Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition
JJ Quesada-Granados, C Samaniego-Sánchez, and RM Blanca-Herrera, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Rum is an alcoholic beverage resulting from the distillation of
fermented raw materials with high sugar contents. Its alcohol
content varies from 35% to 54%V V
1, measured at 20  C. The
various legislations of the countries where the beverage is
produced determine the minimum alcohol content rum must
have. For example, in Brazil, the legal contents range from 38%
to 54%V V
1; in Venezuela, the amount is 40%V V
1; in
Colombia, it is 50%V V
1; in Cuba, it is not < 35%V V
1;
and in Spain, the minimum is 37.5%V V
1. For some special
types of rum, such as those produced in the Canary Islands
(Spain), the minimum content permitted is 30%V V
1.
Rum-producing areas are mainly found in both the Spanish-
and Portuguese-speaking regions of the Caribbean, as well as in
areas of English and French influence, although there is a rum-
producing tradition in the Spanish provinces of Granada, Malaga,
and the Canary Islands. Generally speaking, areas where sugar-
cane has traditionally been grown are also rum-producing.
Although rum is one of the so-called congeneric beverages,
that is, it has a distinctive aroma achieved during fermentation
and distillation, it also has the requirement to be aged in oak
barrels for a period ranging from a few months to several years,
or even decades. Depending on the country of origin, other
types of wood such as cherry can also be used. After aging, the
rum finally acquires its final organoleptic characteristics.
The techniques involved in the production of rum can be
summarized in the following stages: (1) harvesting and prepa-
ration of the raw material, (2) fermentation of the raw
material, (3) distillation, (4) aging, and (5) standardizing
and preparation for bottling.
Characteristics of the Raw Material
Rum must be made using sugary raw materials, usually supple-
mented with nutrients necessary for the initial fermentation.
The juice of sugarcane is used as the sugary raw material, as
well as molasses and/or other by-products of the production of
sugar from sugarcane, although molasses is the most com-
monly used. As a by-product of sugar production, molasses
found its principal use in the making of rum. Its use in bever-
age production began over 300 years ago. The British Crown
even passed the Molasses Act of 1733, which it imposed in all
its possessions in the New World, in an attempt to exclude
competition from other Caribbean regions.
In the process of sugar production, molasses consists of
inorganic and organic by-products, left when most of the
water (in several stages) and finally the sucrose has been
extracted from the juice (guarapo in Cuba). Molasses is a
high-density, viscose liquid, characterized by its sugars, total
solids, and ash contents. The physical, chemical, and physico-
chemical characteristics of sugarcane molasses have an impor-
tant effect on the resulting rum.
618 Encyclopedia of Food and Health
Generally speaking, sugarcane syrup mainly consists of
water and sugars, such as sucrose and glucose, with smaller
amounts of fructose. In an alkaline medium, fructose can
produce furfural and hydroxymethylfurfural, which disrupts
fermentation, and are therefore undesirable.
In addition to sugars, other elements and compounds are also
present, such as metallic cations (potassium, calcium, sodium,
magnesium, iron, zinc, and manganese as macrominerals and
copper, iodine, cadmium, chrome, molybdenum, nickel, and
vanadium as microminerals), anions (chloride, sulfate, nitrate,
nitrite, and phosphate), nitrogen-containing organic compounds
(glutamic acid, aspartic acid, valine, arginine, leucine, peptides,
colorants, pyrazines, and pyrroles), organic acids (citric acid,
malic acid, lactic acid, aconitic acid, propionic acid, and butyric
acid), phenolic compounds (such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic
acid, and syringic acid), fatty acids, and vitamins (biotin, pan-
tothenic acid, inositol, thiamine, nicotinic acid, and pyridoxine).
It should be pointed out that organic nitrogen is responsible for
the formation of higher alcohols (such as isoamyl and isobutyl)
during fermentation, which is not entirely desirable.
Many of the foregoing compounds, such as vitamins and
minerals, are required for the metabolism of sugars during
alcoholic fermentation. Although these nutrients are found
both qualitatively and quantitatively in the molasses, other
nutrients not found in molasses must be added. This is the
case for inorganic nitrogen, which is rapidly assimilated and
must be supplied to complete fermentation. Likewise, the
addition of sulfur as a sulfate is recommended for the synthesis
of the amino acids required by the yeasts, as well as phosphate.
Water and microorganisms, such as yeast and bacteria, are
also essential for fermentation, but are present in molasses.
Water is the medium in which other components are dissolved
and it is indispensable for fermentative reactions. Yeast and
bacteria are naturally present in molasses and play a funda-
mental role, inducing fermentation, and thereby a factor in the
production of light or heavy rum, depending on the type and
species of microorganism involved. The yeasts responsible for
the fermentation of rum molasses must be able to generate a
high degree of ethanol and the desired, balanced content of
aromatic compounds. Table 1 summarizes some of the most
common genera and species of yeast and bacteria found in
molasses.
Apart from the bacteria naturally present in molasses,
selected cultures of other bacteria may be added at the start of
fermentation, mainly types of Clostridium, which can improve
the development of alcoholic fermentation by acting in synergy
with the yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), as well as producing
volatile acids (e.g., butyric acid) characteristic of heavy rums.
Alcoholic Fermentation in Rum Production
Fermentation is a metabolic process in which chemical
changes take place in an organic substrate under the action of
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00598-5
 Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition 619

cellular enzymes, typically in the absence of oxygen. It is char- conditions under which fermentation is to take place. One of
acterized by being highly exothermic and the incomplete oxi- these factors is the sugar content and both intrinsic and extrin-
dation of large quantities of the original substrate. sic nutrients found in the molasses. Other factors within the
In the case of alcoholic fermentation, the initial substrates control of the rum producer are temperature, fermentation
are fermentable sugars such as glucose and fructose, and the duration, the pH, the predominant type of yeast during fer-
end products consist mainly of ethyl alcohol, smaller amounts mentation, and the density of the medium (Table 2).
of other congeneric products, and the large-scale release of CO2 With the exceptions of temperature and fermentation dura-
(Figure 1). tion, all these factors must be adjusted in the molasses prior to
In order for alcoholic fermentation to commence, a num- fermentation. Correspondingly, the molasses is diluted to the
ber of requisites must be met for both the raw materials and the appropriate density to avoid malfunction of the fermentation
apparatus. Particles in suspension are precipitated with alumi-
num sulfate; nutrients added, such as nitrogen (urea or ammo-
Table 1 Most frequently bacteria and yeasts in molasses nium salts) and phosphorus; and the pH adjusted with
phosphoric and/or sulfuric acid. If selected yeasts or bacteria are
Bacteria Yeasts to be added, pasteurization may be used to ensure the elimination
of autochthonous microbial flora that might compete with the
Bacillus subtilis Schizosaccharomyces pombe (heavy rums)
Bacillus licheniformis Schizosaccharomyces octosporus (heavy added flora and reduce their output. The characteristics of com-
rums) mercial yeast strains should promote the appropriate develop-
Bacillus brevis Saccharomyces cerevisiae ment of fermentation, such as high fermentation velocity, ethanol
Bacillus cereus Saccharomyces rouxii (light rums) tolerance, high-temperature acidity, and osmotic pressure, as well
Bacillus megaterium Saccharomyces mellis (light rums) as alcoholic output and the production of appropriate aromatic
Bacillus pumilus Rhodotorula mucilaginosa compounds. It is now also thought very desirable for these yeasts
Brevibacterium imperiale Kluyveromyces fragilis to have a ‘killer’ capacity, by controlling the development of other
Candida undesirable yeasts during fermentation.
Kloeckera
In order to accelerate the start of fermentation, a mixture
Pichia (Hansenula)
known as ‘bottom of the vat’ may be prepared at 4–10%V V
1
Saccharomycodes
Torulopsis with yeasts selected from the molasses. This preferment is
added to the vat and, when fermentation begins, diluted

2 ADP + 2Pi 2 ATP

CH2OH O
O
2
OH OH
H3C
OH OH Pyruvic ac.
O
Glucose OH

2 NAD 2 NADH2
H
H CO2
2 H O
O
C 2
C
H H
H CH3 C H

Ethanol Acetaldehyde

Figure 1 Alcoholic fermentation in rum molasses.

620 Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition

Table 2 Composition and factors molasses should gather for the start and good development of alcoholic fermentation

Nutrients

Contributing factors

Sugars Intrinsic Extrinsic Conditions molasses

Sucrose Water Inorganic nitrogen Ideal fermentation temperature:

(ammonium salts in g 100 ml
1): 2.0–2.5 21  C (33–42  C max, for yeast)
Glucose Vitamins Sulfur (sulfate) Fermentation time:
Light rum 1.5–2 days
Heavy rum: up to 12 days
Fructose Minerals: Phosphorus Density ( Brix): 16–20
Macros: 0.1–1 mM (phosphoric acid in mg 100 ml
1): 600–750
Micros: 0.1–100 mM
Yeasts Selected yeasts pH: 2.5–5.5 (generally pH ¼ 4)
Nonfermentable sugars Bacteria Selected bacteria (e.g., Clostridium)
Total sugars (g 100 ml
1): 10–12

Table 3 Congener production under different yeast strains

Acetaldehyde Ethyl acetate Propyl alcohol Isoamyl alcohol Isobutyl alcohol Total acids
Strain (g 100 l
1a.a) (g 100 l
1a.a) (g 100 l
1a.a) (g 100 l
1a.a) (g 100 l
1a.a) (g 100 l
1a.a)

S. pombe L/28-4-1 4.01 3.07 3.33 ND 2.31 577

K. fragilis KR 16 2.84 2.41 3.75 10.00 3.26 475
K. fragilis KR 1 1.20 2.11 2.01 5.36 2.79 517
S. cerevisiae 373 1.85 2.22 2.73 7.08 3.12 440

a.a, absolute alcohol.

molasses is gradually added to avoid excessive temperature Table 4 Influence of pH on alcoholic fermentation
buildup. Although the preferred temperature for fermentation
is 21  C (Table 2), the temperature range is quite wide, Product (g 100 l
1a.a) pH 3 pH 4 pH 5 pH 6 pH 7
depending on the type of rum produced. For example, for Ethanol 171.0 177.0 173.0 161.0 150.0
light rums, temperature can vary from 28 to 33  C, while for CO2 181.0 190.0 188.0 177.0 161.0
heavy, Jamaican-type rums, the range is from 30 to 33  C, and Glycerol 6.2 6.6 7.7 16.2 22.2
cases have been recorded of fermentation at 37  C. The pro- Acetic acid 0.5 0.7 0.8 4.0 8.7
duction of dark or heavy rums always involves the use of Lactic acid 0.8 0.4 0.5 1.6 1.9
higher temperatures and fermentation durations (Table 2),
a.a, absolute alcohol.
with even the possible addition of the ‘dunders,’ which are
the nitrogen-rich residues or lees from previous distillations.
Just as there are nutrients in molasses that encourage alco-
holic fermentation, other constituents may have the opposite below 30  C, the Clostridium culture is added. The most effi-
effect. Compounds, such as hydroxymethylfurfural ( 0.05% cient culture has a bacterial (C. saccharobutyricum) to yeast ratio
V V
1), butyric acid ( 0.1%V V
1), valeric acid ( 0.1% of 1:5. The bacteria accelerate the formation of alcohol during
V V
1), and minerals, such as silver, arsenic, barium, mercury, fermentation and encourage the formation of a balanced aro-
lithium, nickel, osmium, lead, selenium, and tellurium matic profile. The function of other bacteria is not clear.
(100 mM), can delay or even inhibit alcoholic fermentation. The major end products of alcoholic fermentation are ethyl
Acetic acid can affect yeast activity, modifying their tolerance to alcohol and CO2. A number of other compounds, known as
both alcohol and temperature. The higher the concentration of congeneric compounds, are also formed. These have an impor-
this compound, the lower the alcohol tolerance of the yeast, up tant effect on the bouquet of the rum, although others are
to a maximum of 1%V V
1, where tolerance is zero. Similarly, at present in the raw material. The congeneric compounds are
a concentration of 1%V V
1, the critical temperature of yeast mainly glycerol, n-propyl alcohol, organic acids (acetic and
falls to 26  C, in comparison to a 42  C maximum for some lactic), higher alcohols (isoamyl and isobutyl), aldehydes
yeast in the absence of acetic acid. (acetaldehyde), esters (ethyl acetate), and fatty acids. The pro-
Once alcoholic fermentation has begun, and the alcohol duction of congeners is closely related to the type of yeast and
concentration has reached 3.5–4.5%V V
1, the sugar has fallen the predominant pH during alcoholic fermentation. Tables 3
below 6 g 100 ml
1, and the fermentation temperature is and 4 provide some examples of the foregoing.
 Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition 621

A rest period of 24–40 h after the conclusion of fermenta-
tion is recommended to increase development of the rum’s
bouquet. Low fermentation temperatures and low pH values
toward the end of the process likewise encourage the concen-
tration of esters. It is also thought that significant concentra-
tions of a higher alcohol, such as n-propanol, are the result of
high concentrations of glutamic acid in the molasses.
Different fermenting systems are used in the production of
rum. Discontinuous systems are commonly used in the closed
batch and Melle–Boinot variants (Figure 2). These are closed
processes in which the preferment and nutrients are added at the
start of fermentation, allowing incubation to take place under
optimal conditions. When the desired state has been reached,
the fermentation vessel is emptied and cleaned and the process
repeated. Multiple-stage continuous fermentation systems are
also used, where the nutrients and preferments are continuously
added and ferment is withdrawn from the vat or bioreactor.
Conditions are thus kept uniform throughout the fermentation
vessel, with a balance between nutrients, microorganisms, and
desired end products obtained (Figure 3).
After the completion of fermentation, and before distilla-
tion commences, the fermented mass or wash (batición in
Cuba) is left to stand in order for the yeast to settle at the
bottom. Suspended insoluble matter is separated by centrifuge.
Distillation in Rum Production
After fermentation, the next stage is distillation. Its modern
expression evolved variously in different geographic production
areas. However, the industrial revolution brought about the most
important change in distilling, allowing highly homogeneous
beverages to be produced regardless of year, raw material, etc. A
better understanding of chemistry, and especially the principles

Closed batch fermentation

Substrate
Urea
CO2
Phosphate
Sulfate
Sulfuric acid
Defoaming
Warm
water
Inoculum
Main
Propagation fermenter
Propagation fermenter 2
fermenter 1
Cold
water

Air

Distillation

Melle-Boinot fermentation

Substrate
Urea CO2
Phosphate
Sulfate
Sulfuric acid Yeast inoculum
Defoaming Warm
Water water

Main
fermenter
Cold
Air water

Distillation

Figure 2 Discontinuous fermentation systems in rum.

622 Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition

Substrate Multistage continuous fermentation

Urea

Phosphate
Sulfate
Sulfuric acid
Defoaming
Water

Inoculum

Main Main Main

Fermenter Fermenter Fermenter
1 2 3

Distillation
Figure 3 Multiple-stage continuous fermentation system in rum.

Cold water Warm water Cold water Warm water Cold water Warm water

Condenser Condenser Condenser

Distillate

Distillate

Distillate
receiver

receiver

Fermented

receiver
Raw

“Low wine” “High wine”

Distilling Distilling Distilling Rhum
column 1 column 2 column 3

Oak Barrel

Steam Steam Steam

Bagasse 1 Bagasse 2 Bagasse 3

Figure 4 Batch distillation system in rum.

of evaporation and condensation, altered rum production
forever.
Generally speaking, the term ‘distillation’ is applied to pro-
cesses of vaporization, by which compounds removed with
steam are recovered during condensation. More specifically,
the constituents of a liquid mixture are separated by partial
vaporization, and there is separate recovery of the steam and
waste. Most of the volatile components of the initial mixture
pass into the steam, while the less volatile constituents
concentrate in the remaining liquid. In this way, the alcoholic
and aromatic products of yeast fermentation (secondary
aroma), as well as those from molasses (primary aroma), are
separated, selected, and concentrated. Rum is made using
either simple, discontinuous, batch distillation or continuous
distillation in a single or multiple (3–5) column system.
Simple, discontinuous, or batch distillation (Figure 4) is
used in French and English areas of the West Indies and
in Brazil for heavy rums. It is typically a relatively simple,

low-cost, flexible system, producing high-quality rum,
although production costs are high. A typical installation is
similar to a simple pot still with three stages. The mixture to be
distilled is pumped into a copper distillation vessel, from
which the distillate obtained, known as ‘low wine,’ is collected
in a second vessel where another distillation takes place, pro-
ducing ‘high wine.’ The heads and tails of the second distilla-
tion are discarded and only the heart (middle cut) of the high
wine is distilled to produce rum. The head fraction of the high
wine is obtained at temperatures below 78  C and is rich in
very volatile substances such a methanol, acetone,
acetaldehyde, and ethyl acetate. The tail fraction is the last to
be obtained, at temperatures above 82  C. It consists of the
components with the highest boiling point: higher alcohols,
furfurals, and aromatic compounds. These could impair the
aromatic characteristics of the distillate if their recovery is
prolonged, leading to high contents in the final product. The
central fraction is collected between 78 and 82  C and consists
mainly of ethyl alcohol and desirable congeneric compounds,
reaching an alcohol content of 90–95%V V
1. The master dis-
tiller’s skill consists in knowing how to collect only the central
of the three fractions, determining when they begin and end.
This ensures the absence of undesirable alcohols and the pres-
ence of a high percentage of aromatics, although correction can
be carried out to obtain pure ethanol. Correction processes
enrich alcoholic vapors by passing them countercurrent
through liquids descending from the upper parts of a column.
Inside the column, the vapors exchange heat and mass with the
liquid and eventually condense upon leaving the column with
partial reflux. This ‘washes’ components with highest boiling
point out of the rising vapor flow. At the same time, some the
compounds with low boiling point are lost.
Fermented raw
condensers
condensers
Reflux
Bagasse Steam
Distilling
column
Figure 5 Continuous distillation system in rum. Alc.A-Rhum: The finest alcohol and used for rhum elaboration; Alc.B: Fine alcohol but not used for
rhum elaboration; Alc.C: Fusel alcohol rich in superior alcohols and not used for rhum elaboration; Alc.D: The worst alcohol in distillation and
not used for rhum elaboration.
Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition 623
Variations in continuous distillation are suitable for large-
scale production ( 10 000 l in 24 h), with consequent savings
in fuel and time. However, a significant disadvantage is the
inability to obtain a suitable degree of splitting. An installation
of this type, which avoids the disadvantage, consists of a dis-
tilling column, a rectifying column, one or more purifying
columns, and three or more condensers (Figure 5). The end
product is complex, with alcoholic strength of 40–70%V V
1
and important amounts of aldehydes, acids, esters, higher
alcohols, etc., and is known as liquor.
Distillation contributes decisively to the volatile composi-
tion of the rum distillate. For example, heating promotes oxi-
dation, esterification, and partial dehydration, giving rise to
new compounds, with an increase in the concentration of
aldehydes, ethyl acetate, and other esters, as well as furfural.
Sugarcane ferments (worts) contain very little furfural, but it
can appear due to the dehydration of pentoses and pentosans
during distillation. A wort with higher sugar contents and more
acid gives rise to a higher furfural content in the distillate.
Similarly, an increase in acetaldehyde content is due to the
incomplete oxidation of ethyl alcohol. Acetaldehyde can also
react with ethanol to produce acetal.
Another important consideration in the production of rum,
and of any distilled beverage, is the presence of methanol.
Because of its nerve toxicity, distillation is adjusted to keep its
concentration very low in the final distillate. Methanol is
metabolized by the liver to formaldehyde and subsequently
to formic acid. The latter can be excreted (via urine) or oxidized
to CO2. Approximately 3–5% is eliminated in unmetabolized
form via the kidneys and lungs. The minimum lethal dosage is
100 mg Kg
1 body weight (ranges from 20 to 100 ml
methanol).
condensers
condensers
condensers
condensers
condensers
condensers
condensers
Alc.A-Rhum
Alc.D Alc.D
Alc.B
Steam Oak Barrel
Rectifying Purifying
column Steam column Alc.C-Fusel
624 Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition
In order to ensure the minimal concentration of methanol in
the distillate, systems can be used consisting of columns that
leach methanol by trichloroethylene in the liquid–vapor phase.
Different regulations in rum-producing countries set maximum
limits for the presence of methanol. In Cuba, for example, the
maximum is set at 10 mg 100 ml
1, and in the European Union
and other Caribbean nations, it is 30 mg 100 ml
1.
Another manner of purifying rum is by using activated
carbon. This is a porous adsorbent, consisting mainly of car-
bon, with a high adsorption capacity for gaseous substances as
vapor or in solution. This is the result of a particular thermal
treatment known as activation, which increases the specific
surface of the carbon and donates high porosity. The use of
this product with rum decreases its acidity, as well as its phe-
nol, ester, and fatty acid contents. It also creates a slight
decrease in higher alcohol contents and eliminates lactones.
If necessary, it can also have a bleaching effect.
Aging of Rum
Aging of rum involves storage in white oak barrels (cherry being
used in some regions), the duration depending on the quality
and type of product desired, with the aim of improving its
sensory attributes. This improvement is the result of a number
of transformations that take place between components of the
distillate and those of the wood. These involve reactions between
different compounds of the distillate, reactions between sub-
stances extracted from the wood and their oxidation, and
reactions between the original compounds, extracted com-
pounds, and those formed previously. The most influential reac-
tions during aging are those of esterification, oxidation, and the
decomposition of lignin.
Esterification depends on alcoholic strength, acid content,
temperature, and duration, while oxidation is more intense at
the start of the aging process. This results because of the large
Standard temperature
Lignin
Acidic Alcoholysis
Sinapic alcohol
Sinapaldehyde
O2
Syringaldehyde
O2
Syringic acid Sinapic acid
Figure 6 Decomposition of lignin.
amount of oxygen dissolved during preceding stages. Oxida-
tion begins by affecting the components of rum, with an
increase in aldehydes and acetic acid, and over time, it also
affects wood components.
The most common wood used for aging rum is oak (Quer-
cus). The most widely used species are white oaks (Q. alba, Q.
minor, Q. platanoides, Q. iberica, Q. longipes, Q. robur, and Q.
canariensis) because of their excellent porosity and the contribu-
tion they make to the aromatic composition of rum, providing
both volatile and nonvolatile compounds. The main role of
most of the nonvolatile compounds is to act as precursors in
the formation of flavorants during contact of the oak with the
alcoholic beverage, whereas the volatile compounds can make
direct contributions to the taste and bouquet of the rum.
Oak wood contains cellulose (40–45%), hemicellulose
(20–25%), lignin (20–33%), and a heterogeneous group of
soluble compounds (2–10%). The latter are important, as they
can donate the characteristic color and smell of wood. This large
group includes resins, volatile oils, terpenes, fatty acids, carbo-
hydrates, polyhydric alcohols, nitrogenous compounds (pro-
teins and alkaloids), phenolics, and inorganic components.
The decomposition of lignin (Figure 6) causes the appear-
ance in the distillate of compounds such as coniferaldehyde
and sinapaldehyde and their derived acids and aldehydes.
These have an important role on the organoleptic characteris-
tics of the rum. The longer the aging, the higher the presence of
these compounds in the distillate, although extraction also
depends to a large extent on the age and usage of the barrel.
The same is true of other wood extractives, such as tannins and
oak lactones. Similarly, the intensity of the scorching of the
barrel’s inner surfaces, part of its construction, also has an
effect on the compounds that originate from the wood.
Although compounds that originate during aging have some
active participation in its sensorial characteristics, oak lactones
are possibly the most important. The two oak lactones recog-
nized in rum are oak trans-lactone and oak cis-lactone. The
Lignin-complex
Coniferyl alcohol
Coniferaldehyde
O2
Vanillin
O2
Ferulic acid Vanillic acid

former gives off aromatic notes of grass, straw, spices, a slight
smell of firewood, and a moderate smell of coconut, while the
second smells of cinnamon and strongly of coconut. The lactone
contents of rum depend on the species of oak and the intensity
of charring during construction. The species with highest lactone
contents are Romanian and French oaks, while American oaks,
which are the species used primarily for rum aging, have
medium contents. The lowest concentration of lactones is
found in Japanese oak, which is hardly ever used. The heavier
the barrel charring, the higher the oak lactone contents. The
maximum charring duration is 15 min (heavy charring). For
light rums, barrels may be only lightly toasted, or not at all.
Charring has several effects on wood composition: thermal
decomposition of polyoxides, creating furanic aldehydes; ther-
mal decomposition of lignin, creating volatile phenols,
aldehydes, and phenolic acids; thermal decomposition of tan-
nins, creating gallic and ellagic acids; and thermal decomposi-
tion of lipid components, creating lactones.
An important question regarding rum aging is evaporative
loss. This depends on several factors, such as the density of the
barrel wood, the evaporation area per unit volume, the humid-
ity of the air in the storage area (70% is considered optimum
for balance), ambient temperature, airtightness of the barrels,
and the intensity of inner surface charring. Loss can be up to
12% per year, with a decrease in compounds such as ethanol,
acetaldehyde, n-propanol, ethyl acetate, isobutanol, isoamyl
acetate, isoamyl acid, ethyl caproate, and acetic acid.
The oak wood used in aging can have different morpholog-
ical characteristics that can have an effect on the end product.
The capacity of the barrels is usually 200 l or 450 l, which
determines the contact surface of the distillate with the wood.
In a 200 l barrel, the area of wood per liter of distillate is 90 cm2,
while for a 450 l barrel, the area is only 60 cm2. This means that
one or other type of barrel will be chosen, depending on the
Rhum Rhum Rhum
Rhum Rhum Rhum Rhum
Rhum Rhum Rhum Rhum
Rhum Rhum Rhum Rhum
Rhum Rhum Rhum Rhum
Rhum Rhum Rhum Rhum
Figure 7 Most usual arrangements for aging of rum.
Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition 625
desired type of rum and aging period. The higher the contact
surface, the more intense the organoleptic characteristics of the
rum, and therefore, aging time in the barrel will tend toward the
legal minima, whereas in a barrel with lower contact surface,
aging times will increase for similar organoleptic results.
The barrels are stacked in different ways depending on the
characteristics of the storage area. The most usual arrangements
are known as solera and racks (Figure 7), each of which has its
advantages and disadvantages. For example, the solera arrange-
ment, also known as solera gallega in Cuba, has the advantage
of economy of setup but is more awkward to work with. The
rack arrangement has the advantage of improved barrel sup-
port, but it is expensive and complex to set up, sometimes
requiring the use of forklift trucks to move the barrels.
The traditional arrangements for barrel storage (solera and
racks) are the most common, but they have their disadvantages:
large warehouses required to keep the barrels, the limited avail-
ability and cost of barrels, evaporative loss during aging, deteri-
oration of warehouses and barrels, periodic reactivation of the
barrels, and treatment of new barrels before use for aging.
In an attempt to reduce the effects of the foregoing, non-
traditional aging systems have come into being. These aim to
reduce evaporative loss and accelerate the aging process. To
this end, these new aging techniques must achieve rapid extrac-
tion of oak compounds by the hydroalcoholic mixture,
improve the conservation and increase the original volatile
substances, and provide adequate oxidation of the compo-
nents extracted from the wood and those present in the rum.
Some of these nontraditional techniques include the use of oak
extracts, oak wood chips, treatment with oxygen or ozone, the
application of electrical currents to the distillate, and the appli-
cation of nonionizing radiation. The most effective of these
techniques are those using extracts and chips of oak wood. The
others are of dubious utility.
Rhum
Rhum “Solera”
“Solera Gallega”
Rhum Rhum
Rhum Rhum
Rhum Rhum
Racks
Rhum Rhum
626 Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition

Final Treatments of Rum Light or Smooth Rum

Maturation: oak or cherry, even uncharred. Aging time: short
At the conclusion of the desired aging process, and taking into
periods. Final alcoholic strength: 40–60%V V
1. Color: vari-
account the change in alcoholic strength that may have
able (colorless/amber/mahogany color). Additional coloring:
occurred, the rum has to be diluted to the final strength per-
caramel. Bleaching where necessary: active carbon.
mitted by the regional legislation. Adjustment of the alcoholic
strength must be carried out with suitable water that does not
contaminate the taste or smell of the rum. The same goal can
Commercial Types of Rum
also be achieved using rums of different alcoholic strengths to
make a blend of the desired strength. White
Other factors, such as the variation in the raw material,
These are clear, dry, light rums, although their alcoholic content
growth conditions of the sugarcane, the strain of yeast, and
is the same as in others. The liquor produced by the distilleries is
the techniques of distillation and aging, can lead to the same
colorless, so it could be said that white rums are the basis of the
rum not always presenting homogenous characteristics. Stan-
industry. Contact with the oak wood during aging gives the rum
dardizing the final rum is an important part of the producer’s
a slight amber color, which is eliminated by active carbon
job. It can be achieved by blending different distillates with
filtering before marketing, although some producers bottle
different characteristics from different barrels, ages, amounts
without filtering, retaining the name of white rum. Due to its
of distillate, and aging processes or by using small amounts of
short aging (sometimes only 1 year), this is the cheapest rum
additives that do not interfere with the product’s character but
with most neutral flavor and is therefore preferred for mixing
provide it with an easily identifiable personality. The use of
and cocktails.
coloring syrup and caramel (E-150) is very common to stan-
dardize rum color, which can range naturally depending on
aging from amber to mahogany color. The use of polysaccha- Dorado, Gold, or Ambré
rides as coloring is not without risk, considering that if they
It is similar to white rum, but with a more or less intense amber
have an unsuitable isoelectric point or they are not alcohol-
color. Because of its longer aging than white rum and lack of
resistant, they may precipitate. This can be avoided by the
filtering, it has a more intense flavor due to the higher conge-
addition of alcohol prior to use, in order to ensure their
neric contents. Caramel is sometimes added to accentuate the
suitability and stability. White or almost colorless rums can
color.
be made by decoloration with activated carbon.
The use of solera aging methods, similar to those used in the
production of Sherry wines or Sherry brandy, can also help to Black or Dark
standardize rum. This is the method used for rum made in
Motril (Spain). They are heavy rums with strong body. Most are produced in
Having adjusted the alcoholic strength and blending, a pot stills and therefore retain a strong taste of molasses. The
number of operations are necessary before bottling to assure dark, almost black color is obtained by the addition of coloring
that the rum remains a clear, bright liquid, attractive to the to intensify the amber color acquired in the barrel. The main
end consumer. One of these operations is to allow it to rest for producing countries are Jamaica and Barbados. The Demerara
a variable period (from 48 h to 15 days), in order for sedi- variety is a dark rum produced in the Demerara River basin in
mentation to eliminate components adversely affected by a Guyana.
change in solubility, the formation and sedimentation of
some less soluble compounds, and the homogenization and Spiced or Flavored
balance of its blended aromatic components. Cold or coagu-
lating agents are commonly used at this stage to achieve faster In this category, the rum is blended with various extracts to give
sedimentation. extra flavor. Both fruit flavors (orange, lemon, banana, pine-
Finally, the beverage is clarified using a filter system using apple, coconut, etc.) and spices (vanilla, nutmeg, cinnamon,
diatomaceous earth or cellulose plates. etc.) are used. White rum is normally used for the fruit flavors,
At present, the bottling process is no different to any other while gold or aged rums are used for spiced flavors.
beverage. Modern machines fill and close the glass bottles,
some of which can inject an inert gas (nitrogen) into the Overproof
neck of the bottle to improve conservation of the beverage.
These are generally white rums bottled at an extremely high
alcoholic strength (100 or more degrees British proof). There are
no differences between British and Canadian overproof rums.
General Types of Rum
Heavy or Strong Rum Premium
Maturation: charred oak or cherry. Aging time: 10 or 12 years Premium rums are those in which aging and blending have
up to 15 years. Final alcoholic strength: 40–60%V V
1. Color: been taken to the maximum degree of quality without eco-
variable (colorless/amber/mahogany color). Additional color- nomic loss. The term ‘premium’ is frequently used only for
ing: caramel. Bleaching where necessary: active carbon. publicity purposes. Rums produced in small quantities for one
 Rhum–Ron–Rum: Technology and Tradition 627

Table 5 Rum-producing countries Spain. Table 5 summarizes the different areas and countries
where rum is produced.
Country Rum kinds Commercial brands

Brazil Sugarcane rum Cachaça

Colombia Old rum (light) Caldas, Antioquı́a
See also: Alcohol: Metabolism and Health Effects; Alcohol: Properties
Cuba Carte blanche (light) Arecha, Bucanero, and Determination; Antioxidants: Characterization and Analysis;
Golden carte (light, Caribbean, Havana Club, Antioxidants: Role on Health and Prevention; Beverage: Health Effects;
colored) Isla del Tesoro Beverage: Patterns of Consumption; Brandy and Cognac:
Dominican Light rum Barceló, Brugal, Siglo Consumption, Sensory and Health Effects; Brandy and Cognac:
Republic Manufacture and Chemical Composition; Caramel: Methods of
Guatemala Light rum Zacapa Manufacture; Caramel: Properties and Analysis; Cellulose; Fermented
Guyana Demerara El Dorado, Dos Maderas, Foods: Origins and Applications; Fermented Foods: Use of Starter
Courante XM, Wood’s, Lam’s Cultures; Flavor Enhancers: Characteristics and Uses; Food Additives:
Haiti Simple distillation rum Clairin, Barbancourt
Classification, Uses and Regulation; Food Fraud; Fructose and High-
Double distillation rum
Jamaica Light rum Appleton, Capitán Morgan,
Fructose Corn Syrup; Fructose: Sources, Metabolism, and Health; Gin;
Blended rum Myer’s, Lemon Hart Glucose: Properties and Analysis; Liqueurs: Cream Liqueurs; pH:
Heavy rum (wedderburn, Principles and Measurement; Phenolic Compounds: Occurrence,
plummer) Classes, and Analysis; Sucrose: Dietary Importance; Sucrose:
La Martinica Heavy rums Bardinet, Grappe Blanche, Properties and Determination; Sugar Alcohols; Vodka; Whisky,
Clement, Gran Arome, Whiskey and Bourbon: Composition and Analysis of Whisky; Whisky,
Saint James, Negrita, Whiskey, and Bourbon: Products and Manufacture; Yeasts.
Bacardı́, Bailly,
Duquesne
La Barbada Light rum Mount Gay, West Indian
Rum, Barbados Dt.
The Light rum Pandy, Tanduay Further Reading
Philippines
Puerto Rico White label Bacardı́, Boca Broom D (2005) Ron. Barcelona: Blume.
Golden label chicacarioca, Don Q, Buglass AJ (ed.) (2011) Handbook of alcoholic beverages: technical, analytical and
nutritional aspects, 1st ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Mérito, Ronrico,
Coulombe C (2005) Rum: the epic story of the drink that conquered the world.
Matusalem, Bellows
New York: Kensington Publishing Corporation.
Spain Pale rum (light) Montero, Bacardı́, De Souza MDCA, Vasquez P, Del Mastro NL, et al. (2006) Characterization of cachaça
Honey rum (sweet) Bermúdez, Larios, and rum aroma. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54: 485–488.
Guanche, Aldea, Delgado C (2007) El libro de los aguardientes y licores. Madrid: Alianza.
Tropicana, Negus, Erik L, Tolleb S, Pino JA, et al. (2011) Isolation and identification of phenolic
Negrita, Bunti, Pujol compounds from rum aged in oak barrels by high-speed counter current
Trinidad Light rum Bacardı́ chromatography/high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-
Venezuela Light rum Aniversario, Cacique, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and screening for antioxidant activity.
Journal of Chromatography A 1218: 7358–7364.
Pampero, Santa Teresa,
Fahrsmane L (2005) De la caña al ron. Zaragoza, Spain: Acribia.
Estelar, Real Caruano
Foss R (2012) Rum: a global history. London: Reaktion Books.
Hamilton E (1995) Rums of the Eastern Caribbean. Culebra, Puerto Rico: Tafia
Distribution Limited Edition, Open Library.
Hamilton E (1997) The complete guide to rum: a guide to rums of the world. Chicago:
reason or another are special cases and may be meant for
Triumph Books.
private consumption or special occasions. Montero Ron (ed.) (2013) El genuino ron español. 50 años de pureza y tradición.
Granada, Spain: Ron Montero.
NPCS Board of Consultants & Engineers (2008) The complete technology book on
Production Areas alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages (fruit juices, whisky, beer, rum and wine).
Delhi: Asia Pacific Business Press Inc.
Owens B, Dikty A, and Maytag F (2009) The art of distilling whiskey and other spirits: an
Rum-producing areas coincide with the regions where sugar- enthusiast’s guide to the artisan distilling of potent potables. Minneapolis: Quarry
cane is grown. This mainly includes practically all of America, Books.
where Christopher Columbus introduced sugarcane from Piggott J (2011) Alcoholic beverages: sensory evaluation and consumer research.
Tonbridge, UK: Woodhead.
Andalusia. Apart from America, sugarcane is still grown in
Quesada-Granados JJ, Merelo-Guervós JJ, Oliveras MJ, et al. (2002) Application of
some parts of Europe, specifically southern Spain and the artificial aging techniques to samples of rum and comparison with traditionally aged
Canary Islands. There is also a small production of rum in rums by analysis with artificial neural nets. Journal of Agricultural and Food
the Philippines, doubtless the result of its colonization by Chemistry 50: 1470–1477.