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Speed is distance/time whereas velocity is displacement/time.

Uniform motion is when there is equal displacement in equal time periods.

Intentions speed and velocity - In order to find the speed at a specific instant in time, we need
instantaneous speed and velocity.

If a car is moving around a curve in a constant time. Velocity has magnitude and direction. Because there
is a change in direction so there has to be acceleration and changing direction.

Reference frames and displacement: Any measurement of position, distance, or speed must be made
with respect to a reference frame. If you are walking in a train and speed with respect to the ground.
There fore the speed of the person walking is added to the speed of a train.

The instantaneous velocity at a point on a positive position time graph is the slope of the tangent drawn
at that point.

The average velocity between any two points on a d – t graph for any kind of motion is equal to the line
joining the two points
SUVAT equations

S = displacement

U = initial / starting speed

V = final speed/velocity
a = acceleration

t = time

a = (v-u)/t

v= u+at

v^2 =u^2+2as

s=ut +0.5at^2

s=(u+v)/2 t
Look at the book for the correct working out

G – write everything given

R - required

A – analyze – write equation and

S – substitute

S - significant figures

Calculations involving free fall

To make it clear, there’s a sign convention: upwards is positive, downwards is negative. g is always
downwards, so it’s usually negative. t is always positive. u and v can be either positive or negative. s can
be either positive or negative. When writing equations, use sub-symbols ↓↑to keep track of the
direction.
Object is projected into air. Normal equations with 𝑎 = 𝑔 = −9.81𝑚𝑠 −2. 𝑢 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

The equations are the same with u = negative. Acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑔 = −9.81𝑚𝑠 −2


U= 20ms^-1 at 60 degrees

a=g

uv=20sin(60)
Uh=20cos(60)

V^2=u^2+0.5as

O=(20sin(60))^2-2x10s

S=300/20=15m
Forces

Force causes deformation, direction and speed  produces acceleration

Contact force - A force exists between two particles in physical contact

Internal forces - Forces due to interactions of particles within the system are called internal forces
Tension (T) – only a pull not push

Friction (Ff) – force that opposes motion, parallel to contact force

Friction and normal are surface contact forces.

Weight W is an action-at-a-distance force.

If the up-thrust is equal to the weight of the object, the object will float

Centre of mass is a single point through which the whole weight acts through.

Forces acting on a point particle can be represented by arrows

Rules for drawing force arrows:

 Length represents magnitude


 Point in direction in which force acts
 Net force = resultant force
 Acceleration: 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 – a is drawn as a double arrow in direction of acceleration
 Forces start at the particle and point away from it
 Only forces that act on the particle are drawn
 All forces have clear labels
 The diagram is for one body only
FBD F net Vector addition equation
Fair+ma=W
F air

FBD F net Vector addition Equation


0 W=lift
Equilibrium:

When an object is in translational EQLB it is either at rest or moving at constant velocity

Translational means moving in a straight line at constant speed

All forces are balanced and the resultant force must be zero

Translational equilibrium:

The sum of all forces must be equal to zero

The sum of all torques must be equal to zero

The net force acting on object is zero (sum)𝐹 = 0


An object is pulled with constant velocity

W=N

𝑭𝒇𝒘 = 𝑭𝒇

Unless pulling force is acting through center of mass, rotation is created

Friction:

Both, dynamic and static friction depends on the surfaces in contact


During the static phase, the static friction force Fs exactly matches the applied (tension) force.

Fs increases linearly until it reaches a maximum value Fs,max.

The friction force then almost instantaneously decreases to a constant value Fd , called the dynamic
friction force.

At the atomic level small peaks on one surface cold weld with small peaks on the other surface.

Applying the initial sideways force, all of the cold welds oppose the motion.

f the force is sufficiently large, the cold welds break, and new peaks contact each other and cold weld.

If the surfaces remain in relative sliding motion, fewer welds have a chance to form.

We define the unitless constant, called the coefficient of friction μ, which depends on the composition
of the two surfaces, as the ratio of Ff and R.

When an object moves through a fluid…

…it is subject to a retarding force

This is called drag

It opposes motion

A fluid can be a liquid or a gas


The magnitude of the retarding force depends on

→ shape of the object

→ surface area of the object

→ speed of the object (force increases as speed increases)

→ nature of the fluids through which it moves (on its viscosity)

Reducing drag

Streamlined objects reduce air resistance

Large parachute moves slower to reduce air resistance

High speed means high resistance → object will reach terminal speed faster

Friction and diving

Greater friction in water than in air

More friction the deeper a diver gets because of the increase in pressure with depth

Spherical objects…

…moving at low speed

Retarding force is proportional to the speed of the object

𝑭𝑹 ∝ 𝒗 • As the object moves faster and faster, 𝑭𝑹 gets greater and greater until it reaches a value
equal to the force accelerating the object

Stoke’s Law

At slow speeds the drag force experienced by a sphere is given by Stoke’s law:

F=6πηvr

where η=viscosity (a constant)

v=velocity

r=radius

Paratute:
When Weight ↓ = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ↑ - forces are balanced

object will no longer accelerate

moves with constant speed

in free fall: terminal velocity has been reached

Person jumps • GPE → KE + thermal energy

Fall freely due to weight force • Unbalanced force causes acceleration

When air resistance = weight, terminal velocity

Falls at constant speed and we can use 𝑣 = 𝑑 𝑡


Parachute opens

Rapid negative acceleration

Reaches new terminal speed

Terminal speed

All objects have their own distinct terminal velocity

Because of air resistance, the speed with which the object hits the ground is much less
Newton’s law

Moving objects have inertia → a property of all objects to resist a change in motion
Newton’s 1st law: If a body is at rest it wants to remain at rest and if the body is moving in a straight line
with uniform motion it will continue to move with uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
force.

Anything that is changing direction must have a resultant force acting on it – accelerating, decelerating
or changing direction.

Newton’s 2nd law: If an unbalanced force acts on an object, the object accelerates.The acceleration is
directly proportional to the force acting and is in the same direction as the applied force.

Newton’s 3rd law: When a force acts on a body, an equal and opposite force acts on another body
somewhere in the Universe.

requirements must be met:

 Act for the same time


 Same line of action
 Same type
 Same magnitude
 Acts on / exerted by different bodies
 Opposite direction

WEB = weight exerted by the earth on the book

If a system of two isolated particles that exert equal and opposite forces on each other, then the ratio of
their acceleration will be in the ratio of their masses.

Work

Energy is the ability to do work

W= change in energy

Fd cos(angle)= mgh

=0.5mv^2

=0.5 K x^2

For a force that varies, the work can be approximated by dividing the distance up into small pieces,
finding the work done during each, and adding them up.

This was called Hooke’s Law F = k ∆x

If we draw a graph of force against extension we get a straight line. It will be a triangle
Therefore-

E = 0.5x F

=0.5 x * c k

=0.5kx^2

Work done on system is negative

Work done by system is positive

Visual representation:

When an external force is applied but no motion then there is no work done.

When a object is carried at constant velocity by a force which acts on a right angle to displacement, no
work is done on an object.
It is not mass energy it is called binding energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only be transferred between different forms.

If there is no friction, the speed of a roller coaster will depend only on its height compared to its starting
height.

One Joule is the energy required when a force of 1 newton acts through a distance of 1m

Total energy TE = KE + PE

KE- kinetic energy

A force F is required to accelerate an object of mass m in accordance with Newton’s 2nd law.

F = ma  a=F/m

After the object has moved a distance s it has a speed of

𝑣^2 = 𝑢^2 + 2𝑎𝑠 → 𝑣 2 = 0 + 2((F/m)s)

Work = change in energy

Fs= 0.5mv^2

Or p=mv hence KE = 0.5xmxm/m(v^2) = p^2/2m


PE -potential energy

In raising a mass m to a height h, the work done by the external force is W = F d cos(angle) = mgh =
mg(y1/y2)

We therefore define the gravitational potential energy GPE or short PE:

W=Fs

= mgh

𝑊 = ∆𝐸

PE = mgh

EPE – elastic potential energy

Energy stored in a spring is elastic energy

• Hooke’s law:
𝐹 ∝ ∆𝑥

𝐹 = 𝑘∆𝑥

Where k = spring constant and ∆𝑥 = extension of spring

W = area under graph

𝑊 = 0.5 ∆𝑥 × F(max)

= 0.5 x ∆𝑥 x∆𝑥 x k

=0.5∆𝑥^2k

Assumptions

All energy is transferred

No energy is lost to surroundings

If friction acts, some energy is dissipated

Energy is lost → it cannot be used again to do useful work

Energy has been degraded → run out of useful energy → irreversible process
Efficiency= useful out/ total in x100

Energy = work

Power = rate of energy transfer = rate of work done

Momentum:

Momentum is conserved during impact

M1 x U1 = m2 x u2

The rate of change of linear momentum is directly proportional to the resultant force acting upon it and
takes place in the direction of the resultant force.

𝑝=𝑚𝑣 and the change in momentum ∆p=𝑚∆v


Maximum force when impact is shortest.

From F=mv/t

Increase the time of collision then the force will decrease

In a closed system, linear momentum is always conserved

Closed system: no external forces are acting

If the net force of a system is zero, then there is no change of momentum of the system

Momentum before = momentum after

The momentum gained by one object is equal to the momentum lost by another object
Momentum and KE is conserved in an elastic collision.

If a collision is inelastic, momentum is conserved, but KE is not conserved. And you know if the objects
stick together. If there is a change in energy then it is an inelastic collision

Case 1 and 2 can be either elastic or inelastic and have to calculate the energy change.
Head on collisions of two identical masses where one is at rest → perfect elastic collision.

One mass is stationary:

If the masses are equal, then the speeds are the same with one velocity the negative of the other.

Applications of momentum conservation

The momentum lost by the system per second = mass of water leaving per second x (speed of water
leaving hose – speed of water in hose)

Mass of water lost per second = ∆m/ ∆t

Momentum lost per second: p = (∆𝒎/ ∆v ) (𝒗 − 𝒖)

To find ∆m/ ∆t we need to know the cross sectional area and the density of the water

Water is directed at vertical wall


Water loses horizontal momentum and trickles down the wall

Momentum went to wall and ground

Did Earth gain this momentum?

The water was given momentum at the pump → this must have given some momentum to ground

The amount of momentum gained by Earth at pump is equal and opposite to the momentum gained by
Earth when water strikes the wall

Rocket

Momentum is conserved

Release liquid or gas at high speeds

Fluid escapes from combustion / storage chamber through nozzles at base of rocket

Rocket accelerates in opposite direction to ejected fluid


Take off and land vertically

Hover motionless → uses conservation of momentum

Rotating blades exert force on stationary air

Air moves downward, gains momentum

No external force acting; there is an upward force on helicopter through rotors

Rate of loss of momentum of rocked by fluid = rate of gain of momentum of rocket

Helicopter

Take off and land vertically

Hover motionless → uses conservation of momentum

Rotating blades exert force on stationary air Air moves downward, gains momentum

No external force acting; there is an upward force on helicopter through rotors

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