I hope this booklet will support you with your photography.

Here are some quick tips

• Keep it simple. Find settings on your camera that works for

you and use regularly. I mostly use my camera on Aperture
Priority. It suits the work I do and my familiarity allows me to
concentrate on the picture-taking process, rather than
changing camera functions and settings.

• I know it’s a pain but you really need to find time to read
through your camera’s manual. Menus and the like vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer and even model to model from
same manufacturer.

• Regularly look at other photographers’ work to get inspiration

and ideas.

• Buy and read Photo Magazines. These are mainly aimed at

enthusiasts and are a great source of ideas and explanations.

• Be passionate about your photography.

• Develop themes to work on such as trees, still-life or whatever

you enjoy.

• When you are ready have a go at entering Photo competitions.

• Be ruthless with your editing. Keep only the best!

• Strive to constantly improve your work. See how your shots

could be improved and learn from your mistakes.

• Don’t forget to take out your camera with you!

©Paul Milsom 2
 COMPOSITION
I once read that a well known photographer, when asked what created a

brilliant photograph, exclaimed COMPOSITION, COMPOSITION,

COMPOSITION!

Whilst, in reality there are other considerations such as lighting,

exposure etc, he did have a very valid point. You can have perfect
exposure, beautiful lighting and then blow it by shoddy composition.

As a generalization, when you look through the viewfinder of your

camera, what you see is what you will get on your film or CCD. The
camera will NOT think for you and create a wonderful composition –
that’s your job.

©Paul Milsom 3
If I were to give one fundamental piece of advice, it would be LOOK, LOOK
LOOK and LOOK again through the finder. This is what your photo is going to
look like. Do you like it? No? Well, then you need to
re-compose it again and again until you DO like what you see. When I take
photos, particularly when I am using a tripod, it is not unusual for me to spend
10 minutes at the composition, making numerous alterations time and time
again until I am happy with it. Only then, assuming other factors such as
exposure is OK) will I press that shutter.

There are things you can do to take better pictures. Here are a few
suggestions:

Pay attention to framing. Nothing ruins a

nice photo faster than distracting elements in
the background. Don’t get so focused on the
photo’s subject that you ignore what else is
going on around them. Watch out for poles,
trees and power lines, and look all the way
around the edges of the frame, asking “Is this
what I really want in my photo?”

A well-composed photograph with the

Rule of Thirds "grid" superimposed.

Learn the Rule of Thirds. One of the most popular rules of composition—the
Rule of Thirds—dictates that you imagine the viewfinder is divided into thirds,
both horizontally and vertically. This grid creates four intersection points.
Place your subject where the lines intersect, instead of in the center of the
frame.

©Paul Milsom 4
 Every image has a foreground and a
background. How you want people to
view your picture determines what
you do with the foreground and
background. For example, zooming in,
and choosing a large aperture setting,
blurs the background while keeping
your subject sharp. This is a pleasing
effect for portraits. Conversely,
zooming out to a wide angle setting,
and choosing a small aperture, allow
you to show the subject and their
surroundings in more equal focus.
Have your subject prominent in the
foreground, and use the background
to tell more about the subject or the
environment.

Change your angle of view. Try kneeling, or even putting the camera on the
ground. Climb a flight of stairs so you’re higher than the subject you’re
photographing. Zoom in and out if you own such a lens. Experiment with
different focal length lens. Digital cameras with twist and tilt LCD screens are
ideal for this. Changing angles provides a fresh perspective, and makes for a
more dramatic photograph.

©Paul Milsom 5
Look for
elements in
a scene that
draws a
viewer’s
eyes
through the
photo. A
winding
path, a
meandering
river, a row
of telephone
poles or
perhaps a
line of
chairs at the
beach can
serve as
elements in
a good
photo.

©Paul Milsom 6
Keep your eyes open for patterns and textures in nature or man-made
objects.
Interesting
photos can be
made of the
waves and
patterns
created by
drifting snow, a
flock of birds
flying in
formation or
pipes stacked
at a
construction
site. The grain
on wood can be
interesting.

Get in close! Look for texture in the wrinkles

of a face or the bark of a tree. Hands can say
a lot about a person. Pay attention to the
details.

THE HISTOGRAM

©Paul Milsom 7
LIGHT RANGE

It is important to understand that a digital camera’s sensor can only record only a
certain range of light values. You may remember when using film that the light range
was limited to only a few f/stops of range? With transparency film the limitation was
about 3 or 4 "stops" of light, while with negative film it could go on out to 5 or 6 stops.
Today's digital sensors seem to be able to record about 5 or so usable stops of light. It
is fair to say that that the digital camera can record a little more than transparency
film, and a little less than negative film.

The problem is that many of the higher contrast subjects we photograph may contain
over 12-stops of light values. This is rather more than it is possible to capture with
film or a digital sensor today. By understanding how your digital camera records light,
you can better control how the image is captured.

Examine Figure 1.

The grey rectangular area is a representation of an in-camera histogram.

The histogram basically is a graphical representation of the maximum range of light

values your camera can capture. It does this in 256 steps. (0 = Pure Black, and 255 =
Pure White) In the middle of the histogram are the mid-range values that represent
middle colours such as grey, light browns, and greens. The values from just above zero
and just below 255 contain detail.

The histogram graph looks similar to a mountain peak, or a series of peaks. The taller
the peak, the more there is of a particular colour. In some cases the graph will be
rounder on top, or flattened. The left side of the histogram represents the maximum
dark values that your camera can record. The right side represents the maximum
white values your camera can capture. On both ends of the histogram the light values
contain no detail. They are either completely black, or completely white. The top of
the histogram (top of mountain peak) represents the number of different colours, a
value you cannot control, so it is for your information only. We are mostly concerned
with the left and right side values of the histogram, since we do have much control
over those. (Dark vs. Light)

©Paul Milsom 8
So, basically, the histogram's left to right directions are related to the darkness and
lightness of the image, while the up and down directions of the histogram (valleys and
peaks) have to do with colour information. I repeated this for emphasis! The left
(dark) to right (light) directions are VERY important for your image making. If the
image is too dark, the histogram will show that by clipping off the light values on the
left, or, if too light, by clipping on the right. This will become easier to understand as
we look at well exposed and poorly exposed images.

Look at the image below (Figure 2). It is well exposed with no serious problems. The
entire light range of this particular image fits within the histogram window, which
means that it is not too light or too dark, and will take very little or no adjustment to
view or print. It contains no more than four or five stops of light range.

Look at the left side of the histogram graph above (Figure 2), and see that it does not
cram itself against the dark value side. In other words, the dark values are not clipped
off on the left. This means that the camera recorded all the dark values in this image,
with no loss of darker detail. Then look at the right side of the histogram graph, and
note that it is not completely against the right side, although quite close. The image
contains all the light values available. Everything in between, such as the blues and
greys, are all exposed quite well, with full detail. A histogram does not have to cover
the entire window for the exposure to be fine. When there is a very limited range of
light, the histogram may be rather narrow.

The image in Figure 2 is a relatively bland image with smooth graduations of tone, so
it makes a nice smooth mountain peak looking histogram graph. This will not happen
all that often, since most images contain quite a bit more colour information. Each
prominent colour will be represented with its own peak on the histogram graph. The
most prominent colours will have higher peaks, while the less prominent will have
lower or no peaks.

As we progress into images with more colour or light information, we will see that the
histogram looks quite different. Look at the image in Figure 3 below, which is one
that far exceeds the range of the camera's digital sensor.

©Paul Milsom 9
Notice that, overall, this image is dark and underexposed looking. The clouds are
pretty well exposed, but the image is not very usable unless the clouds are the
primary subject. See how the histogram above (Figure 3) is crammed to the left,
effectively being clipped off there? There are no gradual climbs like on a mountain
range, from valley to peak and back to valley. Instead, the image shows up on the left
side in mid-peak. It is "clipped." (Remember that word) If this is confusing, refer to the
histogram graph (Figure 1) at the very top of this article, and notice that it has
unclipped peaks and valleys like a mountain range.

If you don't fully grasp this yet, do not worry. The most important thing to know is that
when you see a histogram like in Figure 3 above, with part of the peak and valley
clipped off on the left, THE IMAGE IS TOO DARK. This problem could be corrected on
this image by using a neutral density filter on the sky, which would have compressed
the light range enough that the image could be more fully recorded. This image above
is even clipped a little on the highlight side (right). You can see why when you look at
the rays of light shining between the clouds. The light is too bright, so it exceeds the
light range of the sensor and is clipped.

IMAGE AND HISTOGRAM SHAPE ... continues

Now look at a similar image below (Figure 4). In this image a larger aperture was used
and more light was allowed in. We can now see the ground, but, once again, the range
of light is too great for the sensor, so it is now clipped off on the highlight side (right).
The dark-side graph value is not clipped; instead the graph extends right to the left
dark-side edge but stops there.

©Paul Milsom 10
This image in Figure 4 above shows more detail in the ground area, but it is not
professional looking, and will win no awards. The range of light is simply too great to
be recorded fully. The clouds and light behind them are overly light, and that can be
seen by the histogram's clipping on the right side. The most important thing to
remember with this image's histogram is that when you see a histogram graph that is
crammed all the way to the right and clipped, THE IMAGE IS TOO LIGHT. Overall, a
great deal of the image in Figure 4 is recorded as pure white and is gone permanently.
(It is "blown out")

Also notice in the Figure 4 above that there are few mid-range values, as represented
by a big valley in the mid-range area. It has two peaks, the left representing darker
values and the right representing lighter values. There is no strong mid-range peak. Of
course, other images will have multiple peaks and be just fine. The important thing is
that you prevent the image's light values from being clipped on the left or right. This is
not always possible, but do your best to try. In other words, if you try to center the
histogram, your images will be better exposed. If you take a picture, and the
histogram graph is shifted way left or right, well, you can then retake it, exposing in
the direction of the opposite light value.

If there is too much light to allow centering the histogram, you must decide which part
of the image is more important, the light or dark values. Does that make sense? You
must expose for the highlights, or you will lose detail in the light areas. Which is more
important, the dark areas, or the light areas?

HOW DOES THE EYE REACT TO LIGHT VALUES?

The camera, with its lenses, film, or sensor is only a weak imitation of our marvelously
designed eye and brain combination. There are very few situations where our eye
cannot adjust to the available light range, and we can see well. So, as photographers,
we are always seeking ways to record even a small portion of what our eye and mind
can see.

Since our eye tends to know that shadows are black, and expects that, it is usually
better to expose for the highlights. If you see dark shadows, that seems normal. We're
simply not used to seeing light that's so bright that all detail is lost. An image exposed

©Paul Milsom 11
for the dark will look very weird because all highlight detail is gone. Your eye can see
a HUGE range of light in comparison to your digital sensor. The only time you will ever
see light values that are so bright that detail is lost is when you are looking directly at
an overwhelmingly bright light, like the sun. So, in a worse case scenario, expose the
image so that the right side of the histogram graph just touches the right side of the
histogram window, and the image will look more normal. (See the next image for a
view of this)

This is no different than shooting with film, since we have always fought with only
being able to record a limited range of light. But, with the digital camera and its
histogram, we can now see a visual representation of the light values, and can
immediately approve of the image, reshoot it with emphasis on lighter or darker
values, or see that we must use a filter to capture it at all.

HOW DOES THE EYE REACT TO LIGHT VALUES?

The camera, with its lenses, film, or sensor is only a weak imitation of our
marvellously designed eye and brain combination. There are very few situations where
our eye cannot adjust to the available light range, and we can see well. So, as
photographers, we are always seeking ways to record even a small portion of what our
eye and mind can see.

Since our eye tends to know that shadows are black, and expects that, it is usually
better to expose for the highlights. If you see dark shadows, that seems normal. We're
simply not used to seeing light that's so bright that all detail is lost. An image exposed
for the dark will look very weird because all highlight detail is gone. Your eye can see
a HUGE range of light in comparison to your digital sensor. The only time you will ever
see light values that are so bright that detail is lost is when you are looking directly at
an overwhelmingly bright light, like the sun. So, in a worse case scenario, expose the
image so that the right side of the histogram graph just touches the right side of the
histogram window, and the image will look more normal.

This is no different than shooting with film, since we have always fought with only
being able to record a limited range of light. But, with the digital camera and its
histogram, we can now see a visual representation of the light values, and can
immediately approve of the image, reshoot it with emphasis on lighter or darker
values, or see that we must use a filter to capture it at all.

©Paul Milsom 12
Cropping can transform an image If you edit photos
on your computer, you are no longer constrained by
the standard 4 x 6-inch, 5 x 7, or 8 x 10 formats.
Look at each photo carefully and think about what
you really want people to see and react to, then
crop everything else away. Try some unusual
shapes, like wide horizontals or narrow verticals.

Remember, you are discarding pixels when you crop

Remember: Composition is only limited by your imagination.

Experiment, have fun and keep learning!

©Paul Milsom 13
©Paul Milsom 14
©Paul Milsom 15
 APERTURES, SHUTTER SPEEDS AND ISO RATINGS EXERCISE

See if you still remember!!!!!!!

1. There are 2 Apertures missing from this sequence:-
f1 f2 f2.8 f4 f5.6 f8 f16 f22

Please name them _____ ______

2. There is one shutter speed missing from this sequence:-

1 ½ ¼ 1/8 1/30 1/60 1/250 1/500

Please name it ______

3. Which of the following exposures give the greater depth of field?

1/60 at f8 or 1/15 at f16 (circle one)

4. What typical length of shutter speed might you use to sharply capture a
racing car? _________

5. You want to maximize depth of field in a landscape shot. What aperture

might you typically use? _________
What problems might you get in doing this and how could you remedy?

6. Which of the following combinations does NOT provide the same

exposure?
1/4 second at f22
1/15 second at f11
1/60 second at f5.6
1/250 second at f2.8
1/500 second at f1.4 (circle one)

7. Your meter shoes a suggested exposure of 1/30 at f8. You film speed (or
ISO setting on digital camera) is 100 ISO. You either buy 400 ISO film or
set the ISO setting to 400. Keeping the same exposure value, what speed
would be indicated when you alter the film/ISO setting? __________

©Paul Milsom 16
 A BIT ABOUT ALL THOSE CONTROLS!
All digital cameras give you fully automatic operation so you can just point and shoot to
take pictures. These automatic systems are great in the vast majority of situations and
even the pros use them a lot of the time. However, for more creative control you need to
be able to override the auto settings. In this section we look at how you override the
automatic settings and why you would want to do so.

Automatic controls

Most digital cameras come with lots of built-in automation.

Auto exposure calculates the correct exposure for the scene.

Automatic focus brings the centre of interest into sharp focus.

White balance adjusts the colours in the image to match the source of light illuminating the
scene.

Auto flash fires automatically if there isn't enough light.

Auto advance prepares the camera for the next photo.

These features make cameras so easy to operate that even children can use them. All you have
to do is teach them how to smoothly press the shutter release button and keep their fingers
from in front of the lens.

Many people who take pictures never find the need to progress beyond the fully automatic
point and shoot kind of photography. However, to really be in control of your images, you have
to cross the bridge into manual control. It's only then that you can creatively throw
backgrounds out of focus or choose between blurring and freezing a fast moving subject. Let's
take a look at some of the features that allow you to manually override automatic settings.

Auto exposure

The exposure-the amount of light that reaches the image sensor-determines how light or dark
the resulting photograph will be. When the shutter opens, light (reflected from the subject and
focused by the lens) strikes the image sensor inside the camera. If too much light strikes it, the
photograph will be overexposed-washed out and faded looking. Too little light produces an
underexposed photograph-dark and lacking in details, especially in shadow areas.

The amount of light that exposes the image is controlled by adjusting either the aperture (the
size of the opening through which light enters the camera) or the shutter speed (the length of
time light is allowed to enter). With automatic exposure control, the camera makes one or
both of these adjustments for you. Many digital cameras offer only fully automatic auto
exposure but better ones offer you a choice.

Fully automatic selects both the aperture and shutter speed.

©Paul Milsom 17
Aperture priority lets you select the aperture (to control depth of field) and the camera then
selects the best matching shutter speed for a good exposure.

Shutter priority lets you select the shutter speed (to control motion) and the camera then
selects the best matching aperture for a good exposure.

How auto exposure works

To measure the light reflecting from the scene, a camera uses a built in light meter. Which
part of the scene they measure makes all of the difference in the world. Most read the entire
image area but give more emphasis to the bottom part of the scene because this reduces the
possibility that the bright sky will cause the picture to be underexposed. They also emphasize
the centre of the image area on the assumption that there is where you have placed the major
subject. This is called a centre - weighted system.

Some cameras let you select a small area of the scene and meter it directly using a spot meter.
In this mode, only the part of the scene in the very centre of the viewfinder is metered.
Everything else is ignored.

You can use auto exposure more successfully if you know a little about how it "thinks." All
systems are calibrated on the assumption that in most scenes there will be a few dark shadows,
many grey mid-tones, and a few bright highlights, and that all of these tones will average out
to a tone of medium brightness called middle grey. When the meter reads the brightness of a
scene, it doesn't actually think at all; it simply calculates an exposure that will reproduce a
tone of that brightness correctly as middle grey. If you photograph a white wall, a grey wall,
and a black wall, the camera will make them all grey in the photographs. To render them in
the image, the way they actually appear in real life, you use exposure compensation.

Exposure compensation

The most common form of manual override for creative control is called exposure
compensation. This control let's you select settings such as +1, +2, -1, and -2 to increase or
decrease the exposure. Changing this setting is essential in settings where automatic exposure
gets confused, for example, backlit scenes and scenes on bright sand or snow. As good as auto
exposure systems are, they tend to make light scenes too dark and dark scenes too light. With
exposure compensation, you can lighten or darken the image to better portray the scene the
way you want it.

Knowing when to lighten or darken a scene takes a lot of experience. Some digital cameras
make it easy by letting you preview the scene on the preview screen and then lighten or darken
the displayed image to your liking. This kind of "what you see is what you get" display takes all
of the mystery out of using this control. Many cameras also have an auto exposure bracketing
(AEB) command that takes a series of photos for you with the exposure changed slightly
between each. This gives you a series of pictures from which you can choose the best one.

©Paul Milsom 18
Exposure control

Although exposure compensation lets you lighten or darken pictures, it still keeps the camera
in automatic exposure mode. To really get creative, you need to get out of this mode so you
and not the camera select the shutter speed and aperture. Being able to choose these two
settings lets you control how motion and depth of field are portrayed in your images.

Shutter speeds

Being able to control shutter speeds let's you decide if a moving object will appear sharp or
blurred in the image. Choosing a faster shutter speed allows you to freeze faster actions.

Choosing a slower one lets you blur action or capture scenes in low light levels, perhaps when
using a tripod to eliminate blur caused by camera movement.

Apertures

Being able to control aperture lets you control depth of field-the area from foreground to
background that's sharp in the image. This lets you either throw the background out of focus or
keep both it and the foreground sharp.

A small aperture gives you greater depth of field A large aperture lets you throw the background out of focus.

Histograms

Many cameras now display a histogram and overexposed highlights indicator that shows what
areas are so overexposed they have gone pure white without any detail. These let you know if
you got the best possible exposure. The histogram, like those found in most serious photo-
editing programs such as Photoshop let you evaluate the distribution of tones. Since most
image corrections can be diagnosed by looking at a histogram, it helps to look at it while still in
a position to re shoot the image. Each pixel in an image can be set to any of 256 levels of

©Paul Milsom 19
brightness from pure black (0) to pure white (255). A histogram is a graph that shows how the
256 possible levels of brightness are distributed in the image.

The horizontal axis represents the range of brightness from 0 (shadows) on the left to 255
(highlights) on the right. Think of
it as a line with 256 spaces on
which to stack pixels of the same
brightness. Since these are the
only values that can be captured
by the camera, the horizontal line
also represents the camera's
maximum potential dynamic
range.

The vertical axis represents the number of pixels that have each one of the 256 brightness
values. The higher the line coming up from the horizontal axis, the more pixels there are at
that level of brightness.

To read the histogram, you look at the distribution of pixels. An image that uses the entire
dynamic range of the camera will have a reasonable number of pixels at every level of
brightness. An image that has low contrast will have the pixels clumped together and have a
narrower dynamic range.

Focus
When you focus a camera, only one plane in front of you can be in the sharpest focus-called
the plane of critical focus. As you move back or forward from that plane, objects get
increasingly less sharp. Up to a point, they are "acceptably sharp" and don't look soft or out of
focus. However, a point is finally reached where they do. The area in front of and in back of
the plane of critical focus where things look acceptably sharp is called "depth-of-field." Digital
cameras come with one of three kinds of focus, fixed, auto, or manual.

Fixed focus

Cameras with fixed focus are preset to keep things sharp within a specified range, perhaps 6
feet to infinity. There is no way for you to adjust the focus. This type of focus is found only on
the least expensive cameras.

Auto focus

Auto focus usually uses a small spot in the exact centre of the scene to automatically focus the
camera's lens. This works fine when there is something in the exact centre of the scene that

©Paul Milsom 20
you want to be sharply focused. If there isn't, or if you want to blur that part of the scene,
auto focus can't do it for you.

Manual focus

With adjustable or manual focus you can pick the part of the scene that will be in sharpest
focus while using the aperture setting to determine what is sharp and what is soft in the
foreground and background.

Manual focus allowed the

photographer to focus on the
hand in this image. A large
aperture kept the depth-of-field
shallow so the background is out
of focus.

With just a slight shift in focus,

the head has been made sharp
and the hand in the foreground
soft.

Movable focus area

Not too long ago cameras always focused on the subject in the centre of the viewfinder. Since
many good images have off-centre subjects, photographers used focus lock to control focus.
Recently, cameras have introduced focus systems with a number of focus areas, or even a
movable area. If there are a number of focus areas, the camera will automatically select the
one covering the part of the scene closest to the camera. If you'd prefer that another area be

©Paul Milsom 21
used you can manually select it. If the focus area is movable, you press a jog dial to position it
where you want it. On some cameras, you can also link spot metering to the focus area so you
meter and focus on the same part of the scene. This is an ideal way to focus, and in some cases
set exposure, but it will force you to use the monitor if the movable focus area isn't displayed
in the viewfinder.

Here the movable focus area has been

positioned over the head of the swan

Exposure and focus lock

When using auto exposure and auto focus, some cameras let you point at one part of the scene
and press the shutter button halfway down to lock in exposure and focus settings. Then, still
holding down the shutter button to keep the settings locked in, you can point the camera
anywhere to recompose the picture. Pressing the shutter button the rest of the way takes the
picture using the locked in settings.

©Paul Milsom 22
TWO MAIN TYPES OF SENSOR (more and more digital SLRs now use CMOS)

Two types of sensors are used in digital cameras: CCD and CMOS. CMOS stands for
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, and CCD stands for Charge-Coupled
Device. CMOS sensors are less expensive than CCD and also require less power
(because the CCD requires more circuits), so the latest digital cameras are based on
CMOS sensors (still, the majority of cameras use CCD). It is impossible to say which one
is better because both of them have advantages and disadvantages. But, if the camera
software is designed to eliminate the leaks of the sensor type, a good camera may come
out (classic example is the use of noise reduction system on CMOS based cameras).

Principle of CCD:
In digital imaging, when the light waves that entered the camera are focused on the
sensor which converts light into an electrical charge, the image is formed.
It is simple: the more light that hits the photodiode, the greater the charge. But how does
this process separate the colours? The light entering the camera is the normal white light
containing all the wavelengths, so inside the mechanism these wavelengths will be
separated by filters based on the basic RGB (red-green-blue). The information is read
row by row and pixel by pixel, therefore, the necessary processing time is a bit longer,
but it is very accurate.

Principle of CMOS:
A CMOS sensor, instead of converting the light wave into an electrical charge on a
different chip, it converts the photons into electrons by processing the data at this point
(and not on another chip). By using amplifiers, these sensors are faster than CCDs.
However, the fact that not all converters and amplifiers work at different efficiencies, may
cause noise.
While most CMOS use the same RGB filtration system, there is also a new revolutionary
technology called Foveon (Sigma started using it but in the future more manufacturers
will introduce models based on this technology), which uses the properties of silicon
itself to filter out the colours of light spectrum.

©Paul Milsom 23
 SENSOR SIZES AND FOCAL LENGTHS

When everyone mainly used 35mm film the focal length

was easy. There was one figure that applied to all
cameras using that format. (Column 3 below).

With the advent of digital, manufacturers were initially

forced (because of costs and available technology) to
create sensors that were smaller than 35 mm. Most
opted for sensors that were about the same size as old
“APS” film (Column 2) though Some, notably Olympus
adopted an even smaller format –the so-called “Four
Thirds System”- column 1).

This means that lenses that were designed for film

covered more than the area of the sensor
Circle covered by
lens

35 mm (full-frame)
sensor

APS sized sensor

This has the effect that, with the smaller sensors (and
using lenses designed to cover full-frame) that the
effective focal length of the lens is multiplied-see table.
( Nikon multiply by 1.5 and Canon by 1.6 as examples)

©Paul Milsom 24
Therefore a 24-120 mm Nikkor lens on an APS Nikon
camera is effectively a 36-180 mm lens when used on
the APS models (D200 etc) but would remain a 24-120
lens on a full-frame model.

Manufacturers have recently created lenses that work

only for the APS sized format. These are often called DX
format lenses. They are easier to manufacture and
generally cost less and are smaller It is important to note
that these lenses will NOT work correctly on full-frame
cameras as the lens circle will now not cover the full
frame.

As a matter of interest compact digital cameras have

TINY sensors.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Generally, the larger the sensor the easier it is for the
manufacturer to reduce noise at higher ISO settings and
many people find that images created with the larger
format looks smoother and more film-like. They are,
however, still much more expensive than their APS sized
counterparts.

©Paul Milsom 25
 Effective use of
fast and slow
shutter speeds-
easily done by
selecting aperture
(A)or shutter
priority S or Tv)
modes.

©Paul Milsom 26
 DEPTH OF FIELD REMINDER

The apparent Depth of Field diminishes:-

• The greater the aperture (e.g. f2)

• The closer you focus
• The longer the focal length
• The larger the format

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Conversely

The apparent Depth of Field increases:-

• The smaller the aperture (e.g. f16)

• The further you focus
• The shorter the focal length
• The smaller the format

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

©Paul Milsom 27
HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE

Focusing your camera at the hyperfocal distance ensures maximum

sharpness from half this distance all the way to infinity. The
hyperfocal distance is particularly useful in landscape photography,
and understanding it will help you maximize sharpness throughout
your image by making the most of your the depth of field-- thereby
producing a more detailed final print. Knowing it for a given focal
length and aperture can be tricky; this section explains how
hyperfocal distance is calculated, clears up a few misconceptions,
and provides a hyperfocal chart calculator. I do not recommend
using this distance "as is," but instead suggest using it as a reference
point.

Front Focus Back Focus Front-Center Focus

Note how only the right image has words which are (barely) legible at all
distances. Somewhere between the nearest and furthest subject distance lies a
focal point which maximizes average sharpness throughout, although this is
rarely halfway in between. The hyperfocal distance uses a similar concept,
except its bounds are from infinity to half the focus distance (and the amount of
softness shown above would be unacceptable).

©Paul Milsom 28
The interesting thing about this focal plane is that, when you focus on a
subject, one third of the distance closest between subject and camera is in
focus; secondly, two thirds of the zone that stretches out from and behind
the subject is also in focus.

Here’s one way you can use it: when shooting landscapes it’s an easy
chore to focus at infinity. A more intelligent and productive approach is to
focus at a point just short of infinity. That way you will get an additional
area in front of distant subject matter that is also in focus. You then get the
greatest range of focus from the camera out to infinity.

An easy approach to ascertain and maximise a deep focus range is to use

the depth of field preview button on your camera. Try it.

©Paul Milsom 29
 PORTRAITS
It’s important to “connect” with your subject.

©Paul Milsom 30
©Paul Milsom 31
 PHOTOS OF SIMILAR SUBJECTS CAN LOOK GREAT
TOGETHER

©Paul Milsom 32
 Use a POLARISING FILTER for skies like these.

©Paul Milsom 33
 IT’S GOOD TO CREATE A THEME TO WORK WITH - HERE’S
SPRING

©Paul Milsom 34
©Paul Milsom 35
Use Graduated filters to balance contrast between sky and
foreground.

COKIN filters are fine and inexpensive.

LEE and TIFFEN are exceptional quality but much more expensive.

©Paul Milsom 36
MACRO

Strictly speaking the term “macro” should only be used

when working at life-size or greater. However, the
word has now virtually become a replacement for the
term “close-up”
.
There’s a whole new world opened up when you get in real
close.

-------------------------------------------------------------------
DIGITAL COMPACT CAMERAS - The design of these cameras lend them to being
surprisingly able at focussing close. Easy too. Just select the “tulip” symbol.

Tip- most of these cameras seem to focus a lot closer when the lens is on its
wide-angle setting, rather than the telephoto
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
STANDARD ZOOM LENS. The one that probably came with your camera. They do
not focus very close.

However, you can use accessories with this to enhance its close-focussing
capability:-
• Close-up lens- generally cheapest option. Theses simply screw into filter
thread on lens. Available in different strengths. Can produce surprisingly
good results when carefully used. Generally, much sharper in centre
than edges but this is often not apparent in the real world of 3D objects.
• Extension tubes. Basically a “spacer” between lens and camera body-
mount. Can be purely manual or auto including some that retain auto
focus.
• Macro Lens- Optically optimized to work at close distances these are also
great general purpose lenses as they still focus to infinity unlike the
other options listed here. However they are generally rather expensive.
They are often available in focal lengths of approx 50mm, 105 mm and
200mm. The longer the focal length the further away the lens can be so
as not to disturb subject such as insects. Longer the length, higher the
cost.
• Bellows. To get in very close and for magnifications of more than life-
size a bellows unit can be used between body and lens. Most fully
manual. I have a NOVOFLEX auto bellows that retains some meter
coupling but terribly expensive-around £400. Got mine on EBay for £78.

©Paul Milsom 37
Depth of field is very restricted in macro work.
You may need to stop the lens well down to get
sufficient. This can of course result in long
shutter speeds, necessitating the use of a
tripod.

©Paul Milsom 38
©Paul Milsom 39
 Depth of field can be
miniscule as seen
here. 105 mm Micro-
Nikkor with extension
tube.

©Paul Milsom 40
LOTS OF SHOTS LOOK GREAT IN BLACK AND WHITE. Your camera may
have this as an option at the time you take the photo. If not, the colour file
can easily be converted in image editing software such as Adobe
Photoshop.

©Paul Milsom 41
The word PHOTOGRAPHY
literally mans painting with
light. The most interesting light
is usually around sunrise or
sunset

©Paul Milsom 42
©Paul Milsom 43
 TAKING SHOTS AT NIGHT

A tripod is a must to get the full benefit here. (Or perhaps the new
Nikon D3s)

Determining exposure can be tricky at night. Film can be subject to

reciprocity failure and digital cameras can be very prone to noise.

You are welcome to have a go at letting your camera’s automatic

metering system determine the exposure. I have often found that
my cameras also work just fine on aperture priority. This seems to
work better on some cameras than others. Try it. Try shutter
priority also.

You can also experiment by manually setting the shutter

speed/aperture combination. As exposure can be hit and miss
suggest you use the following guidelines for 100 ISO rating:-

30 seconds at f 11
30 seconds at f 16
30 seconds at f 22

If you have a small digital camera then try:-

10 seconds at f4
10 seconds at f5.6
10 seconds at f8 (often smallest aperture on these cameras)

©Paul Milsom 44
You will need to experiment.

©Paul Milsom 45
COLOUR Make full use of it!

©Paul Milsom 46
©Paul Milsom 47
©Paul Milsom 48
A touch of fill-in flash can transform a picture

Many cameras allow you to adjust the output of the flash (higher or lower) so
that you can use it to balance the existing light. This is a VERY useful facility
as it can negate the unpleasant effect of the flash “overpowering” the subject.
By selecting minus 1 or -2 or sometimes -3 stops, a much more subtle effect
can be created. Both these shots were taken with the flash’s output being
reduced.

©Paul Milsom 49
A telephoto lens (or
zoom at telephoto
setting) can be used
to isolate details in
a landscape

©Paul Milsom 50
A wide
angle
lens (or
zoom at
wide
setting)
can be
used to
create a
sense of
great
depth

©Paul Milsom 51
 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
A FEW RESOURCES

The Internet provides a variety of resources to support you to understand Adobe

Photoshop and other Image Manipulation software.

Here are some useful addresses:

www.adobe.com

You can download trial versions of software from this site. The demo versions are
usually for 30 days only and you really need Broadband to so this as the programme is
large, particularly the full version of Photoshop:
Photoshop CS.

The site also has links to pages of support.

www.corel.com

Corel Draw/Photopaint can be downloaded.

If you want training materials then type in www.google.com.

In the search box type ‘free training materials for Adobe Photoshop Elements’. The
search will find loads of sites providing materials.

BUYING CAMERAS and equipment On-Line

*I have found the company Warehouse Express to offer a good on line service at
reasonable prices. Visit www.warehouseexpress.com

*1If you want a good second-hand equipment dealer visit Ffordes web site on
www.ffordes.com. This site even gives you a picture of each item so you can assess
prior to purchase.

*Don’t forget eBay! www.ebay.co.uk

Go to www.speedgrahic.co.uk. Download their catalogue. You may discover that there

are accessories you did not even know you needed in it!

1*
Advice is given on understanding that you alone are responsible for any financial transactions you agree
to enter into.

©Paul Milsom 52
FILE COMPRESSION

What is compression?

During compression, data that is duplicated or that has no value is eliminated or saved in a
shorter form, greatly reducing a file’s size. For example, if large areas of the sky are the same
shade of blue, only the value for one pixel needs to be saved along with the locations of the
other pixels with the same colour. When the image is then edited or displayed, the
compression process is reversed.

There are two forms of compression—lossless and lossy—and digital cameras use both forms.

Lossless compression. Lossless compression uncompresses an image so its quality matches the
original source—nothing is lost. Although lossless compression sounds ideal, it doesn’t provide
much compression and files remain quite large. For this reason, lossless compression is used
mainly where detail is extremely important, as it is when planning to make large prints.
Lossless compression is offered by some digital cameras in the form of TIFF and RAW file
formats.

Lossy compression. Because lossless compression isn’t practical in many cases, all popular
digital cameras offer a lossy compression (rhymes with "bossy"). This process degrades images
to some degree and the more they're compressed, the more degraded they become. In many
situations, such as posting images on the Web or making small to medium sized prints, the
image degradation isn't obvious. However, if you enlarge an image enough, it will show.

Digital camera file formats

You have a number of choices when it comes to file formats. All digital cameras store still
images in the JPEG format, but some also let you select TIFF and/or CCD RAW. Let’s look at all
three formats.

JPEG, named after the Joint Photographic Experts Group and pronounced "jay-peg," is by far
the most popular format for photographic images. In fact, most cameras save their images in
this format unless you specify otherwise.

A JPEG image is stored using

lossy compression and you can
vary the amount of compression.
This allows you to choose
between lower compression and
higher image quality or greater
compression and poorer quality.
The only reason to choose higher
compression is because it creates
a smaller file so you can store
more images, and it is easier to
send them by e-mail, or post them
on the Web. Most cameras give you two or three choices equivalent to good, better, best
although the names vary.

©Paul Milsom 53
JPEG 2000 is a new version of JPEG that has not yet been widely implemented. This is not a
minor revision, it’s as if they jacked up the JPEG name and rolled an entire new file format
under it. It uses wavelet compression instead of the old Discrete Cosine Transformation (DCT)
to give a higher compression (20% better) and better image quality with fewer artifacts (image
flaws). Wavelet technology also allows an image to be "streamed." A low resolution image
appears quickly and then is gradually "filled in" with more detail. As a user, you can decide
when you have enough resolution for your purposes. This is referred to as "level of interest
access." You can also save an image in a new lossless JPEG format without having to save it in a
lossless format such as TIFF. The older JPEG format has no provision for how colours are
displayed so images look different on different systems. JPEG 2000 includes what’s called
colour management, so image colours are rendered more accurately. TIFF (Tag Image File
Format) has been widely accepted and widely supported as an image format. Some cameras let
you save your images in this format and because of its popularity in digital photography, the
format has been revised to TIFF/EP (Tag Image File Format—Electronic Photography). TIFF/EP
may be stored by the camera in uncompressed form, or using JPEG compression. TIFF/EP image
files are often stored in a "read-only" fashion to prevent accidental loss of important
information contained within the file. This is why you sometimes can’t delete them once they
are on your computer without first turning off the file’s read-only attribute.

CCD RAW format stores the data directly from the image sensor without first processing it. This
data contains everything captured by the camera. In addition to the digitized raw sensor data,
the RAW format also records colour and other information that is applied during processing to
enhance colour accuracy and other aspects of image quality.

Instead of being processed in the camera, where computing power and work space is limited
(imagine Scarlet O’Hara trying to change into a Civil War era ball gown in a small closet), the
raw data can be processed into a final image on a powerful desktop computer. The increased
computing power and space to work in can make a significant difference in the results. You
don’t get the artifacts (image flaws) that sometimes appear in JPEG images. In addition, you
can save the original raw data and process it with other software, or in different ways. This is
unlike a JPEG image where data are permanently changed or deleted during processing in the
camera and can never be recovered.

In addition to image quality, RAW files have other advantages. Their files are approximately
60% smaller than uncompressed TIFF files with the same number of pixels and the time you
have to wait between shots is shorter since processing time in the camera is shorter.

PNG (Portable Network Graphics and pronounced "ping") is a lossless format designed to
replace GIF, an image format that got tied up in legal claims. It is a universal format that is
recognized by the World Wide Web consortium, and supported by all recent web browsers.
Here is how PNG differs from the other widely used digital image formats.

TIFF is a popular format because it uses a lossless compression. The problem is that the format
has been altered by so many people that there are now 50 or moreflavours and not all are
recognizable by programs.

JPEG uses lossy compression so images loose quality each timed they are saved, closed, and
then reopened. PNG images are lossless so retain their quality. Because their compression is
lossy, JPEG images are usually smaller. For that reason, although PNG is a good intermediate
format because it's lossless, you may want to convert to the smaller JPEG format before e-
mailing or posting on the Web.

Choosing a format

©Paul Milsom 54
If your camera lets you choose an image format or compression ratio you should always choose
those that give you the highest quality. If you decide later that you can use a smaller image or
greater compression, you can do so to a copy of the image using a photo-editing program. If
you shoot the image at a lower quality setting, you can never really improve it much or get a
large, sharp print if you want one. The only problem with this approach, and it’s a big one, has
to do with file sizes. The highest quality images can be 15 or more megabytes in size. These
are almost impossible to send to anyone and are slow to open, edit, and save on even a
powerful desktop computer. In fact, when you shoot images of this quality you often have to
wait a long time between shots because the camera is tied up processing the last image you
took. Most photographers use a compromise and shoot in the highest quality JPEG format. Even
these image files can be 2–5 megabytes in size on the latest cameras.

When you open an image to work on it, you should first save it so you are working on a copy,
preserving an unchanged original. Save it in a loss-free format such as TIFF. Even better, your
photo-editing program may have its own native format that preserves information that no other
format will. If you want a specific format for the finished image, save it in that format as the
final step. In particular, don't repeatedly close, open, and resave JPEG original images. Every
time you open one of these files, and then save it again, the image is compressed. As you go
through a series of saves and reopens, the image becomes more and more degraded—an image
quality death spiral. (An image is compressed only once during a single session, no matter how
many times you save it.) Also, when you save an image as a JPEG, the image on the screen
won't reflect the compression unless you close the file and then open the saved version.

Many digital photos end up on the Web or attached to e-mail, so they are viewed on the
screen. For these purposes, small, heavily compressed files that are easy to view or send over
the Internet are favoured. The leading format for images used in these ways is JPEG. For the
highest quality printed images, TIFF or RAW formats should be used.

©Paul Milsom 55
 The Arithmetic of Printing Images
Printer resolutions are usually specified by the number of dots per inch (dpi) that they print.
(Generally ppi—pixels per inch—refer to the image and display screen and dpi—dots per inch—
refer to the printer and printed image. In this course we sometimes use them interchangeably.)

For comparison purposes, monitors use an average of 72 ppi to display text and images, ink-jet
printers range up to 1700 dpi or so, and commercial typesetting machines range between 1,000
and 2,400 dpi.

Since image sizes are described in pixels and photographic prints in inches, you have to convert
from pixels to inches. To do so, you divide the image's dimension in pixels by the resolution of
the device in pixels per inch (ppi). For example, to convert the dimensions for a 1500 x 1200
image being printed at 300 ppi you divide as follows:

Width: 1500 pixels ÷ 300 ppi = 5"

Height: 1200 pixels ÷ 300 ppi = 4"

The result is a 5" x 4" print. However, if the output device prints 600 ppi, the result changes to
a 2.5" x 2" print as follows:

Width: 1500 pixels ÷ 600 ppi = 2.5"

Height: 1200 pixels ÷ 600 ppi = 2"

This graphic shows how a

640 x 480 image displays or
prints on devices with
different dots per inch. At
72 ppi it's 8.9" x 6.7", at
300 ppi it's 2.1" by 1.6",
and at 1500 ppi, it's only
0.43" x 0.32"—smaller than
a stamp.

©Paul Milsom 56
Understanding pixels per inch

Normally you don’t have to change the number of pixel’s in an image to change the size of a
printout. That task is handled by the software program you use to print the image. For
example, if you place an image in a program such as QuarkXpress or PageMaker, its printed at
the size you specify in those programs.

One thing to keep in mind is that if you enlarge a print too much, it won’t be as sharp as you
may desire. That’s because a certain minimal number of dots per inch, usually about 300, are
needed to get a good print. Pixels begin to show when the print is enlarged to a point where
the pixels get so big that the pixels per inch (ppi) fall too low. If your printer can print a sharp
image only at 300 or more pixels per inch, you need to determine if the size of the image you
plan on printing will fall below this level. Let's say you have a scanned image and want to print
it at a certain size. When you enlarge or reduce an image like this, the ppi change. To find out
what the pixels (or dots) per inch becomes, you convert from the image's original size in pixels
to its pixels per inch. For example, if you print an image that’s 1600 pixels wide so the print is
10" wide, there are only 160 dots per inch (unless its resampled) (1600 pixels ÷ 10 inches = 160
pixels per inch). When you know the width of the image in pixels, you can divide that number
by the printer’s dpi to determine the largest possible print size in inches.

©Paul Milsom 57
 CONNECTIVITY

Many devices (e.g. a film scanner) are capable of generating huge

file sizes.

You want to get that information from the device to the computer as
quickly as possible.

The common connections are:

IEEE 1394 also known as “FireWire”:- This offers data transfer of

speeds up to 400Mb/s (Megabits per second).

USB 2.0 High Speed (or Hi-Speed):- This is a little faster with transfer
speeds of up to 480Mb/s.

Please note: If USB2.0 is not suffixed by High Speed (or Hi-Speed) it is likely to
offer only a 12mb/s rate, which is the same as the superseded USB 1.1

Here are two USB and one IEEE 1394 ports on my PC. These ports
are at the front of my PC, under a flap. There are more at the rear. If
you are buying a new PC make sure you get one with ports at the
front. It is so much easier to plug in at the front than having to pull out
the unit to get to the rear.

©Paul Milsom 58
 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Angle of view. The amount of a scene that can be recorded by a particular lens; determined by the focal
length of the lens.

Adapter. Used to insert a smaller storage device into a larger slot in a computer or other device.

Additive colour system. See RGB.

Aperture, maximum. The largest size of the hole though which light enters the camera.

Aperture. The lens opening formed by the iris diaphragm inside the lens. The size of the hole can be
made larger or smaller by the auto focus system or a manual control.

Aspect ratio. The ratio between the width and height of an image or image sensor.

ATA. A standard for storage devices that lets them be treated as if they were hard drives on the system.
Any ATA compatible media can be read by any ATA device.

Attachment. A file such as a photography sent along with an e-mail message so it can be viewed or saved
at the recipient's end.

Automatic exposure. A mode of camera operation in which the camera automatically adjusts the
aperture, shutter speed, or both for proper exposure.

Automatic flash. An electronic flash unit with a light-sensitive cell that determines the length of the flash
for proper exposure by measuring the light reflected back from the subject.

Back-lit. The subject is illuminated from behind and will be underexposed unless you use fill flash or
exposure compensation.

Bayer pattern. A pattern of red, green, and blue filters on the image sensor's photosites. There are twice
as many green filters as the other colours because the human eye is more sensitive to green and therefore
green colour accuracy is more important.

Bit-mapped. Images formed from pixels with each pixel a shade of grey or colour. Using 24-bit colour,
each pixel can be set to any one of 16 million colours.

Burst mode. The ability of a camera to take one picture after another as long as you hold down the
shutter release button.

Card. The sealed package containing storage chips or other devices with electrical connectors that make
contact when inserted into a card slot on a camera, printer, computer, or other device..

CCD raw format. The uninterpolated data collected directly from the image sensor before processing.

CCD. See Charge-coupled device.

©Paul Milsom 59
Charge-coupled device (CCD). An image sensor that reads the charges built up on the sensor's photosites
a row at a time.

CMOS image sensor. An image sensor created using CMOS technology.

CMOS. See CMOS image sensor.

Colour balance. The overall accuracy with which the colours in a photograph match or are capable of
matching those in the original scene.

Colour depth. The number of bits assigned to each pixel in the image and the number of colours that can
be created from those bits. True Colour uses 24 bits per pixel to render 16 million colours.

Compact Flash. A popular form of flash storage for digital cameras.

Compression, lossless. A file compression scheme that makes a file smaller without degrading the image.

Compression, lossy. A file compression scheme that reduces the size of a file but degrades it in the
process so it can't be restored to its original quality.

Compression. The process of reducing the size of a file.

Depth of field. The distance between the nearest and farthest points that appear in acceptably sharp
focus in a photograph. Depth of field varies with lens aperture, focal length, and camera-to-subject
distance.

Docking station. A small base connected to the computer by a cable. You insert the camera or other
device into the docking station to transfer images.

Download. Sending a file from another device to your computer.

Exposure. 1. The act of allowing light to strike a light-sensitive surface. 2. The amount of light reaching
the image sensor, controlled by the combination of aperture and shutter speed.

Exposure compensation. The ability to adjust exposure by one or two stops to lighten or darken the
image.

Exposure/focus lock. The ability to point at one part of the scene and hold the shutter button half-way
down to lock in exposure and focus settings when you point the camera elsewhere to compose the scene.

Firewire. Apple's name for IEEE 1394.

Flash card reader. An accessory that attaches to your computer by cable. You insert a flash memory card
into the reader to transfer files.

Flash memory card. A card containing chips that store images.

Flash memory. A form of memory using chips instead of magnetic media. The data in the device isn't lost
when the power is turned off.

Flash, fill. Flash used to fill shadows even when there is enough light to otherwise take the photograph.

Flash, ring. A special circular flash that fits over a lens to take close-up pictures

©Paul Milsom 60
Flash, slave. A flash that fires when it senses the light from another flash unit.

FlashPix. An image format that contains a number of resolutions, each of which is broken into tiles that
can be edited and displayed independently.

Floppy drive. A storage device on almost all computers that accepts 3 « or 5 ¬-inch floppy disks.

Focal length. The distance from the optical centre of the lens to the image sensor when the lens is
focused on infinity. The focal length is usually expressed in millimetres (mm) and determines the angle of
view (how much of the scene can be included in the picture) and the size of objects in the image. The
longer the focal length, the narrower the angle of view and the more that objects are magnified.

Focus lock. See Exposure/focus lock.

Focus. The process of bringing one plane of the scene into sharp focus on the image sensor.

Frame grabber. A device that lets you capture individual frames out of a video camera or off a video
tape.

Frame Rate. The number of pictures that can be taken in a given period of time.

f-stop. A numerical designation (f/2, f 2.8, etc.) indicating the size of the aperture (lens opening).

GIF. An image file format designed for display of line art on the Web.

Grey market. Importing camera equipment outside of the normal manufacturer's distribution channels to
take advantage of lower prices elsewhere in the world.

Grey scale. A series of 256 tones raging from pure white to pure black.

Guide number. A rating of a flash's power.

Hot shoe. A clip on the top of the camera that attaches a flash unit and provides an electrical link to
synchronize the flash with the camera shutter.

IEEE 1394. A new port on the computer capable of transferring large amounts of data. Currently the
fastest available port.

i.Link. Sony's name for IEEE 1394.

Image sensor. A solid-state device containing a photosite for each pixel in the image. Each photosite
records the brightness of the light that strikes it during an exposure.

Infrared. See IrDA.

International Organization for Standardization. See ISO.

Interpolation. In an image interpolation adds extra pixels. It's done with some zoom lenses.

Inverse square law. The physical law that causes light from a flash to fall off in such a way that as flash
to subject distance doubles, the light falls off by a factor of four.

IrDA. An agreed upon standard that allows data to be transferred between devices using infrared light
instead of cables..

©Paul Milsom 61
ISO. A number rating indicating the relative sensitivity to light of an image sensor or photographic film.
Faster film (higher ISO) is more sensitive to light and requires less exposure than does slower film.

JPEG. A very popular digital camera file format that uses lossy compression to reduce file sizes.
Developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group.

Landscape mode. Holding the camera in its normal orientation to hake a horizontally oriented
photograph.

Lempel-Ziv-Welch. See LZW.

LiOn. Lithium ion battery.

Long-focal-length lens (telephoto lens). A lens that provides a narrow angle of view of a scene, including
less of a scene than a lens of normal focal length and therefore magnifying objects in the image.

Lossless. See Compression, lossless.

Lossy.

LZW. A compression scheme used to reduce the size of image files.

Macro mode. A lens mode that allows you to get very close to objects so they appear greatly enlarged in
the picture.

Matrix Metering. An exposure system that breaks the scene up into a grid and evaluates each section to
determine the exposure.

Mega pixel. An image or image sensor with over one million pixels.

Memory stick. A flash memory storage device developed by Sony.

Moore's Law. Gordon Moore's law that predicted that the number of transistors on a chip would double
every 18 months.

Motion Pictures Expert Group. See MPEG.

MPEG. A digital video format developed by the Motion Pictures Expert Group.

Multi-mega pixel. An image or image sensor with over two million pixels.

Multiple exposure mode. A mode that lets you superimpose one image on top of another.

Multiple exposure. An image made up of two or more images superimposed in the camera.

NiCad. Nickel cadmium battery.

NiMH. Nickel metal hydride battery. Ecologically safe and very efficient.

Noise. Pixels on the image sensor that misread the light.

Normal-focal-length lens. A lens that provides about the same angle of view of a scene as the human eye
and that does not seem to magnify or diminish the size of objects in the image unduly.

©Paul Milsom 62
NTSC. A US video out standard to display images on a TV screen.

Open up. To increase the size of the lens aperture. The opposite of stop down.

Operating system. The program that controls the camera's or computer's hardware.

Optical viewfinder. See Viewfinder.

Orientation sensor. A sensor that knows when you turn the camera to take a vertical shot and rotates the
picture so it won't be displayed on it's side when you view it.

Overexposure. Exposing the image sensor to more light than is needed to render the scene as the eye
sees it. Results in a too light photograph.

PAL. A European video out standard to display images on a TV screen.

Panorama. A photograph with much wider horizontal coverage that a normal photograph, up to 360-
degrees and more.

Panoramic mode. A digital camera mode that uses just the centre band on the image sensor to capture
an image that is much wider than it is tall.

Parallax. An effect seen in close-up photography when the viewfinder is offset by some distance from the
lens. The scene through the viewfinder is offset from the scene through the lens.

Parallel port. A port on the computer that is faster than a serial port but slower than SCSI, USB, or IEEE
1394 ports. Often used by printers and flash card readers.

PC card. A card, in the case of cameras usually a storage device, that plugs into a slot in a notebook or
hand-held computer. Originally called PCMCIA cards.

PCMCIA card. See PC Card.

Photosite. A small area on the surface of an image sensor that captures the brightness for a single pixel in
the image. There is one photosite for every pixel in the image.

Picture elements. See Pixels.

Pixelization. An effect seen when you enlarge a digital image too much and the pixels become obvious.

Pixels. The small picture elements that make up a digital photograph.

Port. An electrical connection on the computer into which a cable can be plugged so the computer can
communicate with another device such as a printer or modem.

Portrait mode. Turning the camera to take a vertically oriented photograph.

Preview screen. A small LCD display screen on the back of the camera used to compose or look at
photographs.

Prosumer. A marketing term for a serious photographer who can be either an amateur or professional.
Hence, pro(con)sumer

Rangefinder. A camera design that has a viewfinder separate from the lens.

©Paul Milsom 63
Read out register. The part of a CCD image sensor that reads the charges built up during an exposure.

Recycle time. The time it takes to process and store a captured image.

Red-eye reduction mode. A mode that fires a preliminary flash to close the iris of the eye before firing
the main flash to take the picture.

Red-eye. An effect that causes peoples eyes to look red in flash exposures.

Refresh rate. The time it takes the camera to capture the image after you press the shutter release.

Removable media. Storage media that can be removed from the camera.

Resolution, interpolated. A process that enlarges an image by adding extra pixels without actually
capturing light from those pixels in the initial exposure.

Resolution, optical. The true resolution of an image based on the number of photosites on the surface of
the image sensor.

Resolution. An indication of the sharpness of images on a printout or the display screen. It is based on the
number and density of the pixels used. The more pixels used in an image, the more detail can be seen and
the higher the image's resolution.

RGB. The colour system used in most digital cameras where red, green, and blue light is captured
separately and then combined to create a full colour image.

Scanner. An input device that uses light to read printed information including text, graphics, and bar
codes, and transfers it into the computer in a digital format.

SCSI port. A port that's faster than the serial and parallel ports but slower and harder to configure than
the newer USB port. Also know as the Small Computer System Interface.

Serial port. A very slow port on the computer used mainly by modems. Many digital cameras come
equipped with cable to download images through this port but it's slow! Both parallel and USB ports are
faster connections.

Short-focal-length lens (wide angle). A lens that provides a wide angle of view of a scene, including more
of the subject area than does a lens of normal focal length.

Shutter Speed. The length of time the shutter is open and light strikes the image sensor.

Shutter. The device in the camera that opens and closes to let light from the scene strike the image
sensor and expose the image.

Shutter-priority mode. An automatic exposure system in with you set the shutter speed and the camera
selects the aperture (f-stop) for correct exposure.

Single-lens reflex. See SLR.

SLR. A type of camera with one lens which is used both for viewing and taking the picture.

SmartMedia. A popular form of flash memory card.

Spot Metering. Autoexposure is based on a meter reading of a small circle in the centre of the viewfinder.

©Paul Milsom 64
Stop 1. An aperture setting that indicates the size of the lens opening. 2. A change in exposure by a
factor of two. Changing the aperture from one setting to the next doubles or halves the amount of light
reaching the image sensor. Changing the shutter speed from one setting to the next does the same thing.
Either changes the exposure one stop.

Stop down. To decrease the size of the lens aperture. The opposite of open up.

Tagged Image File Format. See TIFF.

Telephoto lens. See Long-focal-length lens.

Thru-the-lens. See TTL.

TIFF. A popular lossless image format used in digital photography.

Time-lapse photography. Taking a series of pictures at preset intervals to show such things as flower
blossoms opening.

TTL. A camera design that let's you compose an image while looking at the scene through the lens that
will take the picture. Also called thru-the-lens.

Unbundling. When a dealer removes normally included items from a camera package and then sells them
to you separately.

Underexposure. Exposing the film to less light than is needed to render the scene as the eye sees it.
Results in a too dark photograph.

Upload. Sending a file from your computer to another device.

URL (Uniform Resource Locator). The address of a Web site.

USB port. A high-speed port that lets you daisy-chain devices (connect one device to another).

VGA. A resolution of 640 x 480.

Video card. A card the fits into a computer's expansion slot so you can edit digital video.

Viewfinder. A separate window on the camera through which you look to compose images.

White balance. An automatic or manual control that adjusts the brightest part of the scene so it looks
white.

Wide-angle lens. See Short-focal-length lens.

Zoom lens. A lens that lets you change focal lengths on the fly.

©Paul Milsom 65
 FREE IMAGING SOFTWARE
Go to www.google.co.uk. Search for picasa. Go to site. Download if you choose.
Follow instructions. When installed it will scan your hard drive to find all photos with
major photo file formats. It will create a system with thumbnails whereby you can
locate the photos. You can then open them up and apply limited but nonetheless very
useful editing.

It can also undertake other tasks such as printing etc.

If you want a free download of very powerful software then search for gimp.

Strange name, great software. Almost as good as the full version of Photoshop but
FREE! It is, however, not the easiest software to use.

©Paul Milsom 66
 PHOTOSHOP
(ELEMENTS):
Tools

©Paul Milsom 67
The marquee tools

The marquee tools are used for a wide variety of things in photoshop. The tools come in 4 flavours,
rectangular, elliptical, single row, and single column. There is also the crop tool which we will touch on in a
few. The marquees are used generally for selecting areas of the image, or to draw shapes of the respective
types.

Options

Shift constrains aspect ratio if no other selection is active. Shift adds to the selection if another selection is
active. Using the ctrl keys, will allow you to make cutouts of the shapes you create, and using the ALT keys
in combination with the marquee, you can create shapes using the background colour as a fill.

Alternates

Rectangular: sets marquee shape to rectangular.

Elliptical: sets marquee shape to elliptical.

Single Row: only a single row of pixels are selected.

Single Column: only a single column of pixels are selected

The lasso tools

The lasso is used as a freeform selection tool.

Shift adds to the selection if another selection is active.

Option turns the lasso into a point-to-point polygon selector.

Option subtracts from the selection if another selection is active.

Shift-option selects the intersect of two selections.

Hitting delete while drawing removes the last created point if you're in polygon mode.

©Paul Milsom 68
The crop tool

The crop tool cuts out the selection and puts it in a new canvas. You can toggle a fixed target size for the
crop tool. Say you wanted to make a sequence of scanned photos of the same size. You can set the target
size and the crop selection will be constrained to those proportions, and once you crop, the image will
automatically be resized to the target size.

The airbrush tool - Photoshop Brush Tool

The airbrush is a paint tool with gradual saturation, and works much like a real airbrush would.

Shift-dragging constrains airbrushing to vertical and horizontal only.

Shift-clicking "connects-the-dots" between successive clicks.

Option temporarily activates the eyedropper.

You can set the fade-out of the airbrush tool (works like you expect, like a linear gradient on a path) to either
transparency or to the background. You can also set the pressure of the brush or how quickly it saturates
(similar to the paint/water ratio in a real airbrush).

Clone and Pattern stamp tools

With the clone stamp tool (formerly known as the rubber stamp tool), you can duplicate (clone) a portion of
an image and paint that duplicate area onto any other part of the image. The size of the area copied
depends on the brush size you select from the brushes menu on the tool’s options bar. How the copy
merges with the new area is determined by the choices you make on the options bar.

Hold down the Alt key while clicking to specify the area of the image you wish to transfer or copy. Then
release the Alt key, move the pointer to where you want to apply that data and click, or click and drag.
Cross-hairs will appear to show you where you are copying from. When you start painting, the cross-hairs
will be at the spot where you Alt clicked. Depending on whether you chose 'Aligned' in the options bar, the
cross-hairs will parallel your strokes, or return to that original spot after each release of the mouse button.
This process can get tricky at times, but a little practice you will be a cloning expert in no time

©Paul Milsom 69
The Eraser tools

The eraser tool works the opposite of the paintbrush tool. Instead of laying colour down, it erases it.

To use the eraser tool, select it in the toolbox, set your options and choose a brush from the pop-up palette
in the options bar, and drag in the image to remove pixels wherever you paint.

If you are applying the eraser to the background layer, or to any layer with Preserve Transparency selected,
the erased area will go to the background colour. Otherwise it will erase to transparency with the exception
of when you are erasing to a history state.

The background eraser erases the colour on which you first click, while leaving other colours untouched.
This allows you to more easily work around edges that you don’t want to erase. However, results can be
somewhat unpredictable, so be prepared to experiment.

The background eraser is used to erase to transparency on the active layer. If you apply this eraser to your
background layer, it will be automatically changed to a regular layer. You cannot have transparency on a
background layer.

Unlike the other two erasers, the magic eraser acts as by clicking, not dragging. It’s similar to the magic
wand tool, except that it removes the pixels found, instead of selecting them.

The magic eraser erases to transparency on the active layer. If you apply it to the background layer, the
layer will automatically be changed into a regular layer since the background layer does not permit
transparency.

The Blur, smudge and sharpen tools

The blur and sharpen tools are referred to as the “focus” tools since they work to harden, or soften edges
within an image. The smudge tool is for special effects, or just having fun.

I often use the blur tool to smooth over uneven transition areas after retouching, or to reduce unwanted
spots in areas that don’t offer a good sampling location for the clone stamp.

To use the blur tool, select it in the toolbar, set desired values and settings in its options palette [see
below], chooses a brush from the pop-up palette in the options bar, and then drag in the image over the area
you wish to soften. Be aware that blurring occurs even when the cursor is not moving, as long as the mouse
button is held down. The speed of the effect is determined by the Pressure setting in the tool’s options bar.

©Paul Milsom 70
If you choose Edit > Fade immediately after using this tool, you can change the opacity of the strokes you
have just applied.

A shortcut for changing brush sizes while using any of these tools is to press the left bracket [to decrease
brush size, and the right bracket] to choose a larger brush..

When editing an image with any tool that uses brushes, you can right click on the image and the brushes
pop-up palette will appear right next to your cursor.

The sharpen tool works by increasing contrast at distinct edges. Be aware that this will cause you to lose
detail at the top and bottom of the brightness scale (very light, and very dark areas) when sharpening. The
Luminosity setting in the blend mode menu can be useful to avoid colour shifts or halos when sharpening.

To use the sharpen tool, select it in the toolbar, set desired values and settings in its options bar [see below],
choose a brush from the options bar pop-up palette, and then drag in the image over the area you wish to
sharpen. Be aware that sharpening occurs even when the cursor is not moving, as long as the mouse button
is held down. The speed of the effect is determined by the setting in the Pressure box at the top of the
options palette.

The smudge tool is supposed to simulate finger painting. Colour is displaced, or ‘smudged’ from the place
where the pointer is clicked. It is moved in the direction the cursor is dragged. How far the initial colour is
moved depends on the setting in the Pressure box in the tool’s options bar.

The Path and Direct select tools

Both these tools are used for working with paths.

The path component selection tool will select any path component, including one which is part of several
other components. Select by clicking anywhere inside the path component you want.

The direct selection tool will select a single path segment. Click on an anchor point, or drag a marquee
around the segment you want, to select it. The direct selection tool can be used for moving, and reshaping
segments in a path.

The Pen tools

The pen and its related group of tools are used for creating, and editing ‘paths.’ These are outlines which
can be used to make selections, or which can be stroked or filled with colour. Paths are made from

©Paul Milsom 71
mathematical formulas, called Beziér Curves, which do not print, and which contain no pixels. They are like
a blueprint; from them you can make a building, but the blueprint itself is not a part of that structure.

I found it very difficult to learn how to draw paths, and I would recommend that beginners leave this tool until
they have mastered all the others. If you wrestle with it long enough, you’ll get the hang of it, but it takes a
while. For instructions on how to use the pen tool, see the Photoshop manual, their online Help section, or
any number of available books. The key to learning how to use it is simply practice. The concepts aren’t too
hard, but getting your hand, and eye to do it is murder.

The freeform pen is supposed to allow you to draw as you would with a pencil, without any of the difficulties
inherent in using the other pen tools. It really doesn’t work very well, but here it is. To use this pen, select it
in the toolbox, set its options [see below], and drag in the image. If you want to continue an existing line, you
need to position the pointer over the end point of the previous line, and then drag. To end an open path,
release the mouse button. To close a path, drag over the starting point, until a small circle appears next to
the cursor. Release. It sounds easy, but it doesn’t work that way. Try it.

The magnetic pen, which used to be listed in the toolbar as a separate tool, is now simply an option on the
freeform pen’s options bar. It is a tracing tool, which snaps to distinct edges, as you drag along the outline of
an existing object.

The hand tool

The hand tool moves the image around like a scroll bar, or paging up or down, but it works in any direction.

To use the hand tool, select it in the toolbar, and then drag the image in the direction you want it moved. You
can also temporarily access the hand tool, while using other tools, by pressing the spacebar.

This tool’s keyboard shortcut key is the letter H.

Double clicking the hand tool icon in the toolbox will cause the active image’s magnification to change to fit
in the window.

The colour picker

Simply either double-clicking on either the foreground colour or the background colour will bring up a menu
in which you can manually select the colour or enter a 6-digit hex code for the colour you wish to use

The move tool

The move tool

©Paul Milsom 72
Allows you to move the selection (layer, floating object, etc).

Shift constrains moving to vertical, horizontal and 45 degrees only. Option clones the selection before
moving.

The arrow keys move in single pixel increments.

Shift-arrows move in 10 pixel increments

The magic wand tool

The magic wand tool

The magic wand selects all colours similar to the pixel clicked, provided it is part of a continuous region.

Shift adds to the selection if another selection is active.

Option subtracts to the selection if another selection is active.

Shift-option selects the intersect of two selections.

A tolerance level can be set that determines what the wand calls a "similar" colour. This value can range
from 0-255

The Paintbrush tool

The Paintbrush tool is a painting tool that applies the current foreground colour with a soft anti-aliased brush
stroke.

You can use the Paintbrush dialog box to modify the operation of the Paintbrush tool. The paintbrush tool
has a host of different brush types, sizes, and also has an option for "wet edges" which causes the
paintbrush to create a translucent line with darker edges. See my examples of paintbrush 'brush' types
below.

Various paintbrush types.

The Pencil tool

©Paul Milsom 73
The Pencil tool is a painting and image-editing tool that applies the foreground colour to a single pixel in your
images or paints a one-pixel wide stroke. See my examples below. There are similar brush types to that of
the paintbrush, however you can not get that "wet" look like that of the paintbrush tool. However it is an
excellent tool for doing pixel by pixel work on an image.

Various pencil types

The history brush tools

The history brush works very similar to the stamp cloning tool, however instead of simply being able to copy
the current image, the history brush tool will allow you to copy and previous state of the image in the history
to the current state. Note however that this tool copies from one layer to the active layer only, not all layers.

The art history brush is similar to the regular history brush; however it allows you to copy to the current
active layer in a modified manner, similar to applying a filter effect. The Photoshop manual suggests filling
the entire image with white and then painting from the original while experimenting with various settings in
the tool’s option palette.

The Gradient and Paint bucket tools

All the gradients offer the same options, and same dialog boxes, so the information here applies to all five
gradient tools. The difference in the tools is in how the gradient shades are applied. The gradient tool is
grouped with the paint bucket in the toolbar; if it is hidden, click on the paint bucket and choose it from the
pop-up menu.

The linear gradient is applied by dragging over the entire length of the area you are applying it to. The other
four gradients are applied to the radius of the area, since the gradient will expand outward in all directions
from the start point.

The Linear gradient adds shades from where you first click to where you release the mouse button after
dragging across the image.

The radial gradient, icon shown second from the left, above, applies shades in a circular pattern, radiating
outward from the point where you first click. The line you drag is the radius of the circle of colours.

The colours applied by the angle gradient, icon shown centre above, look like a cone, or Chinese hat, with
the point at the top being the spot where you first click. Shades are applied in a counter clockwise spiral.

©Paul Milsom 74
The reflected gradient, icon second from the right, looks like the linear gradient but with a mirror image
gradient radiating in the opposite direction from the linear one where you have dragged with the pointer.

A diamond gradient looks like a starburst, or lens flare with distinct, shaded flare lines radiating from the
point where you first click.

The gradient you have chosen, or created in the gradient edit dialog box [see second section below] is
applied from the colour shown on the left side of the gradient bar on the options palette, to the right. If you
wish it applied in the other direction, check the Reverse box in the palette.

All gradients will cover the entire layer with their colours. The area you drag over will show the gradient
variations and the rest will have the end colour without gradient. If you want the gradient applied only to a
particular area, selects it first, and applies the gradient within the selection by dragging across it.

All gradients are applied with a transparency mask. You can turn it off by deselecting Transparency in the
options palette, or edit it in the gradient editor [see second section below].

If you have problems with banding in your gradients (colours separating into stripes of different shades
instead of making a smooth transition), try applying a small amount of noise with the Add Noise filter.
Choose Filter > Noise > Add Noise.

The paint bucket is now grouped with the gradient tool in the toolbar (it used to be by itself). To find it, if it’s
hidden, click on the gradient tool icon and choose the paint bucket from the pop-up menu.

The paint bucket will recolor pixels, of any colour you click on, to be the current foreground colour. The
foreground colour is selected by clicking on the foreground colour square in the toolbox to access the Colour
Picker, by clicking on any colour with the eyedropper tool, by clicking on the foreground colour square in the
Colour palette, or by clicking on a swatch in the Swatches palette.

If you want to fill a limited area, make a selection before using the paint bucket tool. Only pixels within that
selection will be recoloured.

If you want to completely fill a selection or layer you may prefer using the Edit > Fill dialog which gives more
options. You can also use shortcuts of Alt-Backspace to fill a selection with the foreground colour, Alt-Shift-
Backspace to fill only areas containing pixels (leaving transparent areas untouched), Ctrl-Backspace to fill
with the background colour, and Ctrl-Shift-Backspace to fill only areas containing pixels with the background
colour

The dodge, burn and sponge tools.

The Dodge, burn and sponge tools

The dodge tool will lighten the pixels dragged over according to the percentage chosen in the tool’s options
bar. You can choose to lighten highlights, midtones, or shadows. Each must be worked on separately; the
tool does not work on all three at once.

©Paul Milsom 75
To use the dodge tool, select it in the toolbox, choose your settings in the options bar, pick a brush from the
pop-up palette, and drag in the image to lighten the chosen tones. This tool has an effect on click, but does
not do any additional work until it’s moved. However, repeated stroking over the same area does have a
cumulative effect.

The burn tool will darken the pixels dragged over according to the percentage chosen in the tool’s options
bar. You can choose to darken highlights, midtones, or shadows. Each must be worked on separately; the
tool does not work on all three at once.

To use the burn tool, select it in the toolbox, set your options, and choose a brush from the pop-up palette in
the options bar, and drag in the image to darken the chosen tones. This tool has an effect on click, but does
not do any additional work until it’s moved. However, repeated stroking over the same area does have a
cumulative effect.

The sponge tool will increase or decrease the colour saturation of areas you drag over. How rapidly the
effect occurs is determined by the setting in the Pressure box in the tool’s options bar.

To use the sponge tool, select it in the toolbox, choose your settings, and pick a brush in the options bar,
and drag in the image. This tool has an effect on click, but does not do any additional work until it’s moved.
However, repeated stroking over the same area does have a cumulative effect.

The Text tool

When you select the type tool in the toolbox, your cursor will change to an I-beam pointer. A small line
across the I beam marks the location of the type’s baseline. For vertical type, it marks the centre axis that
the type will be created along.

The type tool’s options bar will appear as soon as you select the tool. You can set the type’s options before
you click in the image to add type.

Click in the image to add point type. Paragraph type is entered by clicking and dragging a bounding box, and
then adding text inside it. While you are adding or editing type, the options bar will change to be in edit
mode. Type may be edited by drag-selecting and applying new options. If you move the cursor a little ways
away from the type you’ve added, the pointer becomes the move tool, and type can be repositioned.

If you are happy with the type you’ve added or changed, accept it by either clicking the large check mark on
the right end of the options bar, by pressing the Enter key on the numeric keypad, or by pressing Ctrl-Enter
on the regular keyboard. If you don't like your changes, and don’t want to accept them, click the big X on the
options bar or press the Esc key.

Each time you use the type tool, a new layer is created with that text on it. Any of the layer styles or other
layer options can be applied to type layers.

Point type enters the text in a line from the point where you first click. Line breaks may be created by
pressing Enter, but otherwise, the type does not wrap. If you have difficulty positioning point type exactly
where you want it, apply it (click the big check box) and then move it with the move tool. To do this, be sure

©Paul Milsom 76
you’ve selected the type layer which has the type you want to move, then choose the move tool in the
toolbar. Drag, or press the arrow keys to move the text layer in one pixel increments.

Paragraph type is entered in a bounding box. Text will wrap to stay within the box. If you add more type than
will fit within the box, it will be indicated by an overflow icon, and the overflow type will not show in the
image. Resizing the text box by dragging a corner will allow the overflow text to show. Pressing Enter
creates a new paragraph, not a line break, in paragraph text.

The bounding box can be rotated, skewed, and resized. If you don't want to see the bounding box outline,
choose View > Show > Text Bounds. Selecting that option in that menu toggles it on and off.

The type mask tool creates a selection outline in the shape of the letters typed. You can do anything with
that outline that you can do with any other selection. Unlike the regular type tools, this one does not appear
on its own layer. The type is added to the current, active layer. It is preferable to use this tool on an image
layer, and not any type layer that you may have added previously.

You can do anything with a type layer that you can do with a regular layer such as duplicating it, changing
the stacking order, applying layer effects and styles, and changing layer opacity. However, some of the
Photoshop features will not work on a type layer. For example, if you want to apply filters to your type, you
will need to first turn the type layer into a regular layer. After you've done this, the type becomes part of the
image and cannot be edited as type any more. To turn a type layer into a regular layer, select the layer in
the Layers palette, and then choose Layer > Rasterizing > Type.

Tip - The default setting for type is to use fractional character widths. This is best in most cases. However,
when using type sizes smaller than 20 points for online uses such as web sites, fractional character widths
can make your type look terrible. The spacing will be inconsistent with some of the letters running into each
other, and others too far apart. Turn off fractional widths by going to the Character palette, and clicking on
the little arrow in the upper right corner to access the palette menu. Click on Fractional Widths to toggle it
off. Turning this setting off will affect all text on the currently selected layer.

The Line and shape tools

The shape tools create a preset range of geometric paths. Paths are outlines which can be used to make
selections, or which can be stroked or filled with colour. Paths are made from mathematical formulas, called
Beziér Curves, which do not print, and which contain no pixels. Paths in the image can be accessed for
editing from the Paths palette. The pen tool is also used for drawing paths.

Objects, and lines created with the shapes, and pen tools are called “vector objects” and are edited
differently from painted objects, or shapes in an image which are created from pixels. For example, all, or
part of a vector object can be selected simply by clicking on it with one of the special selection tools found at
#8 in the toolbar diagram at left.

Vector objects are also resolution independent. This means they can be scaled as much as you like with no
loss of quality. Since the object exists as a mathematical formula, scaling does not involve the adding or
subtracting pixels which would result in image degradation.

To use a shape tool, select it in the toolbar, set its options in the options bar (see below), and then click and
drag in the image.

A full description of vector object editing is beyond the scope of these pages. The pen tool is difficult to
learn. The shape tools provide an easy way to take advantage of vector object qualities without having to
struggle with the underlying concepts.

©Paul Milsom 77
The line tool is used in the image to draw (perfectly) straight lines.

Note that line width is not chosen by selecting a brush size, but is set according to the Weight value entered
in the line tool’s options bar.

The colour of the line drawn will be the currently selected foreground colour. This is set by clicking on the
foreground colour square in the toolbar, or in the Colours palette.

©Paul Milsom 78
©Paul Milsom 79
 Good luck with your photography

©Paul Milsom 80
 You might want to print out the following
and take with you
OLYMPUS APS SENSOR- FULL FRAME SENSOR(35mm
and other most digital film size)- Nikon D700, D3,
“Four SLRS- Nikon D3x, Canon EOS 1DS series,
Thirds” D5000, D300s, D5 series, Sony 900 series
sensors Canon D70
most Sony, all
Pentax etc
28mm 21mm 14mm superwide Great depth of
field
36mm 27 mm 18mm superwide

48mm 36 mm 24mm wide

56mm 47 mm 28mm wide

70mm 52 mm 35 moderate wide

100mm 75mm 50mm standard Moderate depth

170mm 127 mm 85mm portrait

210mm 157 mm 105 short tele

400mm 300 mm 200 tele

600mm 450 mm 300 tele

1200mm 900mm 600 tele Little depth

©Paul Milsom 81
 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY: RECORD OF IMAGES CAPTURED
FILE DESCRIPTION OF IMAGE FOR SETTINGS / TECHNIQUES / TRICKS / WEATHER / TIME OF RESOLUTION APERTURE TYPE OF
SPEED
NO. IDENTIFICATION DAY /FILE TYPE ( F-STOP) FLASH
1 -
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

PaulMilsom/Tutorials/Photog/Record