ANTIBIOTICS

These are chemical substances that either kill or inhibit the growth of
bacteria. Those that kill bacteria are called Bacteriocidal. Those that inhibit
growth of bacteria are called Bacteriostatic. Antibiotics target different
sites/processes in bacteria. Antibiotics are usually designed to affect some
structure/process found in prokaryotic cells only! This ensures that the
antibiotics do not harm human cells i.e. antibiotics must show selective
toxicity.

How penicillin kills bacteria.

Penicillin inhibits the enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of peptide cross
linkages in the murein walls. Therefore there are very few or no peptide
cross liknks in the murein. This results in function of weak murein wall
which explodes when the cell absorbs water. But the penicillin have no
effect on walls that were formed earlier. It only affects the new walls, found
as the bacteria divide in the presence of penicillin.

NB

For penicillin to affect the bacteria they must be dividing. This is why
antibiotics usually act over five to seven days.

SPONTANEOUS
1. Appears suddenly
2. seen in very few people
3. its random
4. can be passed to next generation
5. arises as a result of mutation
ACQUIRED
1. it is when non resistant bacteria aquire
resistance from few resistant mutants.
2. it is responsible for most of the
spreading of resistancein bacterial
population.
QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between narrow spectrum and blood spectrum

A blood spectrum antibiotic destroys a wide range of harmful bacteria,
pathogens, neutral and good bacteria alike, whilst a narrow spectrum
antibiotic targets one or two specific pathogens

2. Suggest why many doctors prescribe blood spectrum

antibiotics
They are more prescribed as these antibiotics destroy a wide range of
harmful pathogens in the body therefore allowing faster treatment and
recovery because the antibiotics used works relatively faster in the sense
of destroying pathogens

3. State how antibiotic resistance may be out of misuse of

antibiotics
This may be true because when many drugs are taken randomly and are
overused as well as misused, the bacteria(pathogens) become resistant to
the antibiotic as they get used to the drug eventually
HOW VIRUSES CAUSE DISEASES

As viruses go through their cycles of replications they can damage or kill

host cells in several ways e.g.
 By shutting down the synthesis of host cell proteins
 By stopping host cell from synthesizing RNA and DNA
 By inhibiting cell division
 By damaging DNA
 By damaging lysosome

WHAT HAPPENS IN THE BODY AFTER

INJECTION FOR HIV

HIV is a retro-virus. These are viruses that have genetic material in the form
of RNA and have to copy the RNA into DNA by using reverse transcription
enzyme.

Once HIV produces DNA from its RNA the DNA is integrated into host
cells DNA. There it remains normal for sometime giving no sign of its
presence or it can take over the host cells genetic machinery to produce new
viruses.

HIV enters the body by reverse mediated endocytosis. The receptor or

docking protein that allows HIV to enter into the cells is CD4 receptor.
The CD4 receptor is a protein molecule found on the surface membrane of
helper T-lymphocytes.

After the HIV binds to CD4 receptor the viral envelope uses with membrane
of helper T-cell. The viral core is released into the cell.

Protease enzymes digest the capsids releasing the RNA strands and reverse
transcriptase enzyme into the cytoplasm of T-cell. The reverse transcriptase
copies viral RNA into viral DNA also known as provirus DNA.
Pro-virus DNA then gets integrated into host cells DNA by action of
integrase enzyme. The pro-virus DNA remains domant in host cells DNA
for a variable period of time called the latency period. After the latency
period is over no virus DNA gets transcripted to form new viral RNA and
viral mRNA molecules that will be used to synthesis new viral capsomers,
new reverse transciptase protease and integrase enzyme.

The infected T-helper cell is destroyed or dies. With time the number of
helper T-cells also called CD4 cells decrease resulting in a gradual decline in
the immune system i.e. immuno-suppression.

Since helper T-lymphoctes usually produce cytokines are necessary for the
functioning of B-lymphocytes. T-lymphocytes and phagocytes, both are
specific and non-specific immune response to get suppressed. The person
becomes susceptible to opportunistic infections. Normally harmless micro-
organisms now multiply widely in the body causing AIDS.

The major opportunistic infections in AIDS are;

 A very rare type of pneumonia caused by fungus. This is called
pneumocytic-pneumonia.
 Persistent diarrhea
 Tuberculosis
 White fungul growth in the mouth(oral thrush) and
vagina(vaginal thrush)
 Dementia(loss of memory and normal brain function)
 A rare form of skin cancer called kaposis sarcoma
Stages of infection
Stage 1-active HIV syndrome(duration 3-12 weeks after infection)

 Brief flu like illness, with chills and fevers.

 Headaches, fatigue and initial swelling of glands(lymph nodes)
 A decline in number of circulatory CD4 helper T-lymphocytes.
 Immune system fights back by producing antibodies against the HIV,
causing the number of circulatory CD4 cells to increase back to
normal.
 Antibodies against HIV begins to appear in blood from 6 weeks to 6
months after infection.
 The person is now HIV positive as blood tests that detect the
antibodies would be positive.

Stage 2-asymptomatic or chronic stage(6 months to several years)

 No symptoms
 Duration depends on diet/nutrition, lining conditions and access to
anti-retroviral drugs
 Virus is replicating and infecting new CD4 T-helper cells.
 Affected person can infect others.

Stage 3-symphtomatic disease(any time from 2-10 years)

 Virus slowly destroys CD4 cell population in the lymphatic tissues

throughout the body
 The CD4 cell count falls from 1200 cells per mm3 of blood to less
than 200 cells per mm3.
 Opportunistic infections begin to appear including severe weight loss.
Diarrhea, night sweats, thrush
stage 4-advanced AIDS(full blown AIDS)

 CD4 count has now fallen too low.

 All or most of opportunistic infections now appear if patient isn’t
given anti-retroviral drugs, death occurs soon.
 The standard blood test detects antibodies against HIV. A more
accurate and expensive test in PCR test which is used to detect small
amounts of nucleic acids of HIV

Transmission

HIV is found in several body fluids including blood, semen, vaginal

secretion, breast milk and saliva.

Treatment

There is no cure for AIDS but anti-retrovirals can be used to inhibit HIV
replication and show the progression of AIDS. Therefore the drugs available
today only delay the onset of AIDS. Some of the ARVs are nucleoside
analogs which block conversion of RNA to DNA. They resemble naturally
occurring nucleosides but cannot be incorparated into active sites of enzyme
that converts viral RNA to DNA.

One of the most successfully used ARVs was AZT(azidothymidine)

However these drugs have harmful side effects e.g. damage bone marrow
causing anemia.

Besides, the virus gradually develop resistance to drugs.