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Intentions speed and velocity - In order to find the speed at a specific instant in time, we need
instantaneous speed and velocity.
If a car is moving around a curve in a constant time. Velocity has magnitude and direction. Because there
is a change in direction so there has to be acceleration and changing direction.
Reference frames and displacement: Any measurement of position, distance, or speed must be made
with respect to a reference frame. If you are walking in a train and speed with respect to the ground.
There fore the speed of the person walking is added to the speed of a train.
The instantaneous velocity at a point on a positive position time graph is the slope of the tangent drawn
at that point.
The average velocity between any two points on a d – t graph for any kind of motion is equal to the line
joining the two points
SUVAT equations
S = displacement
V = final speed/velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
a = (v-u)/t
v= u+at
v^2 =u^2+2as
s=ut +0.5at^2
s=(u+v)/2 t
Look at the book for the correct working out
R - required
S – substitute
S - significant figures
To make it clear, there’s a sign convention: upwards is positive, downwards is negative. g is always
downwards, so it’s usually negative. t is always positive. u and v can be either positive or negative. s can
be either positive or negative. When writing equations, use sub-symbols ↓↑to keep track of the
direction.
Object is projected into air. Normal equations with 𝑎 = 𝑔 = −9.81𝑚𝑠 −2. 𝑢 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
a=g
uv=20sin(60)
Uh=20cos(60)
V^2=u^2+0.5as
O=(20sin(60))^2-2x10s
S=300/20=15m
Forces
Internal forces - Forces due to interactions of particles within the system are called internal forces
Tension (T) – only a pull not push
If the up-thrust is equal to the weight of the object, the object will float
Centre of mass is a single point through which the whole weight acts through.
All forces are balanced and the resultant force must be zero
Translational equilibrium:
W=N
𝑭𝒇𝒘 = 𝑭𝒇
Friction:
The friction force then almost instantaneously decreases to a constant value Fd , called the dynamic
friction force.
At the atomic level small peaks on one surface cold weld with small peaks on the other surface.
Applying the initial sideways force, all of the cold welds oppose the motion.
f the force is sufficiently large, the cold welds break, and new peaks contact each other and cold weld.
If the surfaces remain in relative sliding motion, fewer welds have a chance to form.
We define the unitless constant, called the coefficient of friction μ, which depends on the composition
of the two surfaces, as the ratio of Ff and R.
It opposes motion
Reducing drag
High speed means high resistance → object will reach terminal speed faster
More friction the deeper a diver gets because of the increase in pressure with depth
Spherical objects…
𝑭𝑹 ∝ 𝒗 • As the object moves faster and faster, 𝑭𝑹 gets greater and greater until it reaches a value
equal to the force accelerating the object
Stoke’s Law
At slow speeds the drag force experienced by a sphere is given by Stoke’s law:
F=6πηvr
v=velocity
r=radius
Paratute:
When Weight ↓ = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ↑ - forces are balanced
Terminal speed
Because of air resistance, the speed with which the object hits the ground is much less
Newton’s law
Moving objects have inertia → a property of all objects to resist a change in motion
Newton’s 1st law: If a body is at rest it wants to remain at rest and if the body is moving in a straight line
with uniform motion it will continue to move with uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
force.
Anything that is changing direction must have a resultant force acting on it – accelerating, decelerating
or changing direction.
Newton’s 2nd law: If an unbalanced force acts on an object, the object accelerates.The acceleration is
directly proportional to the force acting and is in the same direction as the applied force.
Newton’s 3rd law: When a force acts on a body, an equal and opposite force acts on another body
somewhere in the Universe.
If a system of two isolated particles that exert equal and opposite forces on each other, then the ratio of
their acceleration will be in the ratio of their masses.
Work
W= change in energy
Fd cos(angle)= mgh
=0.5mv^2
=0.5 K x^2
For a force that varies, the work can be approximated by dividing the distance up into small pieces,
finding the work done during each, and adding them up.
If we draw a graph of force against extension we get a straight line. It will be a triangle
Therefore-
E = 0.5x F
=0.5 x * c k
=0.5kx^2
Visual representation:
When an external force is applied but no motion then there is no work done.
When a object is carried at constant velocity by a force which acts on a right angle to displacement, no
work is done on an object.
It is not mass energy it is called binding energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only be transferred between different forms.
If there is no friction, the speed of a roller coaster will depend only on its height compared to its starting
height.
One Joule is the energy required when a force of 1 newton acts through a distance of 1m
Total energy TE = KE + PE
A force F is required to accelerate an object of mass m in accordance with Newton’s 2nd law.
F = ma a=F/m
Fs= 0.5mv^2
In raising a mass m to a height h, the work done by the external force is W = F d cos(angle) = mgh =
mg(y1/y2)
W=Fs
= mgh
𝑊 = ∆𝐸
PE = mgh
• Hooke’s law:
𝐹 ∝ ∆𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑘∆𝑥
𝑊 = 0.5 ∆𝑥 × F(max)
= 0.5 x ∆𝑥 x∆𝑥 x k
=0.5∆𝑥^2k
Assumptions
Energy has been degraded → run out of useful energy → irreversible process
Efficiency= useful out/ total in x100
Energy = work
Momentum:
M1 x U1 = m2 x u2
The rate of change of linear momentum is directly proportional to the resultant force acting upon it and
takes place in the direction of the resultant force.
From F=mv/t
If the net force of a system is zero, then there is no change of momentum of the system
The momentum gained by one object is equal to the momentum lost by another object
Momentum and KE is conserved in an elastic collision.
If a collision is inelastic, momentum is conserved, but KE is not conserved. And you know if the objects
stick together. If there is a change in energy then it is an inelastic collision
Case 1 and 2 can be either elastic or inelastic and have to calculate the energy change.
Head on collisions of two identical masses where one is at rest → perfect elastic collision.
If the masses are equal, then the speeds are the same with one velocity the negative of the other.
The momentum lost by the system per second = mass of water leaving per second x (speed of water
leaving hose – speed of water in hose)
To find ∆m/ ∆t we need to know the cross sectional area and the density of the water
The water was given momentum at the pump → this must have given some momentum to ground
The amount of momentum gained by Earth at pump is equal and opposite to the momentum gained by
Earth when water strikes the wall
Rocket
Momentum is conserved
Fluid escapes from combustion / storage chamber through nozzles at base of rocket
Helicopter
Rotating blades exert force on stationary air Air moves downward, gains momentum