.
This occurs only with those grammatical meanings, which are closely connected with the lexical character of
words.

4.Analytic and Synthetic Languages

Among various classifications of languages we distinguish synthetic and analytic ones.
The 1st one such in the gr. of which synthetic techniques prevail, that is in which gr. and lexical meanings
are united in one word.
Such languages about inflections and rarely resort to form word (auxiliary).
The analytic languages are such in the grammar of which analytic techniques prevail. That is in which
grammar and lexical meanings are expressed in separate words.
These languages have few inflections and usually express grammatical meanings by auxiliary verbs.
From this point of view English is considered to be highly analytic one. However, we must recognize that
there are some syntactic forms too. E.g. the categories of numbers of nouns is expressed only synthetic.
Some main finite forms of verbs (present/past/indefinite) are synthetic too.But analytic forms of English are
prevailing. E.g. in verbs we have analytic continuous and perfect then passive voice, even in the present and
past indefinite we form interrogative and negative forms analytically.All future and future-in-the past forms
are analytical.
Historically, some European languages, English included, have come from synthesis to analysis.
There are two main reasons of appearance of analytic forms:
1) Inner developmentof a certain language may demand creation of a new gr.category.
In this case a language tries to find its inner reasons for the expression of a new meaning and often finds the
meaning among already existing lexical phrases.These actually happened with the development of English
continuous and perfect forms and their auxiliary of tenses and the passive voice and some forms of degrees
of comparison.
2)The development of the language is also determined by the history of the people speaking at that
language.Analytic forms developed most in the language whose people had undergoing historic admixtures
of nations speaking different languages.
Inflections which synthetic elements fall off and instead pareological substitute develop which take the place
of the old synthetic forms.
In English the whole system of substantive cases had deteriorated and now is substituted by off-phrase.
It`s interesting to mention, that most of the synthetic forms have developed from analytic
Inflections were separate forms, e.g. the inf. –eddeveloped from a separate word ‘’did’’ which indicated past
tense after the verb.
The reason for this is that language is one of the human activities and it conforms to universal laws of
economy efforts.

5.Classification of words by Plato & Aristotle

The issue of the parts of speech is a problem of grammar division of a language of a word stock in a
language. It is one of the principal questions in morphology, became this division is connected with a word
structure and paradigm of peculiar words. The history of language categorization of parts of speech begins
with Plato, who considered some languages related philosophical questions (“Why a “dog” is called a
“dog” and not a ‘cat”?”)
He paid attention to analyzing a sentence which is divided into major components: the nominal one and the
verbal one.
He approached the problem of noun-verb distinction in terms of subject & predicate.
He focused purely on syntactic characteristics based on sentence analysis.
Platonic nouns and verbs don’t exactly correspond to nouns and verbs that we have nowadays.
Aristotle added a further distinct class of conjunction to the platonic system.
This class included all those verbs which were neither nouns nor verbs but which served to combine
nouns and verbs: 1. Conjunctions; 2. Pronouns; 3. Articles

Aristotle put adjectives among the verbs. Both Plato and Aristotle’s parts of speech were parts of
sentences. Words became nouns, verbs or conjunctions only were put in sentences.
Their major theoretical achievements was distinguishing a case which was the fundamental distinction
between nouns and verbs.

They drew the borderline between pronouns and article on the one hand and the prepositions and
conjunctions on the other.

6. Classification of words by the Stoics grammarians & Dionysius Thrax

The Stoics made another very important contribution, they recognized tense forms, their temporal and
aspectual meaning.
The Dionysius, Greek grammarian, was represented of the Alexandrian school who built further on what
was achieved by the Stoics.
He suggested organizing words into 8 classes:
1. Noun2. Verb3. Participle4. Article5. Pronoun6. Preposition7. Adverb8. Conjunction
The Alexandrian recognized such noun-categories as:
1)gender(m,f,n) 2)Form (simple & compound) 3)Number(sg, dual, pl.)4)Cases(nom,gen,dat,acc,vocative)

7.Classification of words by Henry Sweet

One of the first scientific English grammar was composed by Henry Sweet in 1898.
He suggested the division of words based on 3 criteria: morphological, syntactic and semantic.
The first division was made along declinable&indeclinable words.
Declinable were divided into:
1. nouns-words (proper names), noun-numerals (conditionals), noun-pronouns (personal & indefinite
pronouns), infinitives & gerund. 2. Adjective-words (adjectives), adjective-pronouns (possessive) adjective
(ordinals), participles.3. Verbs
Indeclinable was called dust-bin class:
1. Conjunctions2. Prepositions3. Modal verbs

8. Classification of words by Emilia Morohousk

A modern grammarian Emilia Morohousk suggests dividing words into lexical and functional.
Lexical parts of speech are linguistic signs that possess denotative ability, they are names of extra-lingual
objects and phenomena, e.g. a door.
Their nom.character enable them to perform various syntactic functions in a sentence and can’t present the
nucleus.
Functional parts of speech don’t denote any object, quality or action.
Functional words are used to mark certain types of relation between lexical words, word-combination and
sentences. a village ->A–functional; village ->lexical
Functional words are conjunctions, particles, articles, prepositions.

9.Parts of speech in modern English

Parts of speech are groups of words with common properties.
The criteria to classify parts of speech are:
1. General semantics of a part of speech (meaning);2. Morphological properties (grammatical category of a
part of speech); 3. Syntactic function in which a given part of speech can be used; 4. A degree of specific
shape (affixes and word) building
The notional parts of speech in English are: nouns, adj., verbs, pronouns, adverbs, numerals.
The funct. - conjunctions, prepositions, particles, articles, interjections.
Many notionals in English may change their nature depending on the contextual environment and their
functional significance.(e.g. to blue the wall, the blue of the sky)

10. The category of number of English nouns

The category of number is realized: table -tables
The category of number is defined as the one that shows if we speak of one object or more than one object.
But because some single objects are used in English only in plural: trousers, glasses, jeans.
The number shows if the inner segmentation of some conception is expressed or not.
If such segmentation is possible then such a conception can have two numbers. If such a segmentation is
impossible, then such a noun will have only singular or only plural.
Some New Orleans in English have one and the same form for singular and plural: sheep, fish, fruit,
swine.Some English nouns have borrowed inflexions to indicate numbers: criterion-criteria, datum-data,
phenomenon-phenomena
The nouns which are used only in singular are called singularia tantum.
There’re 4 groups of sing.tantum:
Nouns denoting parts of the word (the south,west,north)
Names of materials(silver,gold, iron, coffee, sugar, sand, straw)
Collective nouns (furniture, rubbish, hair)
Abstract notions (knowledge, friendship, business)
The nouns that are used only in plural are called pluralia tantum.
There’re 5 of them:
Segmentation nouns (trousers, shorts, spectacles, glasses)
Names of remnants (slips, scraps)
Names of some games (cards, billiards, darts)
Some abstract and concrete notions (outskirts, means, inverted commas)
Some geographical names (the Philippines, Athens, the Alps)

11.The category of case& group of possessive English nouns

Category of case isn’t clear. Some grammarians found only 2 cases but others 4 or even 6.
In modern linguistics the case is defined as a morphological category of the noun, manifested in the forms
of noun declension and showing relations of the noun referent to other objects or phenomena.
This category is expressed in English by the form /‘s/called the possessive or genitive case which is
opposed to the unfeatured noun form which is called the common case.
The common form is absolutely indefinite from the semantic point of view; the rest- the possessive form has
a parallel prepositional construction. “My father’s job” or “The job of my father”.
Speaking of the possessive case it’s necessary to mention some restriction of its use in English: I use my
father’s car.
In the sentence nouns in the possessive case perform only 1 function that is of an attribute.
Possessive case may appear in a noun + noun phrase.
The common case may also be used in this function (stone wall)
Semantic difference between this syntacticly identical form is quite obvious.
The possessive case expresses an individual characteristic whereas the common case denotes the result of
generalization a peculiarity of a class. Animate nouns are typically associated with the possessive case:
Shakespeare’s sonnets, Shakespeare National Theatre.Names of living beings usually appear in the
possessive case but names of inanimate entities don’t take possessive case, but names of seasons, names of
distance, sometimes countries (week’s newspaper, one dollar’s coffee, Ukraine’s population)

12.Gender of English nouns

In a language the category of gender must be strictly oppositional.
The classical gender opposition contains 3 numbers: masculine, feminine, neutral.
Speaking about English the majority of scientists believe that gram. category of gender had disappear by the
end of the middle English.
What has survived the time, is the possibility of lexical indication of biological sex.
Means that provide this indication are purely lexical or derivational. (boy/girl; bull/cow; waiter/waitress;
hero/heroine)
All lifeless things in English are generally associated with the pronoun “IT”: A tree and its leaves
In spoken English all strong or fearful animals, birds, phenomena usually refer to masculine (tiger, lion,
eagle, elephant)
All weaker timid and sly animals, birds - feminine (cat, fox)
The names of vessels (boat, ship) and sometimes vehicles (carriage) are usually associated with feminine
gender. The sun is - HE but the moon, the Earth, the paradise–SHE.
In modern English there’s a tendency to avoid the gender suffixes.
The words that indicate gender are often replaced by neologisms: policeman - now police officer; chairman
- chair; stewardess - fly attendant

13. English adjectives & its gramm.properties

Adjective is characterized by several criteria; semantically - the adjective denotes properties of things,
sometimes qualities of things, and their characteristic feature. Morphologically - it is characterized by the
possibility to have degrees of comparison.
English adj. don`t have such categories as number, gender, case. Syntactically - the adj. is used in the
function of an attribute or a predicative.(A day is sunny – compound nominal predicate)
Adj. have some specific forming suffixes: -ful, -ed, -ive, -ish, -able, -y, -ous (helpful, painted,creative,
boyish,happy,famous).
3 forms of degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, superlative.
The degrees of comparison are formed through synthetic (-er) and analytical (more, the most) forms.
Adj. are divided into 4 classes: qualitative(express property directly - green), relative(express property
through substance – golden,wooden), possessive (Shakespearean), suppletive (bad-worse-the worst).
According to the structure (3groups): 1)Base or simple – big, clean, high, bald; 2)Derivative – capable,
dramatic; 3)Compound – ice-cold
Some groups of adj. in English do not have degrees of comparison:
Adj. denoting a constant feature of the noun referent – blind, deaf
Adj. expressing the similarity of color: lemon, cream
Adj. denoting color of hair or eyes: hazel, ravel
Adj. expressing the intense property with the help of suffixes: bluish, reddish.
Adj. in English can besubstantivized: whollysubstantivased adj. – a relative, a local, a native; partial
subst. adjectives – the poor, the rich, the young.

14. Numerals & their gramm.properties

Numerals in English have a lexicon-grammatical meaning, expressing quantity. They may denote a part
ofan object: one third; or order of some object: the first.
Numerals may combine with – nouns (four days), pronouns (all three), numerals (two from ten), adverbs
(two ahead), infinitive (the first to come).
All numerals fall into subclasses – coordinal – one, ten, million; - ordinal – the tenth; - fractional– three
fifth.In the sentence the numeral performs the same function as the noun if it is a coordinal numeral and the
adjective if it is the ordinal.
Numerals can be: subject: one third is present; object: I like the second; attribute: it is my second trip;
predicative: there are two there; adverbial modifier: they marched three and three.

15.Pronouns and their grammar properties

Morphologically, pronouns represent quite a diverse group.
Thus, the category of case is a property of the personal pronouns, in which one may observe the distinct
opposition “nominative case – objective case”. The indefinite-personal pronoun one and derivatives with
the components -body and -one are also marked for the case category, since they demonstrate the opposition
of the common and the possessive cases.
The category of number marks the demonstrative pronouns, the indefinite-personal pronoun one and the
defining pronoun other as well as the reflexive pronoun yourself.
Syntactic functions of pronouns are also diverse. The personal pronouns, several interrogative pronouns, the
possessive pronouns in the absolute form, derivatives of some, any, no and every perform functions peculiar
to the noun, whereas the possessive pronouns, some indefinite pronouns take syntactic positions typical of
the adjective.
This diversity of morphological categories and syntactic functions leads to controversial views on pronouns
as such and also on linguistic units that should be treated as pronouns. As a result, some scholars deny the
very existence of this part of speech.
According to this point of view, the words that are usually treated as pronouns should be referred, depending
on their morphological and syntactic properties, to specific subgroups of adjectives or nouns.
Indeed, it is impossible to deny similarities between the pronoun, the noun and the adjective but, on the
other hand, it is impossible to overlook the lexical meaning, i.e. absence of a permanent reference that
makes pronouns different from either of the two parts of speech.

16.Classes of pronouns & their characteristics

The pronouns as a part of speech correlates with the following groups of words:
A)Nouns: e.g he –Jim, she- Jane; B)Adjectives : e.g his, her, your book; C) Numerals, when they denote
generalizing quantity. E.g. some
All pronouns in English fall into 8 clases: 1)Personal (he, she, I, me, we, it...); 2)Possessive (my, your,
his, our, hers...); 3)Reflexive (himself, herself, yourself); 4)Demonstrative (This, that, those, these);
5)Relative (who, whom, which, that); 6)Interrogative (Who, Which, What, Where, How); 7)Indefinite
(anyone, somebody, nobody ); 8)Reciprocal (each other, one another)
According to structure pronouns are:1)Simple ( he, you, some, this, which);2)Compound ( someone,
somebody); 3)Composite (I myself, somebody else, neither he nor she)

17.Grammatical properties of English verbs.

The verb is a part of speech that conveys a lexical meaning of an action. The verb can be called the most
complicated unit of a language, the key stone pf the utterance.The key stone of communication in general.
The grammar form of English verbs find its expression in synthetic and analytical forms.
The formative elements of the grammar forms of the verbs are : gr. affixes, gradation(begin-begun),
auxiliaries. Some grammar categories of verbs have only synthetic forms( person and number) others only
analytical forms (voice). There are also grammatical categories expressed by both analytical and synthetic
forms (mood, tense, aspect).
Traditionally, verbs are classified on two principles: morphological and semantic-syntactic
Morphologically verbs are divided into: regular, irregular and modals( a small group of defective)
In semantic-synthetic respect verbs are divided into: nominal (go, ask), auxiliary (do, be. have), linking
verbs(become, Turn, Look, grow)
The verbs usually serve to convey different kinds of activity (read, sing, dance), various processes (boil,
grow), inner state of a person (worry, Hate), possession (have, obtain,possess).
The verbs usually functions in the sentence as a predicate, going into some combinations with nominal parts
of speech. Which perform the functions of the subject or the object of the sentence (The sun shines).

18.The problem of the category of tense and aspect

The idea of locating situations in time is purely conceptional notion. All the events are referred to one of
three time dimensions: present, past and future. But they do differ in lexicon and grammar in establishing
location in time.
The Ukrainian language has objective time, located in the 3 mentioned dimensions.English offers much
more forms for time expression, 3 temporal dimensions are expressed by means of different English verb
forms: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect -continuous. Aspect and tense are inseparable.When we
speak about the category of tense in English several problems arrive, one of them is connected with the
number of tense- aspect form. The matter is that the category of tense is inseparably connected with the
category of aspect. Some scientists say that English has 16 tenses if one takes in the account the fact that
the tense is expressed by the form that coins to the category of aspect at that same time.
Speaking about the tense and aspect form we should not disregard that they are used in active form. But
they can also be used in passive. If we take into account the possibility in English to have active and passive
then the statistics count 26 tense aspect voice forms of which 16 are used in active and 10 are used in
passive. The category of tense answer the question When? And it relates to the time of the action.The
category of aspect answers the question How? And it relates to the manner of the action.

19.A short historic outline of the view on the category of aspect

The category of aspect is a grammatical category showing the manner in which the action is either
performed or represented. In English this category consists of two constituents, the common and the
continuous aspects. They form a dual opposition, the unmarked member of the opposition (common aspect)
being opposed to the marked member (continuous aspect): call - + be calling. The categorical meaning of
aspect indicates that the speaker wants to attract attention to the process/state described in the sentence itself.
The continuous aspect represents the action as a process. The continuous forms are built by auxiliary “to
be” and the present participle of the conjoined verb.The continuous form is not used with verbs, denoting
abstract relations, such as belong, and those denoting sense perception or emotion, e.g. see, hear, hope,
think, love. But there are numerous examples of their usage in the continuous form. In this case they change
the meaning of the verb which comes to denote either an activity (I am thinking of him. I think, you’re right)
or the temporary character of the state. (You’re being silly!).
The perfect aspect as different from the continuous aspect reflects a kind of timing through purely in a
relative way.The perfect aspect also expresses the very connection of a prior process with some other action
or its time limit.The forms of the Perfect Continuous expresses the integral time – aspective category of the
verb.
There are several typical cases of oppositional reduction of the category ofaspect. One is related to the
division of verbs into limitive and unlimitive. E.g. The sun shone brightly.
The example presents a case of neutralization of the opposition “continuousvs. non-continuous” (a process is
implied). Neutralization is optional since theparadigmatically required form “was shining” can still be used.
The neutralizer isthe lexical meaning of the verb. As for transposition, continuous forms can be used
transpositionally todenote habitual, recurrent actions in emphatic collocations. (e.g. He is always borrowing
my pen).

20.Aspectual phrases

21.The paradigm continuous vs. non-continuous

Those who do not recognize the existence of aspect think that cont. forms serve to express simultaneity in
time of different actions in opposition to perfect forms, which express priority in time. The continuous
forms are used to express actions which are mentally regarded as being dynamic. Whereas the non-
continuous forms are used to express actions that are mentally static. The ability to express progressive
meaning is used to classify verbs into stative and active.
Some English verbs can be treated sometimes as stative or non-stative, depending on a particular meaning
they have in the sentence. – I like ice-cream. I`m liking grammar more and more every day.
The verb like refers to the change in the degree of attraction. It shows a developing process with different
individual faces.
When we ask about habitual actions in general we use the indefinite or common aspect, because the action is
repeated as a fact. When we ask about the moment of speaking we use the continuous aspect. Properties of
nature or physics are usually rendered in the indefinite form – Water boils at 100C. But when we speak
actual boiling of the water we use continuous – Look! The water is boiling. Some verbs have two shades of
meaning – one of the process and one of the state. – I think it`s going to rain. I`m thinking of it now.

22.Paradigm perfect versus non-perfect

As we have already mentioned, the category of temporal correlation is based on the privative-equipollent
opposition of “perfect vs. non-perfect”, which is noteasily neutralized in the present but can be neutralized in
the past with ease. E.g. The court issued an arrest warrant after the police detained a suspect.The non-
perfect form “detained” substitutes the paradigmatically requiredform “had detained”. The use of the weak
member of the opposition in the positionof the strong member is possible because the meaning of “a prior
action” isexpressed by the temporal conjunction “after” and by the other action.

23.Absolute, relative & absolute-relative tenses

As it has been mentioned above, the notion “moment of speech” is extremely important for
the tense  category because it provides a reference point with objective time. However, only
Simple/Indefinite forms (Present, Past, and Future) use the moment of speech in this way. Forms that relate
events with the speaking moment are called absolute.
Use of relative tense is restricted to nonfinite verb forms and will be dealt with in more detail in paragraphs
on non-finites. With relative tense, the reference point for location of a situation is some point in time given
by the context, not necessarily the present moment. To catch the difference between absolute and
relative tenses, it is useful to look at the distinction with time adverbials. Sometime adverbials serve
specifically to locate a situation relative to the present moment, e.g. today, yesterday, tomorrow; these are
all instances of absolute time reference. In addition, there are (in general distinct) adverbials which locate a
situation relative to some reference point given by the context, such as on the same day on the day before,
on the next day; these are all instances of relative time reference.
In contrast to absolute tenses, where a situation is located at, before, or after the present moment; and
relative tenses, where a situation is located at, before, or after a reference point given by the
context, absolute-relative tense forms combine these two kinds of time reference. The notion of absolute-
relative tense describes the Past Perfect in English.
The meaning of the Past Perfect is that there is a reference point in the past, and that the situation in
question is located prior to that reference point, i.e. the Past Perfect can be thought of as “past in the past”.
Often, the reference point is given by a time adverbial, as in Linda  had e-mailed  you her report by
two  o‘clock yesterday, where the time adverbial by two  o‘clock yesterday establishes a reference point in
the past (2 p.m. yesterday), and Linda’s action is located prior to that time point. The reference point may be
given by a principal clause to which the clause containing the Past Perfect is subordinate, as in when
Linda  had e-mailed her report, she found several mistakes in it, where the past tense of the principal clause
defines a reference point in the past (namely, the time of Linda’s finding mistakes in the report), and Linda’s
e-mailing is located prior to this. The clauses can also be in the inverse relation, as in Linda had already  e-
mailed her report when she  found  several mistakes in it. Or the reference may be given more generally by
the context, as in a sequence of independent clauses like John brought  new data; she had  already e-
mailed the incomplete report.Thus time points that can be referred to by the Past Perfect can in principle
also be referred to by the Past Simple. A simple sequence of past tenses fails to do this,
e.g. John  brought  new data; Linda  e-mailed  the report, which leaves open whether John’s action preceded
or followed Mary’s e-mailing.
The Future Perfect has a meaning similar to that of the Past Perfect, except that here the reference point is
in the future rather than in the past. Thus I  will have e-mailed you indicates that there is a reference point in
the future, and that my e-mailing is located temporally prior to that reference point.

24.The category of voice in English

The category of voice shows the direction of the process in connection with the participants or doers of the
action.The category of voice expresses the relations between the subject and the object of the action. He
invited his friends. He was invited by his friends.
The category of voice is realized through the opposition active and passivevoice.(invites - is invited; is
inviting - is being invited; invited - was invited; has invited - has been invited; should invite - should be
invited).
The active formindicates that the action is directed from the subject or issues from the subject, thus the
subject denotes the doer (agent) of the action.
The passive form expresses the reception of the action by the subject of the syntactic construction. It
indicates that the action is directed towards the subject. Here the subject expresses a person or non-person
who or which is the receiver of the action. It does not act, but is acted upon and therefore affected by the
action of the verb.The grammatical categories of voice is formed by the opposition of covert and overt
morphemes. The active voice is formed by a zero marker: while the passive voice is formed by (be-ed). So
the active voice is the unmarked one and the passive-marked. E.g.To ask- to be asked.
The realization of the voice category is restricted because of the implicit grammatical meaning of transitiv-
ity/intransitivity. In accordance with this meaning, all English verbs should fall into transitive and
intransitive. However, the classification turns out to be more complex and comprises six groups:
-Verbs used only transitively: to mark, to raise;
-Verbs with the main transitive meaning: to see, to make, to build;
-Verbs of intransitive meaning and secondary transitive meaning. A lot of intransitive verbs may develop a
secondary transitive meaning: They laughed me into agreement; He danced the girl out of the room;
-Verbs of a double nature, neither of the meanings are the leading one, the verbs can be used both transi-
tively and intransitively: to drive home - to drive a car;
-Verbs that are never used in the Passive Voice: to seem, to become;
-Verbs that realize their passive meaning only in special contexts: to live, to sleep, to sit, to walk, to jump.

25.The category of mood in English

There are tree moods in English - the Indicative mood, the Imperative mood and the Subjunctive mood.
The Indicative mood represents an action as a fact, as something real. (America was discovered in 1492).
The Subjunctive Mood represents an action not as a real fact but as something that would take place under
certain conditions, something desirable, necessary or unreal, unrealizable. There are 4 forms of the
Subjunctive Mood in English: the Conditional Mood, the Suppositional Mood, Subjunctive1 and
Subjunctive2.The Conditional Mood has 2 tenses: the present and the past. (The Present Conditional is
formed by means of the auxiliary verbs should and would and the Indefinite Infinitive of the main verb. The
Present Conditional is used to express an action which would have taken place under certain conditions in
the present and future.The Past Conditional is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs should and would and
the Perfect Infinitive of the main verb. The Past Conditional is used to express an action which would have
taken place under certain conditions in the past.) Subjunctive2 has two tenses: the present and the past. (The
Present Subjunctive2 coincides in form with the Past Indefinite Indicative. The only exception is the verb to
be the Present Subjunctive2 of which has the form were both in the plural and in the singular.The Past
Subjunctive2 coincides in form with the Past Perfect Indicative.
Subjunctive2 represents an action as contrary to reality.The Present subjunctive2 refers to the present and
future.The Past Subjunctive2 refers to the past.) Subjunctive1 coincides in form with the infinitive without
the particle to. It has no tense distinctions- the same form may refer to the present, past and
future.Suppositional Mood is formed by means of the auxiliary verb should and the infinitive of the main
verb without the particle to. The Suppositional Mood has two tenses: (the present and the past.
Suppositional mood has two tenses: the present and the past.The Present Suppositional is formed by means
of the auxiliary verb should and the indefinite infinitive of the main verb.The Past Suppositional is formed
by means of the auxiliary verb should and the perfect infinitive of the main verb.)
The Imperative mood expresses an order, a request, warning, invitation or a call to a joint action.Let's have
a break.Note: The subject is sometimes used to make an order more emphatic.You go to bad at once!
The Subjunctive mood represents an action not as a fact but as something imaginary or desired.If I had
money now, I would buy his Opel.

26. General characteristics of the verbals in English.

The three verbals— gerunds, infinitives, and participles—are formed from verbs, but are never used alone
as action words in sentences. Instead, verbals function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These verbals are
important in phrases.
The gerund ends in -ingand functions as a noun: Jumping is fun.
The infinitive is the base form of a verb with to. Usually it functions as a noun, although it can also function
as an adjective or adverb: To jump is fun. (noun; subject of the verb is).
A participle is a verb that ends in -ing (present participle) or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle). Participles
may function as adjectives, describing or modifying nouns: The dancing parrots entertained the crowd.

27. Nominal properties of the Gerund. The so-called Half-gerund.

The nominal characteristics of the gerund are as follows:
1. The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and predicative:
-Smoking endangers your health. (subject)
- I like making people happy. (object)
2. The gerund can be preceded by a preposition:
- I'm tired of arguing.
3. Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive adjective:
- I wonder at his keeping calm.
- Is there any objection to my seeing her?
HALF GERUND: the gerund in -ing when taking certain constructions suggestive of the participle (as
coming in “I don't like him coming here” and climbing in “he tears his shirt climbing trees”)

28. Adjectival/adverbial properties of the Participle

The adjectival and adverbial features of Participle I manifest themselves at the syntactic level, namely in the
functions of attributes (both prepositive and postpositive) and adverbials. The prepositive attribute is usually
expressed by a single participle, the postpositive attribute and the adverbial - by a participial phrase. Cf:I
think it is only a passing shower (D. du Maurier).I like the girl sitting on the right (M. Swan).
Participle I and the Adjective
Adjectivized participles behave like adjectives.
1. They can combine with adjectives proper, e.g.:... Mrs. Foster was and had always been a good and loving
wife
2. They can be modified by adverbs of degree, e.g.:The Vice Chairman has a very charming wife and four
children
3. Sometimes they form degrees of comparison, e.g.:The most interesting thing about dinosaurs is the fact
that they all died out so suddenly
4. Adverbs can be formed from them by the suffix -ly, e.g.: loving - lovingly:They looked at each other
lovingly.

29. Syntax as a branch of grammar. Basic syntactic notions.

Syntax is a branch which treats of the phrases, sentences, texts. Syntax deals with combinability of
words, i.e.how words are combined to make meaningful utterances, what patterns they combine on, and
what abstract grammatical meaning they express.
The main objectives of Syntax are:
1) to study relations between words within word combinations;
2) to study the sentence as a structural unit which communicates a message in a definite situation.
Basic notions of syntax: syntactic connection, syntactic relation, syntagm
The subject of syntax: the composites of the constructions and the rules that guide their composition
F.de Sossur formulated the idea that there are 2 types of relations between elements in a language. They are
opposed to each other. The 1st type is paradigmatic relations. They are relations between different classes of
language elements, which have similar structure or which have common elements.
Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear relations between units in a string (speech) – morpheme within a
word, words within a sentence.
The combination of 2 words or word-groups one of which is modified by the other forms a unit which
referred to a syntactic syntagma. There are 4 main types of notional syntagmas: predicative (the combination
of a subject and a predicate), objective (a combination of a verb and its object), attributive (the combination
of a noun and its attribute) and adverbial (the combination of a modified notional word with its adverbial
modifier)
Syntagmatic relation between words or groups of words are called a syntactic connection. It means the
connection between words or group of words in a string.
There are three types of syntactic connection: predication, coordination and subordination.
Syntactic connection is realized in 3 types: subordination, coordination, predication.
Coordination – every notional element of the construction has the same function in a larger syntagm as the
construction itself. 
Subordination – is a type of syntactic connection where one element is a dominant and the second is
subordinated to it. 
It is realized in three types of syntactic relations between the head word and the subordinate one: 
1. Agreement – a way of expressing a syntactic relationship which consists of making the subordinate word
take a form similar to that of the head word (this book-these books) 
2. Government – a way that implies a certain change of the subordinate word required by the head word,
but not similar to the form of the head word itself. (to give him, her, at the table) 
3. Adjoining – a type of syntactic relations when elements make a syntactic group without changing their
forms (оченьбыстро, бесконечнодолго) 
4. Enclosure (замыкание) – some element of a phrase is, as it were, enclosed between two parts of another
element, for example, by putting of a word between an article and the noun to which the article belongs.
( The then government) 
5.Predication – a specific type of syntactic connection characteristic of the relations between the subject
and the predicate.

30.Phraseas a main part

Phrase is a syntactic unit consisting of the head word (H) and pre (preM) and post modifiers (postM). There
exist the structure of modification and complementation. Phrases can be divided into several subgroups
depending on the type of the head word. It is the head word which determines the type of the phrase.
Difference Between Phrase and Sentence
Phrase is a group of words that are arranged in a grammaticalconstruction and acting as a unit in a sentence.
Sentence isa grammatical unit of one or more words that expresses an independent meaning.
Complete Thought
Phrase does not express a complete thought.
Sentence expresses a complete thought.
Subject and Predicate
Phrase does not contain both a subject and a predicate.
Sentence contains both subject and predicate.
Information
Phrase does not give complete information about the subject or the predicate.
Sentence gives complete information about the subject or the predicate.
Punctuation
Phrase does not begin with a capital letter or end in punctuation marks.
Sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

31. Classification of phrases

Phrases are considered as the second level of classification as they tend to be larger than individual words,
but are smaller than sentences. We refer to the central element in a phrase as the head of the phrase. If the
head is a noun then the phrase is called a noun phrase.
1. Noun phrases
Noun phrases may serve as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, or objects of prepositions. Most noun
phrases are constructed using determiners, adjectives and a head noun.
Examples: My coach is happy. (noun phrase as subject)
2. Verb phrases
Verb phrases are composed of the verbs of the sentence and any modifiers of the verbs, including adverbs,
prepositional phrases or objects. Most verb phrases function as predicates of sentences.
Example: Henry made my coach very proud. (verb phrase as predicate)
3. Adjectival phrases
Adjectival phrases are composed of the adjectives that modify a noun and any adverbs or other elements that
modify those adjectives. Adjectival phrases always occur inside noun phrases or as predicate adjectives.
Example: Dad bought [(a blue and green) sweater]
4. Adverbial phrases
Adverbial phrases are composed of the adverbs that modify verbs, adjectives, or clauses. Adverbial phrases
may occur with more than one word. The extra adverb is called an intensifier.
Example: He scored the goal very quickly.
5. Prepositional phrases
Prepositional phrases are composed of the preposition and a following noun phrase. Prepositional phrases
are used either adjectivally to modify nouns or adverbially to modify verbs, adjectives, or clauses.
Examples:
The man in the house rented it. (prepositional phrase modifies a noun adjectivally)
He went in the arena. (prepositional phrase modifies a verb adverbially)
6. Gerundive phrases
Gerundive phrases may function in any way in which nouns may function: as subjects, objects, objects of a
preposition, or even nouns functioning as adjectives Gerundive phrases may contain gerunds, adjectives,
objects, adverbs or other main verb elements.
Example: Dad talked about winning the game.
7. Participial phrases
Participles are root verbs with an "ed, en or ing" suffix. In the case of the past participial, the form may be
irregular. Participial phrases may contain objects and other elements that might occur with main verbs.
Participial phrases always function as adjectives.
Example: Racing around the corner, he slipped and fell.
8. Absolute phrases
Absolute phrases are composed of a subject noun phrase and a participial phrase. The absolute phrase is
formally independent of the main clause. The subject of the absolute phrase does not have to appear in the
main clause--because the absolute phrase has its own subject!
Example: [(My chores) (completed for the week)], I went on a walk.
9. Infinitive phrases
Infinitive phrases are composed of an infinitive verb (the base form of the verb preceded by to) and any
modifing adverbs or prepositional phrases. The infinitive phrase has three functions: noun, adjective, adverb.

Examples:
My duty as a coach is to teach skills. (infinitive phrase functions as a noun)

32. The essential feature of the sentence. The problem of sentence definition.
A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which
serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating
something about reality but a means of showing the speaker’s attitude to it.
It is rather difficult to define the sentence as it is connected with many lingual and extra lingual aspects –
logical, psychological and philosophical. We will just stick to one of them - according to academician
G.Pocheptsov, the sentence is the central syntactic construction used as the minimal communicative unit that
has its primary predication, actualises a definite structural scheme and possesses definite intonation
characteristics.
The most essential features of the sentence as a linguistic unit are a) its structural characteristics – subject-
predicate relations (primary predication), and b) its semantic characteristics – it refers to some fact in the
objective reality.

33.Communicative classification of sentences

Created by the speaker in the course of communication out of units of language, words in particular, a
contextually bound sentence is made up, playing the function of a complete unit of speech, intonationally
delimited and aimed at a certain purpose of communication.Being a communicative unit, a sentence
distinguishes four kinds of sentence according to the purpose of the utterance:
Declarative statements which state facts in affirmative or negative form: e.g. You can’t rely on him. He
came up and greeted me.
Interrogative sentences of such types of questions as general, special, alternative and disjunctive: e.g. Shall
I start from the very beginning? Where do you come from? Have you got a job or do you study? He’s away,
isn’t he?
Imperative orders, commands, advice, request, which serve to induce a person to do sth: e.g. Don’t touch it.
Look out. You try and do it.
Exclamatory sentences expressing various emotions: e.g. What a lovely day! How wonderful. How fast you
are driving. How beautiful the flower is!
Assertive sentences
Sentences which make simple assertions or statements are called assertive or declarative sentences.
Examples are: It is raining. The child is going to school.
Assertive or declarative sentences may be positive (affirmative) or negative. Sentences which give a positive
or affirmative sense are called affirmative sentences.
Honesty is the best policy.
I have been to Canada.
Sentences which give a negative meaning are called negative sentences.
She will not listen to me.
She should not hate anybody.
Optative sentences
Sentences which express an ardent wish, prayer, curse etc., are called optative sentences.
May you live long! May God help you!
Assertive and imperative sentences are followed by a full stop. Interrogative sentences are followed by the
sign of interrogation or question mark (?). Exclamatory and optative sentences are followed by the sign of
exclamation (!).

34.Structural types of simple sentences

The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up words according to a definite syntactic
 pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.
A simple sentence contains one independent clause, when one subject followed by one verb or verb phrase.
It expresses a single idea.
Examples of simple sentences:
I‘m happy.Robert doesn’t eat meat.
Two-membered sentence contains two principle parts – the subject and the predicate.
(Fleur had established immediate contact with an architect).
A two-membered sentence can be complete and incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a
predicate (Young John could not help smiling).
It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood
from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and they are mostly used in colloquial speech and
especially in dialogue (Where were you yesterday? At the cinema).
One-membered sentence have only one principal part (Dusk – of a summer night).If the main part of a one-
member sentence is expressed by a noun, it is called nominal.
Simple sentences, both two-membered and one-membered can be unextended and extended. A sentence
consisting only of the primary or principle parts is called an unextended sentence. She is a student. Birds fly.
Winter!
An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, predicate and one or more secondary parts
(objects, attributes, adverbial modifiers). 
F.ex. The two native woman stole furtive glances at Sarie.

35. Basic sentence patterns. Variations of basic sentence patterns.

Sentence relationships define the functions of the 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs (including auxiliary verbs),
adjectives, adverbs, articles, conjunctions, pronouns, and prepositions).
There are six basic or simple sentence patterns:
1. Subject/Predicate, Action Verb
2. Subject/Predicate, Action Verb/Direct Object
3. Subject/Predicate, Action Verb/Adverb
4. Subject/Predicate, Linking Verb/Predicate Nominative
5. Subject/Predicate, Linking Verb/Predicate Adjective
6. Subject/Predicate, Action Verb/Indirect Object/Direct Object
Examples of the six basis sentence types:
1. Subject/Predicate, Action Verb
 The class studied.The students and the teacher read.
 The students sat and read.The students and the teacher sat and read.
 2. Subject/Predicate, Action Verb/Direct Object
 The class took a test.The class took a test and a quiz.
3. Subject/Predicate, Action Verb/Adverb
 The class worked carefully.The students sit here.The class worked like a team.Before school, in the
gym, the class worked like a team.In the gym, the class worked like a team before school.
 Like a team, the class worked before school in the gym.
4. Subject/Predicate, Linking Verb/Predicate Nominative
 The teacher is Mr. Soto.The teachers are Mr. Soto and Ms. Lin
 5. Subject/Predicate, Linking Verb/Predicate Adjective
 The teacher is kind.Ms. Kin is kind and helpful.
6. Subject/Predicate, Action Verb/Indirect Object/Direct Object
 The teacher gave the class a test.Mr. Soto gave Kim and John a test.
n its simplest form, an English sentence has two parts: a subject and a verb that express a complete thought
when they are together.

The subject shows who or what is doing the action. It is always some form of noun or pronoun.
The verb shows the action or the state of being. It can be an action verb, like “run,” or a state verb, like
“seem.”
Examples of simple two word sentences include. Marvin slept. Dogs bark.
Real sentences are rarely so short. We usually want to convey much more information, so we modify the
main subject and verb with other words and phrases, as in the sentences below: Unfortunately, Marvin slept
fitfully. Dogs bark louder after midnight.
Despite the extra information, each of these sentences has one subject and one verb, so it’s still just one
clause. What’s a clause?
A clause is the combination of a subject and a verb.
Four Basic Patterns
Every sentence pattern below describes a different way to combine clauses. When you are drafting your own
papers or when you’re revising them for sentence variety, try to determine how many of these patterns you
use. If you favor one particular pattern, your writing might be kind of boring if every sentence has exactly
the same pattern. If you find this is true, try to revise a few sentences using a different pattern.
NOTE: Because nouns can fill so many positions in a sentence, it’s easier to analyze sentence patterns if you
find the verbs and find the connectors. The most common connectors are listed below with the sentence
patterns that use them.
In the descriptions below, S=Subject and V=Verb, and options for arranging the clauses in each sentence
pattern given in parentheses. Connecting words and the associated punctuation are highlighted in brown.
Notice how the punctuation changes with each arrangement.
Pattern 1: Simple Sentence
One independent clause (SV.)
Mr. Potato Head eats monkeys.
I refuse.
Try this: Look for sentences in your own text that have only one clause. Mark them with a certain color so
they stand out.
Pattern 2: Compound Sentence
Two or more independent clauses. They can be arranged in these ways: (SV, and SV.) or (SV; however,
SV.)
Connectors with a comma, the FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (See our handout on commas for
more info.)
Connectors with a semicolon and comma: however, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless, therefore
Example compound sentences:
Mr Potato Head eats them for breakfast every day, but I don’t see the attraction.
Pattern 3: Complex Sentence
One independent clause PLUS one or more dependent clauses. They can be arranged in these ways: (SV
because SV.) or (Because SV, SV.) or (S, because SV, V.)
Connectors are always at the beginning of the dependent clause. They show how the dependent clause is
related to the independent clause. This list shows different types of relationships along with the connectors
that indicate those relationships:

Cause/Effect: because, since, so that

Comparison/Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while
Place/Manner: where, wherever, how, however
Possibility/Conditions: if, whether, unless
Relation: that, which, who, whom
Time: after, as, before, since, when, whenever, while, until
Examples of complex sentences:
He recommends them highly because they taste like chicken when they are hot.
Although chicken always appeals to me, I still feel skeptical about monkey.
Mrs. Potato Head, because she loves us so much, has offered to make her special monkey souffle for us.
Pattern 4: Compound-Complex Sentence
Two or more independent clauses PLUS one or more dependent clauses. They can be arranged in these
ways: (SV, and SV because SV.) or (Because SV, SV, but SV.)
Connectors: Connectors listed under Patterns 2 & 3 are used here. Find the connectors, then find the verbs
and subjects that are part of each clause.
Mr. Potato Head said that he would share the secret recipe; however, if he does, Mrs. Potato Head will feed
him to the piranhas, so we are both safer and happier if I don’t eat monkeys or steal recipes.
 36. Compound sentence characteristics and classification.
A compound sentence is a sentence that has at least two independent clauses joined by a comma, semicolon
or conjunction. An independent clause is a clause that has a subject and verb and forms a complete thought.
An example of a compound sentence is, 'This house is too expensive, and that house is too small.' This
sentence is a compound sentence because it has two independent clauses, 'This house is too expensive' and
'that house is too small' separated by a comma and the conjunction 'and.'
When independent clauses are joined with coordinators (also called coordinating conjunctions) commas and
semicolons, they do more than just join the clauses. They add meaning and flow to your writing.
A compound sentence is a polypredicative unit built according to the principle of coordination.
Clauses are not dependent on each other, though they are connected semantically and syntactically (unlike
simple sentences they show closer connection between the reflected events and may have different
informative value).
The connection between clauses may be asyndetic (without connective elements, such as conjunctions) and
syndetic (with a connective element).
The following types of coordination are distinguished:
1. Copulative: one clause is simply added to another. Conjunctions: and, nor, neither … nor, not only
… but also. E.g. It was a nice place and we were very proud of it.
2. Disjunctive (alternative): offers a choice between the statements of two clauses.
Conjunctions: or , else, or else, either … or. Adverb: otherwise
E.g. You must do it immediately or it will be too late.
3. Adversative: connects two clauses contrasted in meaning. Conjunctions: but, while, whereas
Adverbs: nevertheless, still, yet, moreoverE.g. I was not unhappy, yet I wept.
4. Causative-consecutive and resultative
Conjunctions: for, so Adverbs: therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence
E.g. They were born in the same city, so they had a lot in common.

37. Complex sentence characteristics and classification.

A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses connected to it.
A dependent clause is similar to an independent clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the
elements that would make it a complete sentence. Examples of dependent clauses include the following:
because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon
while he waited at the train station
after they left on the bus
Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they can be added to an
independent clause to form a complex sentence.
Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the most common
subordinating conjunctions:after, although, as, because, before, even though.
A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses.
The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent clause.

Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences because a complex sentence indicates
clearer and more specific relationships between the main parts of the sentence. The word "before," for
instance, tells readers that one thing occurs before another. A word such as "although" conveys a more
complex relationship than a word such as "and" conveys.The classification of complex sentences is usually
based on the classification of subordinate clauses. Hence, there are distinguished the following typologically
relevant groups of subordinate clauses: subject clauses, predicative clauses , objective clauses , attributive
and adverbial clauses.
The categorial classification draws a parallel between subordinate clauses and parts of speech. According to
the categorial principle subordinate clauses are classed by their nominative properties, that is on their
analogy with the part-of- speech classification of notional words. From this point of view all subordinate
clauses are divided into 3 categorial groups.

The first group is formed by the substantive-nominal clauses. It includes clauses that name an event as a
certain fact. They are also called noun-clauses and are similar to the nominative function of a noun. Their
noun-like nature is easily revealed by substitution, e.g.: I thought up what we could do under the
circumstances. – the clause can be substituted by “the plan”- I thought up the plan.
The second group of clauses is called qualification-nominal or adjective clauses. They name an event as a
certain characteristic of another event. The adjective-like nature of these clauses can also be proved by
substitution, e.g. The man whom you saw in the hall was our client. – That man was our client; e.g.: Did you
find a room where we could hold a meeting? – Did you find such kind of room?
The third group of clauses can be called adverbial. They name an event as a dynamic characteristic of
another event. Adverbial clauses are best tested by transformations, e.g.: They will meet us half way if we
follow the agreement.- They will meet us half way on condition that we follow the agreement; e.g.: I could
hardly make up any plan, as I did not know the details.- I could hardly make up any plan for the reason that I
did not know the details.

38. The main parts of the sentence and their types.

The Subject
The subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence. It denotes the thing whose action or characteristic is
expressed by the predicate. It may be expressed by different parts of speech, the most frequent ones being: a
noun in the common case, a personal pronoun in the nominative case, a demonstrative pronoun, a
substantivised adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, and a gerund. It may also be expressed by a phrase.
The subject performs two main functions: categorial and relative. The categorial function of the subject
consists in naming the possessor of the predicative feature expressed by the predicate. The relative function
of the subject consists in its being the original element in the syntagmatic development of the sentence, thus
constituting the predicate’s left environment as opposed to its right environment.
As it has already been mentioned, the subject always goes with the predicate, therefore, one-member
nominal sentences do not have a subject.
The Predicate. The predicate denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the subject. It can be
expressed by numerous ways. The predicate expresses the predicative feature which characterized the object
expressed by the subject, thus it realizes the categorial function. Being link between the subject and the right
environment of the verb, it performs the relative function.According to morphological characteristics, four
types of predicates can be singled out: - verbal;- nominal;- phraseological;- contaminated.
The predicate can be subject to the syntactic process of complication, thus, according to their structural
characteristics, predicates can be simple and complicated.

39. The secondary parts of the sentence.

The secondary parts of the sentence are: the object, the attribute, and the adverbial modifier.
1) The Object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or
sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun. There are three kinds of objects in English: the
direct object, the indirect object, and the cognate object.
Direct(used after transitive verbs with which it is closely connected as it denotes a person or thing directly
affected by the action of the verb. It is used without any preposition.) /indirect (denotes a living being to
whom the action of the verb is directed. There are also cases when it denotes a thing).
There are two types of indirect object:
1. The indirect object of the first type expresses the addressee of the action. There can’t be an indirect object
without a direct one in a sentence, if the predicate is expressed by a transitive verb.
2. The indirect prepositional object doesn’t always express the addressee of the action and is more
frequently used with intransitive verbs than with transitive ones. It can be used with any preposition.
The cognate object (The cognate object is the non-prepositional object which is attached to usually
intransitive verbs and which is always expressed by nouns derived from or semantically related to the root of
the governing verb).
2) The Adverbial Modifier. The adverbial modifier (adverbial) is a secondary part of the sentence which
modifies another part of the sentence expressed by a verb, an adjective, a stative or an adverb. There are
several ways of classifying adverbial modifiers:
1. According to their meaning – not a grammatical classification. However it may acquire some
grammatical significance.
2. According to their morphological peculiarities – according to the parts of speech and to the phrase
patterns. It has also something to do with word order, and stands in a certain relation to the classification
according to meaning.adverb,preposition + noun,a noun without a preposition,infinitive or an infinitive
phrase
3. According to the type of their head-word – is the syntactic classification proper. The meaning of the
word (phrase) acting as modifier should be compatible with the meaning of the head-word.
Semantically adverbs can denote Time and frequency,Place and direction,Manner and attendant;
circumstances, Cause, Purpose, Result, Condition, Concession, Degree
3) The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence modifying a part of the sentence expressed by a noun, a
substantivized pronoun, a cardinal numeral, and any substantivized word, and characterizing the thing
named by these words as to its quality or property.
The attribute can either precede or follow the noun it modifies. Accordingly we use terms prepositive and
postpositive attribute. The position of an attribute with respect to its head-word depends partly on the
morphological peculiarities of the attribute itself, and partly on stylistic factors.
The size of the prepositive attributive phrase can be large in ME. Whatever is included between the article
and the noun, is apprehended as an attribute.
4) Apposition – a word or a phrase referring to a part of the sentence expressed by a noun, and giving some
other designation to the person or thing named by that noun, e.g. For a moment, Melanie thought how nice
Captain Butler was.
There are two kinds of apposition: THE CLOSE APPOSITION is not separated by commas and stands in
close connection with the word modified (Professor Higgins, Aunt Polly, President Clinton). THE LOOSE
OR DETACHED APPOSITION is not so closely connected with the noun. It is always separated by
commas and has a stress of its own (She lived in the house of Timothy, her younger brother).
40. Homogeneous, detached and grammatically independent sentence parts.
1) There are sentences which contain several homogeneous parts: two or more subjects to one common
predi¬cate, two or more predicates to one common subject, two or more objects of a similar kind to one verb
or adjective, etc. The homogeneous parts of a sentence are connected by coordinative conjunctions, or
asyndetically (without any conjunction). The copulative conjunction and may always be inserted between
the homogeneous parts of a sentence connected asyndetically:Fields, trees, hedges streamed by. (Mansfield.)
The following coordinative conjunctions and adverbs connect the homogeneous parts of a sentence:
a. Copulative: and, not only... but also, neither ... nor, as well as:
b. Disjunctive: or, either... or:
c. Adversative: but, yet, still:
If a sentence comprises more than two homogeneous elements, they may be linked by the conjunction and;
but usually the con¬junction is inserted only between the two last members, the other members being
connected asyndetically:
The homogeneous parts of the sentence may be:
1. Co-ordinated subjects: Hedges, fields, and trees, hill and moorland, presented to the eye their ever-
varying shades of deep rich green... (Dick¬ens.)
2. Co-ordinated predicatives: It was growing dark and foggy... (Dickens.)
3. Co-ordinated predicates: In his own small room Martin lived, slept, studied, wrote and kept house.
(London.)
4. Co-ordinated objects: She brought a can of cold tea and a whole loaf of bread. (O’Flaherty.)
5. Co-ordinated attributes: He was a careless, impetuous, good-natured, generous fellow! (Cronin.)
6. Co-ordinated adverbial modifiers: He worked quickly and well. (Lawrence.)
Sometimes a sentence contains identical homogeneous parts (repetitiоn-grоups) linked by the conjunction
and, or asyndetically. This construction is chiefly used to intensify the idea: These were the old, old friends
and neighbours.
2) Detached parts of the sentence are those secondary parts which assume a certain grammatical and
semantic independence. This phenomenon is due to their loose connection with the words they modify.
Loose connection may be due to the position of these words, the way they are expressed, their meaning, or
the speaker's desire to make them prominent. In spoken language detached parts of the sentence are marked
by intonation, pauses, and special stress; in written language they are generally separated by commas or
dashes. Adverbial modifiers, attributes, and prepositional indirect objects may stand in loose connection to
the word they modify, i. e. they may be detached (loose) parts of the sentence.
Adverbial modifier may be detached, which accounts for the comma that separates it from the rest of the
sentence (The Corporal lit a pipe carefully, because the enemy was close; In her excitement, Maria jammed
the bedroom-door together).
A detached attribute can modify not only a common noun as an ordinary attribute does but also a proper
noun and a pronoun (There was a star-like quality about Judice, radiant and unreachable; It was a wide white
building, one storey high).
The prepositional indirect object is often detached (She does not change —except her hair; A silver tray was
brought, with German plums).
3) The independent elements of the sentence are words and word-groups which are not grammatically
dependent on any part of the sentence. They are:
1. Interjections, such as ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness gracious, good heavens, etc.
2. Direct address. Good morning, sweet child!
3. Parenthesis. A parenthesis either shows' the speaker's attitude towards the thought expressed in the
sentence or connects a given sentence with another one, or summarizes that which is said in the sentence. A
parenthesis is connected with the rest of the sentence rather semantically than grammatically. No question
can be put to it. Very often it is detached from the rest of the sentence and consequently it is often separated
from it by commas or dashes (He had probably never occupied a chair with a fuller sense of
embarrassment).