Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Document- is any material which contains marks, symbols or signs, either visible, partially
visible, or invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.
Legal Definitions
Kinds of Documents
Note: A private document may become a public or official document when it partakes the nature of
a public or official record. If a private document is intended to become a part of the public record
and falsified prior thereto, the crime committed is falsification of a public document.
Questioned Document
One in which the facts appearing therein are not true, and are contested either in whole or in
part with respect to its authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will, election
ballots, marriage contract, checks, visas, application form, certificates, etc.
Disputed Document
Disputed Document is a term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the
document.
When a questioned document examination is ordered, the first goal is to determine whether or
not the document is genuine. Once the veracity of the document can be proved or disproved, the
questioned document examination focuses on identifying or eliminating potential authors of the
document. The examiner will then produce a complete report, discussing the findings and their
ramifications, and he or she may be asked to testify in court about the document.
EXPERT WITNESS
A legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special training or experience is
permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, which is
involved in a court action.
Who are DOCUMENT EXAMINERS?
One who studies scientifically details and elements of documents in order to identify their source or
to discover other facts concerning them
Standard Document:
Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimen which is adequate and proper, should
contain a true correction of the material form a known source. They are used by the Document
Examiner as the basis for his identification or non-identification of the questioned document as, for
example, for the known handwriting which serves to establish who wrote the disputed letter.
Standard in questioned documents investigation, means those things whose origins are known
and can be proven and which can be legally used as examples to compare with other matters
in question.
Note: Exemplar is a term used by some document. Exemplars are also called known handwriting
samples. Standard is the older term.
HANDWRITING
Handwriting is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being used as whole, combination of
certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued painstaking
effort. Also knows as “visible speech.”
Kinds of Writings
a. Cursive- connected writing in which one letter is joined the next.
b. Script- separated printed writing.
c. BLOCK- ALL CAPITAL LETTERS.
Alphabet
The first form of written communication which started as far as 20, 000 years ago was graphically represented by
arranged and drawings on the walls of the caves and big stones – ICONOGRAPHS (3500 BC) ------ represent things
and sounds of those things
PICTOGRAPHIC – the picture of sun stood for the word sun
IDEOGRAPHIC SYSTEM
Combining pictures to represent the words of ideas
China- SUN and TREE to represent the word for EAST
Until this symbols and forms which later developed into a system by the Egyptian tribes – SUMMERIANS which
produced a CUNIEFORM SYSTEM when the conquered MESOPOTAMIA in 3200 B.C.
CUNIEFORM SYSTEM
Means wedge- shaped
Metal/wood – thick at the end; thin on the other
Egyptian writing developed 3 different styles of symbol system – Babylonians, Assyrians, and
Hittites
HIEROGLYPHICS
Characters in any system of writing in which symbols represents objects and ideas
Greek term “Sacred Carving” – on Egyptian movement. Ex.: tomb of Queen Amonherkhepsef
HIERATIC
There is pen/papyrus, employed simpler form to depict draw/portray the same figure
DEMOTIC
A highly cursive form of hieratic developed about 700 B.C. – used I Egypt
PHOENICIANS
Are created with the spread of the first alphabet bet from 1, 200 to 900 BC
Adaptation of Greek Letters
Minuscules – a Greek new form of handwritten design emerged in the 7 th and 8th century AD
First latin alphabet consist of 21greek letters – ETRUSCAN
Until Y, Z are added and other latin letter, U, W, J – total of 26 letters
ROMANS developed the alphabet through centuries until the creation of small letters and the capital
everyday writing in private and business dealingsthere is Hebrew alphabet, Cyrillic alphabet, Arabic
ALPHABET – comes from the Greek letters “ALPHA” – beginning or first letter of Greek alphabet and BETA – second
alphabet of Greek alphabet .
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing- those which operate the joints
of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in
writing work together to procedure written form is known as motor coordination. MOTOR
COORDINATION is the special way in which the various muscles used in writing work together to
produced written forms.
1. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with uncertain and unsteady progress.
There is no freedom of movement along the strokes of the letter-forms.
2. Angular Line- a very common fault of coordination. Curves, large and small are not
smoothly rounded and there is no gradual change of direction. On the contrary, and angle
marks almost every change are direction in the line.
Kinds of Writing Movements:
1. Finger Movement – Is mostly employed in “vertical writing” and mainly in the formation of
printed styles of writing. Letters are formed by the actions of the thumb, index and the middle
finger. This is the movement employed by children, or generally by those with whom writing is an
unfamiliar process, it is otherwise called as the “push and Pull writing”.
Characteristics:
a. It results to an inferior or poor quality of writing with lack of rhythm and speed.
b. Spacing is cropped up and the dashes are usually absent.
c. Finishes are done in irregular and abrupt manner or are varied between letters.
d. Pen usually starts resting on the paper and ends with short and abrupt strokes due to
limited and irregular movements of the fingers.
e. Shading is pronounced.
f. Lack of clear-cut, smooth and regular lines.
2. Hand Movement – It involves the action of the hand as a whole with the fingers playing but a
minor role (mainly in the formation of small letters) and the wrist is the pivotal of the lateral
movement.
Characteristics:
a. Affords more expensive writing.
b. Narrow connections at the top and bottom of letters.
c. There is a considerable speed in movements.
d. More regularity of the lines.
3. Forearm (or Muscular) Movement – Writing is produced by the movement of the hand and
arm and also fingers in some cases. The elbow is the pivotal of the lateral movement.
Characteristics:
a. Shows the greatest freedom and speed.
b. Smooth clear cut as indicative of rhythm.
c. Slight shading is produced.
d. More even baseline.
e. Lateral movements in longer making the shifting of the writing hand fewer.
f. Uniformity in size of letters.
4. Whole Forearm Movement – It involves the action of the entire arm without rest and is
employed in very large writing. Ornamental penmanship, blackboard writing, and by a few
writers in making all the capital letters are some of the writing where this movement is
being employed.
Writing Habits:
Writing habits learned in the early years are those habits which are part of a basic system or which
are modifications of the system of writing found among so large a group of writers that they have
only slight identification value. These might include an open top ”O” and an ”A” or a looped “T”
which occur in many rapid careless handwriting.
A few of these early habits learned by the child are those slant of letters “l”, “d”, “b”, “g”, “t” with
small letters like letters “n”, “m”, “I”, “o”, “e” and also form and design of letters. These groups of
habits are also called general or class characteristics.
Another group of writing characteristics or habits is termed individuals habits. Any writing habit
or character in writing maybe modified and individualized by different writers in many different
ways in many varying degrees and the writing individuality of any particular writer is made up of
all those common and uncommon characteristics and habits. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS- the
result of the writer`s muscular control, coordination, age, health, and nervous temperament,
frequency of writing, personality and character.
13. Shoulder/Hump – outside portion of the top curve; the garland form of the letter as in small letter “m” has
three shoulders and the small letter “n” has two; the small letter “h” has one shoulder.
14. Staff or Stem – any major long downward stroke of a letter that is the long downward stroke of the letter “b”,
“g”.
15. Spur – short horizontal terminal strokes mostly found on a small letter, short initial or terminal stroke
16. Arc/garlanded – a curve formed inside the top curve or loop, as in small letters “h”, “m”, “p”
17. Beard/Embellishment - a preliminary embellish initial stroke which usually occurs in capital letters
18. Buckle/bucket knot - – a loop made as flourish which is added to the letters as in small “letters “k”, “f” or in
capital letters “A”, “K”, and “H”.
19. Terminal stroke – the last element of a letter
20. Patching/Retouching – going back over a defective portion of a writing stroke. Careful patching or retouching
is a common defect of forgeries
21. Pen lift – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.
Kinds Of Handwriting Disguises
Importance Of Rhythm- one can determine if the writer normally and spontaneously write with
hesitation as if he is attempting to for another signature.
Letter Of Connections- it determine the essential expression of the writer pattern. It is a mean
indicator of the neuromuscular function. These types of connections are:
a. Arcade- a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is slow mode of connection resulting from
controlled movements.
b. Garland- Links the downward stroke to the upstrokes with a flowing curve swinging from
left right. It is an easy, effortless mode of connection, written with speed.
c. Angular connective form- characterized by an abrupt stop and start in each turning point.
d. The threadlike connective form- the joining of upward and downward strokes is slurred
to a threadlike tracing or where rounded turns used at both top and bottom produce a
double curve-appear both in the shaping of letters within the word.
RATIO – The relation between the tall and the short letters is referred to as the ration of the writing.
*DIVIDED TWO GROUPS:
a. SHORT – letters written entirely between the lines are referred to as a, c, e, l, m, n, r, s, u, v, w, and x
b. TALL – letters with upper/lower loops or other projected portions will be classed. b, d, f, g, h, j, I, p, t,y, z
STROKE
A series of lines or curves written in a single letter; one of the lines of an alphabet or series of lines
or curves within a single letter; the path traced by the pen on the paper.
Arc/Arch – a curved formed inside the top curve of loop, as in small letters “h”, ‘m”, “n”, “p”.
Baseline – maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary alignment of writing. Is the ruled
or imaginary line upon which the writing rest.
Beaded – preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs in capital letter.
Beard – is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
Body – the main portion of the letter, minus the initial of stroke. Terminal strokes and the diacritic
of any. Example: the oval of the letter “O” is the body, minus the downward stroke and the loop.
Bowl – a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into “O”.
Buckle/Buckle Knot – a loop made as a flourished which is added to the letters, as in small letter
“k’ and “a” or in capital letters “A”, “K”, “P”. The horizontal end loop stroke that are often used to
complete a letter.
Diacritic – “t” crossing and dots of the letters “I” and “j”. The matters of the Indian script are also
known as diacritic signs. An element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a dot.
Eye/Eyelet/Eye Loop – a small loop or curved formed inside the letters. This may occur inside the
oval of the letters “a”, “d”, “o”. The small loop form by stroke that extend in divergent direction as in
small letters.
Foot – the lower parts which rest on the base line. The small letter “m” has three feet, and the small
letter “n” has two feet.
Habits – any repeated elements or details, which may serve to individualize writing.
Hesitation – the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink which is found when writing slows
down or stop while the pen take a stock of the position.
Hiatus/Pen Jump – a gap occurring between continuous strokes without lifting the pen. Such as
occurrence usually occurs due to speed.
Hook – it is a minute curve or an ankle which often occurs at the end of the terminal strokes. It is
also sometimes occur at the beginning of an initial stroke. The terminal curves of the letters “a”, “d”,
“n”, “m’, “p”, “u’, are the hook. In small letter “w” the initial curve is the hook. The minute
involuntary talon like formation found at the commencement of an initial up stroke or the end
terminal stroke.
Hump – upper portion of its letter “m”, “n”, “h”, “k”. The rounded outside of the top of the bend
stroke or curve in small letter.
Knob – the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the slow withdrawal of the
pen from the paper. (usually applicable to fountain pen)
Ligature/Connection – the strokes which connect two stroke of letter, characterized by connected
stroke between letters.
Long Letter – those letters with both upper and lower loops.
Loop – an oblong curve such as found on the small letters “f”, “go”, “l” and letters stroke “f” has two.
A loop maybe blind or open. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open space.
Movement Impulses – this refer to the continuity of stroke force writing is usually produce by
disconnected and broken movements more motion or movement impulses than genuine writing.
Oval – the portion of the letter which is oval in shape. The small letter stroke “a” , “d” , “g” , and “q”
contain oval letter “a” , “t” while coming down……….
Pen Lift – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.
Disconnection between letters and letter combination maybe due to lack of movement control.
Using a ball-point pen may cause pen lift due to the failure of the ball to rotate.
Pen Position or Pen Hold – Is the relative location of the pen in relation to the paper surface which
can be determined by the presence of the emphasis or pen shading.
Pen Scope – Represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest. It is the average scope or limits
of the pen during the process of writing with the wrist of the hand at still.
Retrace/Retracing – any part of a stroke which is super imposed upon the original stroke. Is the
stroke which goes back over other writing strokes; it is slightly to occur in others handwriting.
Example: vertical strokes of the letter “d”, “t” while coming downward from the top to bottom will
have a retracing stokes. Any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke. In natural
handwriting there may be instances in which the pen doubled back over the course.
Shoulder – outside portion of the top curve, small letter “m” has three shoulders and the small
letter “n” has two, the small letter “h” has one shoulder.
Staff – Any major long downward stroke of a letter that is the long downward stroke of the letter
“b”, “g”.
Stem or Shank – the upright long downward stroke that is the trunk or stalk, normally seen in
capital letters.
Tick/ Hitch – any short stroke, which is usually at the top of the letters.
Tremor – a writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky strokes is described as writing tremor.
1. AIRSTROKE- The movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and continues in the
same direction in the air.
2. COVERING STROKE- A stroke the unnecessarily covers another stroke in a concealing
action.
3. FINAL- The ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of the word.
4. UPSTROKE- Movement of the pen away from the writer.
5. SEQUENCE OF STROKE- The order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper is
referred to as their sequence
6. SUPPORTED STROKES- Upstrokes partially covering the previous down strokes. Originally
taught in European schools.
7. TRAIT STROKE- A school of handwriting analysis that assigns personality trait manners to
individual writing strokes.
SIGNATURE
The name of a person written by him/ her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement. Or, it is a
name or mark that a person puts at the end of a document to attest that he is its author or that he
ratifies its contests. Microsoft Encarta Reference Library has these to say about signature:
1. Signed name
2. Signing of name
3. Distinctive characteristics
Significant Terms
a. Assisted Signature. See Guided Signature.
b. Cross Mark. If properly witnessed, it can legally stand for signature. Ballot marks are also
referred to as cross marks because of the common practice of marking with an X.
c. Evidential Signature- a signature, signed at a particular time and place, under particular
conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a particular physical and mental
condition, using particular implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for
recording his name.
d. Fraudulent Signature.A forged signature; the writing of a name as a signature by someone
other than the person himself, without his permission, often with some degree of imitation.
e. Freehand Signature.A fraudulent signature that was executed purely by simulation rather
than by tracing the outline or a genuine signature.
f. Guided Signature. It is executed while the writer`s hand or arm is steadied in any way: such
a signature authenticates a legal document provided it is shown that the writer requested
the assistance; written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.
g. Imitated Signature. Synonymous with freehand forgery.
h. Model Signature – A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or traced
forgery.
Theory Of Comparison- The act of setting two or more signature in an inverted position to weigh
their identifying significance
Types Of Signatures
a. Formal (CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) – complete correct signature for an
important document such as will.
b. Informal (CURSORY) – usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
1. Careless Scribble – for the mail carrier,delivery boy or the autograph collector.
ANACHRONISM
Anachronism is refers to a something wrong in time and in place; the forger has trouble matching
the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been written
PAPER
These are sheets of interlaced fibers – usually cellulose fivers from plants, but sometimes from cloth
rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to
form a solid surface.
WATERMARKS
Is a figure or design incorporated into paper during its manufacture and appearing lighter than the
rest of the sheet when viewed in transmitted light. It is a brand put on the paper by the
manufactures.
Origin
First appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than 100 years after the art of
papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from the Middle East.
WRITING INSTRUMENT
a. REED PENS / SWAMP REED – from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt,
Armenia and along the shores of the Persian Gulf, were prepared by leaving them under
dung heaps for several months. It was the first writing tool that had the writing end slightly
frayed like a brush.
b. QUILL PEN- Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feather of any bird, those
of goose, swan, crow, and (later) turkey, were preferred. The earliest reference (6 th century
AD) to quill penswas made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, and this
tool was the principal writing implement for nearly 1300 years.
c. STEEL POINT PENS (BRAZEN PENS)- The 16th century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE
YCIAR mentions brass pens for very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of
metal pens did not become widespread until the early part of the 19thcentury.
d. FOUNTAIN PENS- In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent, patented the
first practical FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own ink reservoir. Waterman invented a
mechanism that fed ink to the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly
while writing.
e. BALL POINT PEN- JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool. The ball
is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feeds ink to the socket from
a long tube (reservoir) inside the pen. As early as the 19 th century, attempts had been made
to manufacture a open with a rolling ball tip, but not until 1938 did Hungarian inventor
brother LADISLAO and GEORGE BIRO invent a viscous, oil-based ink, that could be used
with such a pen. Hence, they are attributed for the invention of the first practical
ballpoint pen.
f. FIBER TIP PENS – The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE of Japan
in 1962 traditionally done with a pointed ink brush. Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip
pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber tip pen can produce a wide range of
color unavailable in ball point and fountain pen inks. The tip is made of fine nylon or other
synthetic fibers drawn to a point and fastened to the barrel of the pen.
CATEGORIES OF FORGERY
COUNTERFEITING – It is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins and banknotes.
Literally, it means to make a copy of; or imitate; to make a spurious.
DEFINITION
° “Import,” means to bring them into port. The importation is complete before entry at the
Customs House. (U.S. vs. Lyman, 26 Fed. Cas. 1024)
° “Utter,” means to pass counterfeited coins. It includes their delivery or the act of giving them
away. A counterfeited coin is uttered when it is paid, when the offender is caught counting the
counterfeited coins preparatory to the act of delivering them, even though the utterer may not
obtain the gain he intended. Hence, damage to another is not necessary.
° “Mutilation” means to take off part of the metal either by filing it or substituting it for another met
metal of inferior quality.
COINS
These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as money or collectively
referring to metal currency.
Making Of Coins
Casting is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds bearing an image of gold
coins are filled (within a low temperature) with alloy made with lead or tin. Some molds are used
for high temperature metal such as copper or silver alloy
Note: The best place to examine a counterfeit coin is on the edge since there are usually special
milling marks or designs which are added to a genuine coin by machinery.
Note: In falsification of public document, the falsification need not be made on an official
form. It is sufficient that the document is given the appearance of, or made to appear
similar to, the official form. (People vs. Tupasi, C.A., G.R. No. 290-292, March 22, 1937).