Architectural Pattern on an Animal
I. Hierarchical Organization of Animal Complexity
a. Tissue- cells grouped together and perform their common functions as a
highly coordinated unit
 Animals at or beyond the cell-tissue grade of organization are termed
eumatozoans.
b. Organs- In animals of the tissue-organ grade of organization, tissues are
assembled into still larger functional units
c. Parenchyma- the chief functional cells of an organ
d. Stroma- supportive tissues that supports that parenchyma
 Grades of Organization in Organismal Complexity
1. Protoplasmic grade of organization- unicellular organism. All life functions are
confined within the boundaries of a single cell. Fundamental unit of life.
Protoplasm is differentiated into organelles capable of performing specialized
functions.
2. Cellular grade of organization- aggregation of cells that are functionally
differentiated. Division of labor is evident so that some cells are concerned with ex.
Reproduction (sperm cell) another example are flagellates such as a volvox that
have distinct somatic and reproductive cells are placed at the cellular level of
organization.
3. Cell-Tissue grade of organization-similar cells into definite patterns or layers and
organized to perform a common function, to form a tissue. Sponges are
considered by some authorities to belong to this grade through jellyfishes and their
relatives (cnidarians) more clearly demonstrate the tissue plan.
4. Tissue-organ grade of organization- tissues into further step in complexity.
Example of this organizational level are flatworms (Platyhelminthes) in which well-
defined organs such as eyespots, proboscis, and reproductive organs occur. The
reproductive organs transcend the tissue-organ grade and are organized into a
reproductive system.
5. Organ-system grade of organization-organs work together to perform function,
producing the highest level of organization- an organ system. Simplest animals
having this type of organization are nemertean worms, which have a complete
digestive system distinct from the circulatory systems.
II. Animal Body PlansBody
 Animal Symmetry
1. Spherical Symmetry- any plane passing through the center divides a body into
equivalent or mirrored, halves. Occurs among some unicellular forms and is rare in
animals.
2. Radial Symmetry- applies to forms that can be divided into similar halves by more
than two planes passing through the longitudinal axis. These are tubular, vase, or
bowl shapes found in some sponges and in hydras, jellyfish, sea urchins, and
related groups in which one end of the longitudinal axis is usually the mouth (oral
surface) forms such as hydras and sea anemones, the basal attachment disc is
the aboral suface.
 Biradial Symmetry- some part that is single or paired rather than radial,
only two planes passing through the longitudinal axis produce mirrored
halves. Ex. Comb jellies which are globular but have a pair of tentacles
are an example.
- Radial and Biradial animals are usually sessile, free floating, or weakly swimming.
- Radial animals with no anterior or posterior end can interact with their environment
in all directions
- Two phyla namely cnidarian and ctenophore are primarily radial and are called
radiata.
3. Bilateral Symmetry- applies to animals that can be divided along a sagittal plane
into two mirrored portions—right and left.
- Bilateral animals form a monophyletic group of phyla called the bilateria
- Bilateral symmetry is strongly associated with cephalization or the differentiation of
a head. Cephalization is always accompanied by differentiation along an
anteroposterior axis although the evolution of the axis preceded cephalization
 Body Cavities and Germ Layers
1. Body Cavities- is an internal space, the most obvious example of is a gut cavity or
digestive tract but most animals have an additional, less obvious cavity.
 Germ Layers
1. Blastocoel- has no external opening so it could not serve as a gut, sponges after
the formation of a blastula, the cell reorganize to form an adult anima in which
cells become embedded in an extracellular matrix and surround a chamber called
a spongocoel.
2. Gastrula- one side of a blastula pushes inward making a depression which
becomes a gut cavity called the gastrocoel or archenteron.
 3. Blastopore- external opening to the depression; it typically becomes the adult
mouth or anus.
4. Endoderm- gut lining
5. Ectoderm- outer layer of cells surrounding the blastocoel
6. Diplobastic- sea anemones and jellyfish develop from these two germs layers.
Fluid filled but in others it is filled with the third germ layer, mesoderm.
7. Tripoblastic- animals that posess ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
 Methods of Mesoderm Formation
1. Acoelomate- mesodermal cells completely fill the blastocoel, leaving a gut cavity
as the only body cavity.
 Parenchyma- derived from embryonic connective tissue and is important
in assimilation and transport of food and in disposal of metabolic wastes
2. Pseudocoelomate- mesodermal cells line the outer edge of the blastocoel leaving
two body cavities a blastocoel and a gut cavity. The blastocoel is now called a
psudocoelom
3. Schizocoelous/enterocoelus- mesodermal cells fill the blastocoel forming a solid
band of tissue around the gut cavity. This new space is called coelom a coelom
made by eneterocoely is functionally equivalent to the one made by schizocoely
and both represented as such in the eucolelomate or simply coelomate. Both are
lined with a peritoneum a thin cellular membrane derived from mesoderm.
 A complete gut and Segmentation
1. Segmentation- also called metamerism, is a serial repetition of similar body
segments along the longitudinal axis of the body.
 Metamere or Somite- each segment in the segmentation
- Sex organs may be repeated in only a few segments
- Segmentation permits greater body mobility and complexity of structure and
function. Displayed in phylum arthropoda the largest assemblage on earth.
III. Components of Animal Bodies
 Extracellular Component
- Intracellular space- within the body’s cells and those that occupy the extracellular
space.
- Extracellular space- outside the cell
- Blood plasma- the fluid portion of blood
- Interstitial fluid- also called tissue fluid occupies the space surrounding cells
(intercellular space)
- Extracellular structural elements are the supportive material of the organism
including connective tissue, cartilage, bone and cuticle.
- These provide mechanical stability and protection they also act as a storage depot
of materials for exchange between the cells and interstitial fluid and serve as a
medium extracellular reactions.
 Cellular components: Tissues
- Tissues is a group of similar cells specialized for performance of a common
function
- Histology- study of tissues
 Epithelial Tissue
- Epithelium- is a sheet of cells that covers an external or internal surface.
- Forms protective covering outside the body, inside the epithelium lines all organs
of the body cavity as well as ducts or passageways through which various
materials and secretions move.
- Epithelial cells are also modified into glands that produce lubricating mucus or
specialized products such as hormones or enzymes.
1. Simple Squamous epithelium- flattened cells that form a composed of
flattened cells that form a continuous lining in of blood capillaries, lungs, and
other surfaces where it permits diffusion of gases and transport of other
molecules into and out of cavities.
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium- short box like cells lines small ducts and tubules
such as those of the kidney and salivary glands and may have active
secretory or absorptive functions
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium- resembles cuboidal epithelium but the cells are
taller and usually have elongate nuclei. Occurs on highly absorptive surfaces
such as the intestinal tract of most animals.
4. Stratified Squamous Epithelium- consist of two many layers of cells adapted
to withstand mild mechanical abrasion and distortion. Lines the oral cavity,
esophagus, and anal canal of many vertebrates and the vagina of mammals.
The skin of vertebrates is composed of stratified squamous epithelium whose
upper cellular layers contain a high concentration of the protein keratin.
Protect the lower, living cellular layers and are waterproof in reptiles, birds,
and mammals.
5. Transitional Epithelium- type of stratified epithelium specialized to
accommodate great stretching. Occurs in the urinary tract and bladder of
vertebrates.
 Connective Tissue
- Diverse group of tissues that serve various binding and supportive functions
 - Connective tissue is composed of relatively few cells a great many extracellular differences have been described between them. They are longer and tapering
fibers and a ground substance which the fibers are suspended ( together called each contain a single central nucleus
matrix)  Most common type of muscle in invertebrates
- Many fibers of connective tissue are composed of collagen.  In vertebrates, smooth muscle surrounds blood vessels and internal
- Collagen- is the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom found in animal organs such as intestine and uterus.
bodies wherever both flexibility and resistance to stretching are required.  It is called involuntary muscle in vertebrates because its contraction is
- Two kinds of connective tissue usually not consciously controlled; it is controlled by the ANS.
1. Loose Connective Tissue- called areolar connective tissue is the packing c. Sarcoplasm- cytoplasm of muscle fibers
material of the body that anchors blood vessels nerves and body organs. d. Myofibrils- contractile proteins within the muscle fibers.
 Contains fibroblasts that synthesize the fibers and ground substance of  Nervous Tissue
connective tissue and wandering macrophages that phagocytize a. Neuron- basic functional unit of nervous system
pathogens or damaged cells. Different fiber types include collagen fibers b. Neuroglia- a nonneuronal cell type that insulates neuron membranes and serves
and thin elastic fibers formed of the protein elastin. various supportive functions
2. Dense connective tissue- forms tendons, ligaments, and fasciae the latter
arranged as sheets or bands of tissue surrounding skeletal muscle.
- Types of specialized connective tissue
a. Blood lymph (collectively considered vascular tissue)
b. Adipose (fat)
c. Cartilage- semirigid form of connective tissue composed of a firm matrix
containing cells (chondrocytes) located in pockets of lacunae (small pockets)
and collagen and/or elastic fibers.
d. Bone- is the strongest of vertebrae connective tissues, composed of a
calcified matrix containing salts organized around collagen fibers.
 Muscular Tissue
- Most abundant tissue in the body of most animals
a. Striated muscle- appears transversely stripped with alternating dark and ligh
bands
 Skeletal- called voluntary muscle because it contracts when stimulated by
nerves under conscious central nervous system. In invertebrates skeletal
muscle may be controlled by both stimulatory and inhibitory nerve activity.
 Cardiac- found only in vertebrates, cells are shorter than skeletal and is a
branching network of fibers with individual cells interconnected by
junctional complexes called intercalcated discs. It is considered
involuntary muscle because it does not respond to nerves under
conscious control of the CNS. In invertebrates a third striated muscle type
called obliquely striated muscle has been described.
b. Smooth Muscle- Lacks the characteristic alternating bands of the striated type,
occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates although major ultrastructural