481.19. Ayodhya-Urb Gov - Sarvesh-Singh Ed Sharma - 09 - 2 - 19

Kumar & Singh (2019) ‘Ayodhya; HID’; in, Sharma etal (eds.) Making Cities Resilient. Springer Switz.
317
481.19. Kumar, Sarvesh and Singh, Rana P.B. (2019), Ayodhya: a study of Urban
Governance and Heritage Inclusive Development. In: Sharma, Vishwa Raj and
Chandrakanta (eds.) Making Cities Resilient. The Urban Book Series, ISSN:
2365-757X. Springer International Publisher AG, Dordrecht and New York.
<Chap. 23> pp. 317-338. ISBN, Hb 978-3-319-94931-4, eBk 978-3-319-
94932-1. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94932-1_23 [Our ref. Pdf 481.19]
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CHAPTER 23
Ayodhya: A Study of Urban Governance and Heritage

Inclusive Development
Dr. Sarvesh Kumar

Asstt. Professor, Dept. of Geography. D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, UP 273009, India
Cell: (+091)-930 747 9877; eM: sarvesh1k@gmail.com
Prof. Rana P.B. Singh
Ex-Professor of Cultural Geography at Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005. India
President ACLA- Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Seoul, Korea), 2018-2020.
Cell: (+091)-98381 19474; eMl: ranapbs@gmail.com ;
https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers
Abstract. According to UNESCO urban governance is the process that leads

and takes into account the various links between stakeholders, local authorities
and citizens and includes written and unwritten policies, procedures, and decision
making of units that control resource allocation within and among
institutions. Heritage Inclusive Development (HID) polices is the integrated part
of urban governance and heritage properties and sacred places can be an integral
part of larger ensembles, such as historic cities, cultural landscapes and natural
sites. The sacred and religious heritage city of Ayodhya plays an important role in
the formation of religious nationalism and corporate identity of religious heritage,
through cultural performances and religious festivities. The main institutional-
administrative bodies of Ayodhya, viz. Municipality, City Development
Authority, Ayodhya Research Institute, Indian National Trust for Art, Culture
and Heritage, Tornos and some others fulfil the three dimensions of urban
governance, i.e. political, economic, and institutional – altogether they play
important role in making heritage inclusive development policies and
programmes. Ayodhya Research Institute and Tornos focus and promote the
tangible and intangible heritages of Ayodhya using heritage attributes as
resources. The paper critically narrates various components of urban governance
and observing their role in heritage planning through heritage inclusive
development polices, in addition with implications of the recent heritage-based
National programmes. The qualitative approach, participatory observations
together with field studies, and interfacing interviews are the main framework of
this chapter.
Keywords: urban governance, heritage inclusive development, cultural
landscapes, riverfront sacredscape, pilgrimage.
Kumar & Singh (2019) ‘Ayodhya; HID’; in, Sharma etal (eds.) Making Cities Resilient. Springer Switz. 318
23.1. Introduction and theme concept

In the modern era of cybernetics, the approach to development is framed from
government to governance, referring to the new form of cooperation among
public authorities, private enterprises and other such institutions and acting
agencies. The idea of governance is not new, as its reference goes to age of
urbanization and human civilization illustrated in the classical Greek
‘kybernan’(to steer or pilot) and later the Latin ‘gubernare’ (to rule, direct) that
referred to steering a boat through the water, but also, metaphorically, to
governing public affairs (Grisel and Waart 2011, p. 11). United Nations Human
Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) titled the 21st century as the “century of
the city” mentioning that around 60% people of the world are living in the urban
area, and these are creating urban problems that are also concerned with cultural
and social-environmental issues in the context of urban governance. It is the
process that includes decision making, implementation of decisions, analysis and
determining the role of actors. According to UNESCAP (2004) “government is
one of the actors in governance, and other actors involved in governance vary
depending on the level of government”. Governance, thus defined as the many
ways in which individuals and institutions, public and private, work towards
ensuring that the common affairs of the city are streamlined and effectively
deployed, is in fact one of the critical determinants in dealing with urban poverty
(AMCHUD, 2005). Governance as distinct from government refers to the
relationship between civil society and the state, between rulers and the ruled, the
government and the governed. It is latter aspect, the relation of civil society to the
state that distinguishes the study of governance from other studies of government
(Lange 2009).
Fig. 23.1. Urban Governance: Attributes and Interfacing.
According to UNESCO “urban governance as the processes that lead

and take into account the various links between stakeholders, local authorities
and citizens”. The World Bank studies (2014) found that the governance-
management and administration of the country or the relationship between

citizens and government is the central subject of development, and chanted their
global activity for good urban governance (Fig. 23.1). The World Bank since
2000 continuously published reports about activity and collaboration of the bank
with other countries which is called reforming public institutions and
strengthening governance”.
Today’s urban planner doesn’t think just about design, but pay attention to
society, economy, culture and environmental issues and their role and status in
planning. Equally the classical models of urban planning changed, and now urban
planners gives more emphasis on urban governance, especially the following six
issues:
• Greater involvement and participation to local and stake holing people
• Improve quality of life
• Equality and social justice
• Efficient urban management
• Sustainable development
• Accountability and transparency and monitoring
These issues are examined in case of heritage and sacred city of Ayodhya.
23.2. Area and its representation

Generally, old cities have had their own traditional and unique urban system that
could comply with natural and cultural environment of ancient times, when the
architecture also was a kind of application of nature and culture in matter, i.e. the
celestial in the terrestrial. These cities were built on the base of a perennial
wisdom, which is the cause of a great surprise for contemporary humanities and
science when they excavate sites of old civilization. Ayodhya is the example of a
living traditional city in time, and is counted among one of the seven most sacred
and salvation-endowing cities of the India (the others are Mathura, Maya-
Haridvar, Kashi, Kanchi, Avantika-Ujjain, Puri, and Dvarka). This city celebrated
as the birthplace of Lord Rama, is situated on the right bank of the river Sarayu
(Ghaghara) at a distance of 7km East from Faizabad city. Ayodhya (population:
55,890 in 2011 census) is the part of Faizabad Metropolitan city and together is
known as Ayodhya-Faizabad twin city (Urban Agglomeration/ Metropolitan City,
population: 256,624 in 2011 census) extending between 260 47’ North to 260 80’
North Latitude and 820 12’ East to 820 20’ East Longitude. These two twin cities
are divided by a pilgrimage route of Panchakroshi, and the entire sacred territory
of the city is demarcated by another pilgrimage route called Chaudahkroshi Yatra
(Fig. 23.2).
The state’s capital Lucknow lies at distance of 130km west and another
holy city Varanasi at 221 km in the south-east, Gorakhpur at 145km in the east
and Allahabad lies at distance of 167km in the south. Ayodhya-Faizabad Urban
Agglomeration has a common Development Authority but separate Municipal
Boards. Ayodhya is primarily an ancient tirtha (riverfront sacredscapes) and
salvific place that records settlement continuity since at least ca 800 BCE.
Ayodhya is the sacred and religious place for Hindus, together with important
religious sites for four major religions of India, i.e. Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, and
Muslims. The city is assumed to be the birth place of legendary foremother
Korean Queen Hŏ Hwang-ok, or Huh (named Suriratna in Sanskrit), who was the
wife of the founder of Korean Karak kingdom, the great king Kim Suro (Kumar
and Singh 2017). The city possessed several sacred sites (sacral loci), recording
spirit of place (genus loci) in the form of tangible and intangible religious
heritages. These are the main attractions for pilgrims and tourists. It is estimated
that every year around 1.9 million pilgrims (2017) pay visit to Ayodhya; those are
conventionally attached with its sacred places, and majority of them walk on the
three important pilgrimage routes, i.e. Panchakroshi, Chaudahkroshi, and
Chaurasikroshi. Of course, one side Ayodhya has been manifestation of strong
faith of pilgrims, but on other side it has strong agenda too of Indian politics with
reference of contestation of a site. During the CE 12th century under the Sultanate
rule at Delhi and Mughal rulers, Ayodhya was invaded and destroyed many times
by the order of the Mughal invaders and thus was demolished the famous Rama
temple at the birthplace of Rama and there built a Muslim monument (mosque?)
using the debris of the ancient temple. Since its inception this has been
controversial and sensitive place. On the 6 December 1992 a rightist group of
Hindus demolished the controversial Muslim monuments/mosque. Since then this
area is under the security guards.
Fig. 23.2. Ayodhya: Location and overall perspective.

23.3. Structure of urban governance bodies and their role

Government and governance are two different patterns in the administration of
cities. In fact, the difference between them is parallel with the difference among
power, influence and competence of three components of governance, i.e.
government sector, public sector and private sector. This definition does not only
make a distinction between government and governance but also recognizes the
variety of participation of different stakeholders in the urban governance process
(Leautier 2006, p.17). Urban governance in general has three dimensions to be
fulfilled by the stakeholders:
(i) The political dimension (processes by which those in authorities for

example city council and mayor are elected, monitored and replaced),
(ii) The economic dimension (process by which public resources are effectively
managed and sound policies implemented), and
(iii) The institutional dimension (processes by which citizens and the state
itself respect public institutions).
Basic criteria for assessing governance might include the degree of

legitimacy, the level of representatives, accountability, efficiency and
effectiveness with which public affairs are conducted.
Stakeholders involve in the process of urban governance in Ayodhya are

following:
23.3.1. Government Sector

In urban governance, there is an unwritten division of the tasks assigned to each
of the actors. “The role of the government sector in urban governance is to create
business friendly policies, to share power, delegation of authority (e.g. according
to ISO standard), and setting the rules of engagement” (PECC 2011, p. 63). In
India in 1992, by 74th constitutional amendment act a big step has been taken in
improvement of local government by decentralization of power and resources.
This amendment calls for more powers for local government, especially in three
contexts:
 Planning for economic and social development and role of municipal

government in implementation of urban poverty alleviation projects;
 Increased responsibility for urban planning at the district and metropolitan
levels; and
 Greater authority to mobilize and use of resources (CMAO 2016).
(a) Ayodhya-Faizabad Development Authority (AFDA)

AFDA, a principal agency of the Government of Uttar Pradesh was
founded in 1985, which is responsible for taking ahead the tradition of
planned and sustainable development of Ayodhya and Faizabad and
preparation of Master Plan and appropriation of land use for development
of new areas that are linked to the city territory. The major activities of
AFDA include improvement of the condition of residential colonies and to
deliver viable infrastructure to the housing schemes.. The functions of the
AFDA can be summarised as:
 Preparation of Master Plan and zonal development for the city.

 Maintenance and improvement façade of certain building and
abutting arterial roads.
 Acquisition, disposal and development of land.
 Construction of housing to meet the housing demands of the
growing population.
 Provision of infrastructure facilities (roads, sewers, water supply)
as per the population needs.
 Provision of bus stands outside the dense city pockets for proper
transport infrastructure.
The four-tier basic organizational structure of AFDA is shown in Figure
23.3.
Fig. 23.3. Ayodhya-Faizabad Development Authority: Organisation Structure
(b) Municipality
Ayodhya municipality, established in 1959 and working under
management of Uttar Pradesh government act, is the main institution of
this kind, which has direct control over urban area. The mission and vision
of Ayodhya Nagar Palika Parishad (ANPP), established in 1978, is to
make the city of cleanliness, green and beautiful and discharging the
duties enlisted in the Municipal Act 1959 in order to provide better civic
facilities and services to the citizens of the city. ANPP is also responsible
for maintenance and development of infrastructure, sanitation, road, water
supply, and overall development of Ayodhya city. The departments of

Municipality of Ayodhya consists the departments of public works, water
supply, public health, taxation, electricity and street light, town planning
and development, and drainage divisions. Services provided by
Municipality include advertisement, parking, health services, licence,
market and property tax, public works, sanitation, drainage, social sector,
and street light.
Apart from the regular administration functions, the major
functions undertaken by ANPPare as follows:
 To supply and maintaining power, water, telecom, and sanitation
services 24 hours in 7 days for the whole city.
 To keep the ghats (riverfront stairways) of the city clean and
beautiful, taking in view many activities and festivals that are
regularly performed along the ghats; in addition, also to preserve
the Sarayu River from pollution and disposal of silt from the
banks.
 To manage solid waste disposal.
 To provide night shelter and bonfire for poor people.
 To regulate opening/closing shops and markets.
 To issue license/permits for shops, business establishments.
 To maintain record of land and properties owned by it.
(c) Ayodhya Research Institute

Ayodhya research institute, founded on 18 August 1986 as an autonomous
organization of the culture department of Uttar Pradesh, with an aim to
conduct researches on the Ramakatha (stories related to Lord Rama);
investigate the historical significance of Ayodhya in relation to all
religions; studying the art of Avadh, especially of Ayodhya; conduct
research on Vaishnavism, Bhakti (‘devotionalism’) movement and sites
related to story of Rama; and preserve ancient documents of Avadh
region. The major works and objectives of Ayodhya Research Institute
follow as:
 To collect, conserve and study manuscripts, objects and artefacts
of art, culture, literature, folklore, history and tradition of Avadh in
general and Ayodhya in particular.
 To salvage decaying and vanishing archival material on cultural
heritage of Avadh.
 To promote and carry out the research in Indology, art, culture and
history of Avadh region, particularly related to Ayodhya, the
Ramayana and the literature and the philosophy of Tulasidas.
 Daily presentation of “Anavarat Ramlila” since last 12 years –
performance of traditional Ramalila from various regions of India.
 Determine long term goals on research on Indian culture, craft, and
tradition, especially Ramalila, the Ramayana and Buddhism in
India, Thailand Sri Lanka, Indonesia (Bali), and Laos.
 Publication schemes based on Ramalila, the Ramayana and
Ayodhya research works, both research monographs, anthologies
and popular literature.
23.3.2. Public Sector

Public sector or civil society is different form of government sector. It,
however, is private to the extent that it is not governmental, and is public
to the extent that it is devoid of familial form of private sector. “Civil
society acts as ‘watchdog’ over the other two sectors on behalf of citizens,
it create norms and develop a good governance culture and voice public
opinion” (PECC 2011). Public sector includes NGOs, formal civil society
organisations, and individual households. There are numbers of societies
and NGOs in Ayodhya; however some active ones are mentioned below:
(a) Tornos
Tornos is a tour and travel company, founded in 1994 in Lucknow, the
capital of Uttar Pradesh under the Tornos foundation, and promotes the
Mokshadayini walk, i.e. ‘Heritage walk to feel salvation’ in Ayodhya.
Exclusively it is based on the concept of revealing life by the side of the
Sarayu River and the attached riverfront ghats (stairways). This walking
tour introduces the life of this ancient Hindu city, which is not only the
birthplace of Lord Rama, but records a vivid histories and religious
interpretations that make each temple here unique and has a story and
logic behind each one. This heritage walk in Ayodhya (Fig. 23.4) starts
from Kanchan Bhavan on Rinamochana Ghat, the western ghat along the
Sarayu River and moving through Jhumki Ghat named after a saint, who
was said to be a devout worshiper of Sita (wife of Rama). This walk also
moves through Lakshman Kila Ghat, Sheshavatara temple, Chandrahari
temple in Mukti Gali and at the end pay visit to Nageshvarnatha temple,
and after passing though the Korean Park closes at the ghat to watch and
be part of Saryu Aarti (‘oil lamp festivity’).
Fig. 23.4. Ayodhya: Heritage walk conducted by Tornos.

(b) Saryu Aawadh Balak Sewa Samiti, Ayodhya

Shri Saryu Awadh Balak Sewa Samiti, a religious civil society, has
revived the 110-year old tradition of Saryu Mahotsava (river-site
celebration) and Saryu Arti (oil lamp ritual). The Samiti plays a key role in
survival and maintenance of traditional intangible culture of Ayodhya and
the conservation and preservation of various intangible religious heritage
of Ayodhya. Samiti also operates public and pilgrims awareness
programme with the help of Ayodhya Nagar Palika Parishad and
volunteers cleaning the roads and riverfront ghats as religious act in
maintaining the sacred spirit of Ayodhya.
23.3.3. Private Sector

Activities of private sector of Ayodhya classified under the different aspects
include trade and commerce, transportation and communication, agriculture,
constructions, and marginal works. Ayodhya records only small industrial units
such as mini rice mill, wheat flour mill, wooden and steel furniture, and some
medium industrial units like sugar mill, paper mill, and soft drink factory.
23.4. Issues of Inclusive Heritage Development

A heritage city is “an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement,
land-use which is representative of a culture, or human interaction with the
environment and is directly or tangibly associated with events of living traditions,
with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding
universal significance” (UNESCO 2002, p. 2). The World Bank Inclusive
Heritage Development plan for India’s holy and heritage cities emphasises the
following three Issues (Abakerli and Suri 2014, pp. 15-19):
23.4.1. Social Issues

Heritage is a socially valuable endowment. Historic areas involve the upgrading
of basic essential services, such as clean water facility and sanitation; the
rehabilitation of traditional low-income housing; and the adaptive, productive
reuse of historic properties, with major impacts on the quality of life of the urban
poor. Conserving heritage renews a sense of identity and can inspire new smart
and sustainable city and town development patterns, with an emphasis on the
valorisation of the assets of the poor.
23.4.2. Economic Issues

The use of local skills and purchase of traditional goods during rehabilitation and
maintenance, increases local employment and income generation opportunities,
resulting into strengthened local economy. Traditional businesses tend to reinvest
earned income more broadly into their neighbourhoods, leading further to
improve socio-economic conditions and generating economic vitality.
23.4.3. Environmental Issues

Heritage provides essential basic and environmental services to cities, such as
water supply, green spaces, and flood control. Building standards and more
compact city designs would increase energy efficiency and reduce travel time and
thus have direct positive impacts on people’s health, as well as cities’ vitality and
economy.
23.4.4. HRIDAY (Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana)

and PRASAD (Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spirituality Augmentation
Drive)
The Ministry of urban development, India, launched the HRIDAY scheme

focusing on the holistic development of heritage cities. The Ministry of tourism
has introduced a parallel mission of the PRASAD , of course to work jointly with
the HRIDAY programme. The schemes aim to preserve and revitalise soul of the
heritage city to reflect the city’s unique character by encouraging aesthetically
appealing, accessible, informative and secured heritage and cultural
environments. HRIDAY strategizes its efforts like planning, development,
implementation and management for ensuring the sustainable growth of selected
heritage cities in partnership with state governments. The government focuses on
revitalising twelve heritage cities, of course excluding Ayodhya, whereas
Ayodhya is the stupendous image of tangible and intangible heritage and one of
the ancient living cities in India. However, the state authorities are taking
initiatives to get it linked with the above programmes.
Scheme Objective:
 Planning, development and implementation of heritage sensitive
infrastructure.
 Service delivery and infrastructure provisioning in historic city core areas.
 Preserve and revitalize heritage wherein tourists can connect directly with
city’s unique character.
 Develop and document a heritage asset inventory of cities — natural,
cultural, living and built heritage as a basis for urban planning, growth and
service provision and delivery.
 Implementation and enhancement of basic services delivery with focus on
sanitation services like public conveniences, toilets, water taps, street
lights with use of latest technologies in improving tourist
facilities/amenities.
 Local capacity enhancement for inclusive heritage-based industry.
 Create effective linkages between tourism and cultural facilities and also
the conservation of natural and built heritage.
 Urban heritage adaptive rehabilitation and maintenance, including
appropriate technologies for historic buildings retrofitting (HRIDAY,
2015).
23.5. Tangible heritage in Ayodhya
The Ghats and Kunds
The right-side stairways (ghats) along the Sarayu river at Ayodhya consists of
number of bathing places/spots, and are considered as sacred spots for Hindu
adherents (Fig. 23.5). Svaragadvara Ghat is the most famous site, where the
pilgrims visit for pilgrimages and take holy dip and perform other rituals. Other
important Ghats are Basudev, Sahastradhara, Papamochana, Rinamochana,
Chakratirtha and Guptar. Every ghat possesses their own historical, mythological,
religious folktales and associated spiritual importance. From the ancient time the
kundas (sacred water pools) have played an important role for purification rituals
and also the essential source of sacred water for Hindus religious activities.
Ayodhya-Faizabad records a number of Kundas (sacred water pools), like

Dantadhavan, Vidya, Sita, Brihaspati, Lakshmi, and Girja Kunda.
Fig. 23.5. Ayodhya: The Riverfront of Sarayu (Ghaghara).
Hindu Temples
Hanumangarhi: it is one of the most important temples of Ayodhya, and situated
in the heart of the city (Fig. 23.2). This is an old site of the CE 10th century
temple, built in the four-side fort with circular bastions at each corner, and is
believed to be the place where monkey god Hanuman used to live in a cave-
guard. The temple has golden idol of Hanuman in view of Rajatilak.
Ramajanmabhumi: it is the place where Lord Rama was said to have
taken birth, where lies a small Rama temple. During the Gupta period (CE 4th -
6th century) many Vaishnavite temples were built in the environs, including the
famous one at this site that was reshaped and expanded in the CE 11th-12th
centuries. By the order of the Mughal king Babur the temple was demolished in
1528, and using the debris was built here a mosque like monument called Baburi
Masjid. On 6th of December 1992 the right-wing Hindus razed the mosque in
order to build a temple dedicated to Lord Rama.
Kanaka Bhawan: this temple was built by the Queen of Tikamgarh
(Madhya Pradesh) in 1891. The main temple is built around an open inner court in
which stand a small shrine of Ramapada. The main idols installed inside the inner
sanctum (garbhagriha) are the goddess Sita and Lord Rama with his three
brothers (Bakker 1986, p. 141).
Nageshvarnatha Temple: situated on the Svaragadvara Ghat, the present
temple was built during the period of Nawab Safdar Jung by his Hindu minister
Naval Ray in the fifth decade of the 18th Century. The temple contains a Shiva
Linga, in front of which stand three images of Nandin Ox (vehicle of Shiva).
According to mythology temple was founded by King Kusha, the son of Lord
Rama (der Veer 1988, p. 17).
Muslim Shrines
Ayodhya also records more than hundred mosques, mazars (tombs), idgahs
(prayer ground), Karbala (burial place), etc. related to Muslim sacred/ritual
landscapes, that is how in a folk way metaphysically the city is known as a
“Chhoti Mecca” (‘Little Mecca’) (Sharda 2016). Muslim people are performing
variety of the rituals on these sacred places. Ayodhya is famous for two important
graves of Muslim saints that play important role in the arena of Muslim ritual
landscape. The notable one is grave of Hazrat Shish, who was the son of Hazrat
Adam (the first man to be sent on the earth), and according to myths he was the
first child to be born on the earth and lived for about 1,000 years. Another
commonly visited grave is of Naughazi Mazar or Hazrat Noah, situated behind
the Ayodhya police station. According to mythology Hazrat Noah saved the life
during the enormous flood on the earth.
Types of Intangible Heritage

Pilgrimage Journeys
The five pilgrimage routes in Ayodhya that have maintained the historical
continuity of pilgrimages, from outer to inner territory, are Chaurasikroshi,
Chaudahakroshi, Panchakroshi, Ramkot ki Parikrama, and Antargrihi Parikrama.
Among these the two later are minor and relatively less popular. Three major
pilgrimage routes define the three territorial limits of Ayodhya, viz.
Chaurasikroshi (‘outer’), Chaudahakroshi (‘middle’), and Panchakroshi (‘inner’).
Like most of the pan-Indian holy centres Ayodhya too displays a three-tier
cosmogonic frame, respectively as macro (i.e. Mandala, the Outer one), meso (i.e.
Kshetra, the Middle one), and micro (i.e. Puri /city, inner sanctum) cosmos – all
demarcated by routes and linked archetypally by temples/shrines and are
described in the ancient mythologies, which are frequently cited in various rituals
and group-chanting and sacred walks. Chaurasikroshi is the oldest pilgrimage
route, and associated with 148 replicated sacrosanct sacred places with shrines
and temples.
Ramanavami
Ramanavami is an important and big festival of Ayodhya, celebrated as the birth
anniversary of Lord Rama. It is usually celebrated in the month of Chaitra
according to the Hindu calendar which generally corresponds to the March-April
of Gregorian calendar. Ramnavami mela (fair) at Ayodhya is the testimony of
love, faith and devotion of the devout people for their great god-like hero Rama.
Kanak Bhavan is the main centre of attraction for the birth celebration because it
is the oldest temple and assumed to be the representative of the remnant of
Ramkot (fort of Rama).
23.6. Policies and Planning: Structure and Perspectives

As cities expand to accommodate urban migrants, development policies and
infrastructure investments often rely on imported “modernization” ideas and plans
that are not driven by specific local contexts. Such plans rarely value the
significance of historic areas and heritage assets for the city’s identity and
evolution, resulting in missed heritage-based growth opportunities and/or chaotic,
insensitive construction in and around historic areas and their surrounding
landscapes. Heritage development schemes also need to be looked beyond the

preservation of isolated monuments towards stewarding their surroundings and
the socio-economic and cultural practices taking place in them.
23.6.1. Heritage planning
 Heritage Listing:
The institutions that are engaged with conservation and protection of
heritage of Ayodhya can be divided into three levels:
Level-1
At Central government level, Ministry of Culture and Archaeological
Survey of India: five important temples, viz. Hanumangarhi, Kanaka
Bhavan, Ramajanmabhumi, Sitarasoi, and Nageshvarnath temple.
Level-2
In State (Uttar Pradesh) government level, Department of Culture, and
State Archaeological Department play leading role in protection and
conservation of heritage; in total twelve properties, including temples,
sacred water pools and pilgrimage routes are identified in this group.
Level-3
At local level, the local government and administrative institutions are
taking care of the heritage properties through the channel of heritage
committee; here, in total thirty six properties such as temples, water pools,
and Muslim tombs are enlisted.
 Heritage Committee
The Heritage Committee is operated under the chairmanship of the Faizabad
division Commissioner, and guided by a City Heritage Committee comprising
state and local officials, distinguished scholars, experts from the city and
concerned residents (cf. Table 23.1).
Table 23.1. City Heritage Committee, Ayodhya.

1. Commissioner, Faizabad Division, Faizabad President
2. Vice-President, Ayodhya-Faizabad Development Authority Member
3. District Magistrate, Faizabad Member
4 Joint City Commissioner; to serve as nodal officer Member
5. Chief Town and Country Planner, UP Member
6. Nominate member of Indian Archaeological society of India Member
7. INTACH Member (Lucknow/Ayodhya division) Member
8. Nominate member of Archaeological dept. of Indian Govt. Member
9. Head, Dept. of Ancient History and Archaeology, Dr. Ram Member
Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya-Faizabad
10 Two subject experts, those worked directly on the city Member
(e.g. the two authors of this essay)
 Heritage Zone
The idea of heritage zone is based on the importance of an area possessing
representation of ancient and alive religious and sacred sites that maintained the
continuity of age old tradition, and considered to be basic resource for inclusive
heritage development. Ayodhya is predominantly a sacred-heritage city that is
how religious landscapes are the prevalent scene, and their concentration in
specific area is taken to demarcate the specific zone. The ongoing frame of the
Master Plan, which first shaped for 1983-2001 and now still in process for 2021,
mentions scattered religious sites spotted in different parts, which can easily be
bounded with four heritage zones, viz. Ramkot, the Riverfront Ghats, Gulab Bari-
Bahu Begum Makbara, and Mani Parvat heritage zone (see Kumar and Singh
2018).
Among the four heritage zones Ramkot zone is relatively more important.
The total fifty five properties such as temples, ghats, kunds, Jain temples, Muslim
shrines and tombs, and pilgrimage route are demarcated in the Ramkot heritage
zone. The Ayodhya Act- 1993 and Archaeological Survey of India’s rules related
to acquisition of land (buildings, shops, residential houses) near to Ramkot
(Ramajanmabhumi) by provenance and rule under the Central Government of
India, prohibits any type of new constructions near Ramkot, to avoid interrupting
security of the Ramajanmabhumi. Of course, there also exist examples of illegal
encroachments, while taking benefit of religious sentiments.
23.6.2. Ayodhya- South Korea Project

On behalf of ancient cultural relation, going back to CE 48 referring to the
marriage of princess from Ayodhya to Korean king Kim Suro, Korean
government has planned a massive memorial complex project in Ayodhya in the
memory of Queen Hŏ Hwang-ok, or Huh (named Suriratna in Sanskrit). The
project of Queen Huh Memorial Complex is conceived as a mega project
for the development of tourism and culture at international level, especially to
promote Indo-Korean cultural exchange (see Kumar and Singh, 2017). A budget
of INR 500 million has already been planned, which as per requirement will
further be enhanced. With the initiative of Culture & Tourism Department of the
government of Uttar Pradesh, recently (November-December 2016) with the
support of Gimhae City (Korea) Administration and Cenral Karak Clan Society
together with Indo-Korean Cultural Association a detailed development plan has
been prepared to develop Queen Huh Memorial Complex in Ayodhya (see Fig.
23.6).
Fig. 23.6. Detailed Plan of Queen Huh Memorial Complex, Ayodhya, as proposed
by the Indo-Korean Association.
23.6.3. Ramayana Circuit

The central government has passed a resolution in June 2014 to encourage
alternative tourism by identifying theme-based pilgrimage circuits along India’s
age-old religious sites associated with Rama and Krishna, both incarnations of
Vishnu, and considered as the God. The Committee proposed 11 sites across six
states for what is being called ‘the Ramayana circuit’: Ayodhya, Nandigram,
Shringhverpur and Chitrakoot in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh; Sitamarhi,
Buxar and Darbhanga in Bihar; Jagdalpur in Chattisgarh; Bhadrachalam in
Telangana; Hampi in Karnataka; and Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu.
Under the above programme with support of the state government of Uttar
Pradesh, special sub-circuit at Ayodhya is in process of development taking in
view the pan-India sites like Ramananmabhumi (Ramkot) and Nandigram, and
also the spatially replicated sacrosanct and locally important sites. These sites
include different regional and local traditions, mythologies and folklores related
to the life of Rama, from birth to his passing to heavenly abode (see Table 23.2;
Fig. 23.7). In fact, these replicated “sacred landscapes sustain and authenticate
myths and legends far beyond oral and textual traditions; [and] the pilgrim
experiences the power of place and encounters the living presence of gods. His
faith and belief in religious texts are strengthened through encountering the reality
of landscape (sacred sites), temples, rituals, and fellow pilgrims” (Sinha 2006, p.
73). These replicated sacrosanct places make a resonant, conversing into
archetypal sacred geography; of course in a way these are “imagined landscape”,
nevertheless they are lived landscapes, ‘possessing the relational character,
evolving emotions and attachment’, thus serving as soul healing places (Eck
2012, p. 11). In these landscapes man’s consciousness meets the divine realm, and
through visitation, performing rituals and other festivities their continuity is
maintained. Additionally the state government has already approved and
sanctioned (in June 2016) a sum of Rs 200 million for the development of the
Ramayana Museum, highlighting the life story of Rama. It is also said that these
programmes are more concerned to attract Hindu electorates for getting support
for voting by the political parties. On 19 March 2017, the BJP party has been
crowned with overall majority in Uttar Pradesh, and now with the cooperation of
the central government (BJP), a strategy has been passed (on 24 March 2017) to
develop five cities as centre of culture-heritage and pilgrimage sites, viz. Mathura,
Ayodhya, Varanasi, Gorakhpur and Agra. Under this mission, the Ramayana
circuit and religious heritage sites in and environs of Ayodhya will be developed.
Special plans are in process preparing conservation and rejuvenation of heritage
and religious sites in these cities to promote pilgrimage-tourism and spiritual
message for global harmony (cf. Kumar and Singh 2017).
Fig. 23.7. Ayodhya: Proposed Ramayana Circuit.
Table 23.2. Ramayana circuit: Places and sites associated with Rama’s story (see
Fig. 23.7).
Se Places, Ayodhya Importance
1 Nandigram This is the flourished place of Bharat who lived here for
14 years after Rama’s exile from Ayodhya.
2 Vidya Kunda The water pool lying 200m east from the Mani Parvata,
where Rama was taught by Vashishtha in the fourteen
basic sciences.
3 Ramajanmabhumi Lord Rama was said to have taken birth here. There is a
small Rama shrine here. This site that was reshaped and
expanded in the CE 11th-12th centuries.
4 Kanak Bhavan This is one of famous Rama Sita temples build by the
Queen of Tikamgarh in 1891.
5 Hanumangarhi Dated ca 10th century, situated in the heart of the city,

and is believed to be the place where monkey god
Hanuman used to live.
6 Basudeo Ghat The Ghat has been mythologically referred as the site of
first incarnation of Vishnu in form of the Fish.
7 Makhabhumi The place was recognised as the sacrificial field
(Makhauda) (yajnabhumi) mentioned in the Ramayana holy, where
Dasharatha (father of Rama) performed the Ashvamedha
sacrifice in order to obtain (male) progeny..
8 Svaragadvara Ghat Established by Vishnu before his seventh incarnation as
Rama, thus referred in mythologies. The archaeologist
Alexander Cunningham describes this place in his report,
where body of Rama was burned.
9 Sahastradhara/ The Sahastradhara Ghat lies 150m north east of

Lakshmankila Ghat Papamochana Ghat boarding on a series of bathing places.
It was connected with the story of Lakshmana (younger
brother of Rama).
10 Rinamochana Ghat The bathing at this ghat will free the devotee from three
kind of debts (rina): first Rishis (study of the Vedas),
second Devas (sacrifices), third the Pitras (procreation).
11 Kaikeyi Ghat, These three of Ghats in a series lies 300m from the Raj
Kaushalya Ghat, Ghat; the names of these strike on the name of the three
and Sumitra Ghat Queens of solar King Dasharatha, father of Lord Rama.
12 Guptar (Goprachar) Guptar Ghat is the drawing place or death place of Rama,
Ghat situated on western side of Svaragadavra ghat.
(Source: Mythologies, and field studies)
Recently a voice has been raised about national integrity; says Pande
(2016), “After the conflagrations over Rama and Krishna Janmabhumi
(birthplace) that rocked the state in the 1990s and unleashed horrific communal
violence in several parts of India, killing thousands, will the government ensure
that a sacred geography enlivened by the presence of beloved Gods will not be
used again politically to feed the fervour of the same brand of Hindu
nationalism?” She opines that “Centre’s plan to create pilgrimage circuits will
actually undermine the sanctity of holy sites. … Before going ahead with the
Ramayana and Krishna circuits in India, the Centre should look at how existing
pilgrimage routes have commercialized religion.” However, one should note that
a tour agency TORNOS is already leading ‘Mokshadayini walk’, i.e. ‘Heritage
walk to feel salvation’ in Ayodhya, linking several such sites, and projects image
of “spiritual tourism”. Already state level departments of tourism, and urban
development are promoting pilgrimage-tourism at the holy cities, including
Ayodhya through the national missions of HRIDAY and PRASAD.
23.7. Concluding Remarks

The Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Government of India,
requested the World Bank’s assistance in the design and implementation of a
Demonstration Program on Inclusive Heritage-based City Development in India
fully suitable for Ayodhya because it fulfils the criteria of heritage-based city
development and need to good and strong polices and planning for city
development on the basis of the variety of distinctive cultural heritages (tangible
and intangible, cultural landscape) in Ayodhya.
Ayodhya-Faizabad represents an aesthetic and unique type of cultural
landscape and heritagescape that include historical monuments, artefacts, ghats,
water pools, traditional performances, mythology and faiths, custom, folklore,
festivities, pilgrimages, and other tangible and intangible cultural heritages. These
are attractions for pilgrims and tourists but lacking adequate or appropriate
presentation and communication in respect to their significance of heritage values
to both visitors and members of the local host community. Lack of awareness can
hinder and prevent the development of public, political and governmental support
and funding to protect and conserve the heritage places. Government should plan
sustainable strategy and guiding visions for conservation and protection of
heritage monuments and sites for future generation while taking care of people’s
involvement and provision for required infrastructure.
Taking multi-religious landscapes and historical continuity of intangible
heritages in mind let us hope Ayodhya will be developed as a sacred place where
divinity meets humanity and thus emerges the cultural landscapes of global
understanding and harmony where Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists, Muslims,
Sufis, and several other small congregations together develop a sacredscape of
mosaicness and religio-cultural pluralities (Kumar and Singh 2017, p. 116).
The following viable measures for heritage city sustainable development
based on UN-SDGs should be taken into account:
1. Heritage be protected and maintained.
2. Heritage protection be continuously monitored, assessed and strategies be
changed fitting according to appropriateness, priority and in need of the
time.
3. Impact of heritage protection should be constantly evaluated and improved
upon.
4. Heritage protection activities should be supported by the residents and
stakeholders.
5. City development plans follow specific heritage guidelines support system
and the by-laws.
6. Heritage to be promoted so as to bring sustainable economic benefits to
the local population.
7. Information and cultural programmes on heritage issues to be
disseminated for awareness building among citizens.
23.8. References
Abakerli, Stefania and Suri, D. Ajay [com., eds.] (2014) World Bank’s Inclusive
Heritage Based City Development Program in India. City Alliance Program;
World Bank, Washington, DC.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/20800 ; License: CC BY
3.0 IGO; <accessed: 13 Nov. 2016>.
AMCHUD (2005) Urban governance in Africa: experiences and challenges. Paper
presented to ‘African Ministerial Conference on Housing and Urban
Development’, Incorporation the 5th Assembly of the African Population
Commission Serving as the Expert Group Meeting for the Ministerial Segment,
Durban, South Africa.
Bakker, Hans T. (1986) Ayodhya: The History of Ayodhya from the 17th Century BC
to the Middle of the 18th Century. Egbert Forsten, Groningen, the Netherlands.
CMAO 2016 (28 Dec.) Urban Governance in Orissa. <accessed: 28 December
2016), Web. http://www.camo.nic.in/ugov.html
der Veer, Peter Van (1988) Gods on Earth: Religious Experience and Identity in
Ayodhya. Oxford University Press, Delhi (reprinted 1997).
Grisel, Mart and Waart, France van de (2011) Multilevel Urban Governance or the
Art of Working Together. European Urban Knowledge Network, Amsterdam,
Netherland.
HRIDAY (2015) Operational guideline for Heritage City Development and
Augmentation Yojana. Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India,
New Delhi.
Kumar, Sarvesh and Singh, Rana P.B. (2017) Ayodhya, the holy city of India:
Riverfront and a Place of Indo-Korean interfacing symbolic Landscapes.
Sthapatyam, Indian Journal of Architecture and Applied Sciences (ISSN: 2349-
2369), vol. 3, No. 6: pp. 101-116.
Kumar, Sarvesh and Singh, Rana P.B. (2018) Sacred-Heritage City Development and
Planning in India: A study of Ayodhya. In: Thakur, Rajiv, et al. (eds.) Urban
and Regional Planning and Development: 20th century Forms and 21st century
Transformations. Springer Nature, Dordrecht and New York: ca pp. 301-320.
Lange, F. Esko. (2009) Urban Governance: An Essential Determinant of City
Development?. World Vision Institute for Research and Development,
Friedrichsdorf, Germany.
Leautier, F. (ed.) (2006) Cities in a Globalizing World: Governance, Performance,
and Sustainability. The World Bank, Washington DC.
Pande, Mrinal (2016) Centre’s plan to create pilgrimage circuits undermining the
sanctity of holy sites? Scroll.in (New Delhi, June 27), https://scroll.in/article/
810074/mapping-worship-creating-pilgrimage-circuits-destroys-the-sanctity-of-
holy-sites ; updated 03 January 2017; accessed: 18 January 2017.
PECC (2011) Environmental Sustainability in Urban Centres: Efficiency and New
Technologies in the Provision of Urban Services. The Pacific Economic
Cooperation Council (PECC), Singapore.
Sinha, Amita (2006) Landscapes in India: Forms and Meaning. University Press of
Colorado, Boulder.
UNESCO (2002) The Criteria for Selection. Web: http://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/ ;
accessed: 23 December 2016.
UNESCAP, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific (2004) What is Good Governance? Web: http://www.unescap.org/
huset/gg/ governance ; accessed: 12 January 2017.
World Bank (2014) Inclusive Heritage-Based City Development Program in India.
World Bank Group, Washington, DC.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Authors
Dr. Sarvesh Kumar Prof. Rana P.B. Singh
Dr Sarvesh Kumar [09 February 1987], M.A. 2010 (RML Avadh Un.), Ph.D. 2018 (B.H.U.)
* Assistant Professor, Dept. of Geography, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, UP 273009.
INDIA.
* Joint Secretary- ACLA- Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU, South Korea), 2016-2020.
* Member ICOMOS- National Scientific Committee: (i) Interpretation & Presentation of Cultural
Heritage Sites, (ii) Cultural Landscapes.
* Life Member- Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (representing Ayodhya)
* Life Member- ABISS Akhil Bhartiya Itihas Samkalan Samiti, U.P.
§ Sarvesh Kumar has been awarded PhD on the topic “Cultural Landscape and
Heritage of Ayodhya-Faizabad: A Geographical Analysis” (2018), under supervision
of Prof. Rana P.B. Singh. He has presented papers on various aspects of Ayodhya in
six International Seminars held abroad: 4-ACLA Symposium at Bali (Indonesia,
2015), 1-APELA Forum at SNU Seoul (Korea, 2015), 2-APELA Forum at SNU
Seoul (Korea, 2016), 33-IGU World Congress Beijing (China, 2016), 5-ACLA
Symposium at Lampang (Thailand, 2016), 6-ACLA Symposium at Vladivostok
(Russia, 2017, presented by co-author - Rana P.B. Singh), and several National and
International Seminars held in India, and he has credit to publish over a dozen of
papers on these aspects in the journals/series of repute, like South Asian Affairs (Gifu,
Japan, 2013), The Geographer (AMU Aligarh, 2015), ACLA Proceedings (Bali-
Indonesia, 2015), Context (Gurgaon, 2017), Practising Geography (Kolkata, 2017),
and Journal Space and Culture, India (U.K., 2018). He is also member of the
APELA, Asia Pacific Environment Landscape Association (SNU Korea), ACLA,
Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Korea) [serving as Secretary],
ICOMOS, International Council on Monuments and Sites (India), INTACH, Indian
National Trust for Art, Culture and Heritage (representing Ayodhya), and ABISS
Akhil Bhartiya Itihas Samkalan Samiti (U.P.). ICOMOS Member, IND 17857.
Residence: House # 497 Avas Vikas Colony, Amaniganj, Ayodhya-Faizabad, UP 224001,
INDIA.
Mob.: [+091]-93074 79877 and 0-87562 59470. Email: sarvesh1k@gmail.com
https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers/
Prof. Rana P.B. Singh [15 December 1950], MA, PhD (BHU), FJF (Japan),
FIRFS (Japan), FAAI (Italy), FACLA (Korea), 'Ganga Ratna' (Ganga MS India), ‘Koshal Ratna’ (Koshal Inst.
India)
Former Professor (spel. Cultural Landscapes & Heritage Studies), Dept. of Geography,
Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005. INDIA.
* President : ACLA - Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Seoul, Korea).
* Coordinator, ICOMOS National Scientific Committee “Cultural Landscapes”

* Contributing Member, ICOMOS International Scientific Committee “Cultural Landscapes”
* Expert Member, -ICOMOS IFLA International Scs.Com.“Places of Religion & Ritual” (PRERICO)
* founding Vice-President : BHAI - Big History Association of India, an affiliate of IBHA (USA)
* Gen. Member: IUCN Specialist Group on ‘Cultural & Spiritual Values of Protected Areas’
(CSVPA), 2017-
* Life Member: INTACH, Indian National Trust for Art, Culture and Heritage (Hq New Delhi, Vns)
§ Rana P.B. Singh is researching in the fields of heritage planning, especially
Cultural Landscapes, Sacredscapes and heritagescapes, pilgrimages and settlement
systems in Varanasi region & north India since over last four decades as writer,
promoter, collaborator and organiser, and also did field studies in Japan, Sweden,
Italy, and Korea. On these themes, he delivered special lectures and seminars at
various institutions in countries like Australia, Austria, Belgium, China PR,
Denmark, Finland, Germany, Indonesia (Bali), Italy, Japan, Rep. Korea, Nepal, The
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Thailand, USA (& Hawaii), Russia (USSR). His publications include
300 papers and 41 books (anthologies and monographs) on these subjects, including
The Spirit and Power of Place (1994), Cultural Landscapes and the Lifeworld
(2004), Banaras: Making of India’s Heritage City (2009), Where the Buddha Walked
(2003/2009), Cosmic Order & Cultural Astronomy (2009), Heritagescapes and
Cultural Landscapes (2011), Sacredscapes and Pilgrimage Systems (2011), Holy
Places and Pilgrimages: Essays on India (2011), and Hindu Tradition of Pilgrimage:
Sacred Space and System (2013). He has also supervised 18 PhD dissertations on the
various aspects of Cultural Landscapes.
Mobile: [+091]- 9838119474. Email: ranapbs@gmail.com ;
ICOMOS Member, IND 35020.
https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers/
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Prof_Rana_Singh/publications
ORCiD- https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6031-9086 ;
www.facebook.com/rana.singh.507027
Home (Residence): ‘Usha Apartment’ - N 9/ 87 - D 41 (Ist- Floor 101-102), Lane No. 5 -
Janaki Nagar (near Hanuman Temple), DLW Flyover - Patia Road, PO: Bajardiha,
Varanasi, UP 221106. INDIA

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Kumar & Singh (2019) ‘Ayodhya; HID’; in, Sharma etal (eds.) Making Cities Resilient. Springer Switz.

Ayodhya: A Study of Urban Governance and Heritage

Dr. Sarvesh Kumar

Abstract. According to UNESCO urban governance is the process that leads

23.1. Introduction and theme concept

Fig. 23.1. Urban Governance: Attributes and Interfacing.

According to UNESCO “urban governance as the processes that lead

management and administration of the country or the relationship between

23.2. Area and its representation

Fig. 23.2. Ayodhya: Location and overall perspective.

23.3. Structure of urban governance bodies and their role

(i) The political dimension (processes by which those in authorities for

Basic criteria for assessing governance might include the degree of

Stakeholders involve in the process of urban governance in Ayodhya are

23.3.1. Government Sector

 Planning for economic and social development and role of municipal

(a) Ayodhya-Faizabad Development Authority (AFDA)

 Preparation of Master Plan and zonal development for the city.

Fig. 23.3. Ayodhya-Faizabad Development Authority: Organisation Structure

supply, and overall development of Ayodhya city. The departments of

(c) Ayodhya Research Institute

23.3.2. Public Sector

Fig. 23.4. Ayodhya: Heritage walk conducted by Tornos.

(b) Saryu Aawadh Balak Sewa Samiti, Ayodhya

23.3.3. Private Sector

23.4. Issues of Inclusive Heritage Development

23.4.1. Social Issues

23.4.2. Economic Issues

23.4.3. Environmental Issues

23.4.4. HRIDAY (Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana)

The Ministry of urban development, India, launched the HRIDAY scheme

23.5. Tangible heritage in Ayodhya

The Ghats and Kunds

Ayodhya-Faizabad records a number of Kundas (sacred water pools), like

Fig. 23.5. Ayodhya: The Riverfront of Sarayu (Ghaghara).

Types of Intangible Heritage

23.6. Policies and Planning: Structure and Perspectives

landscapes. Heritage development schemes also need to be looked beyond the

23.6.1. Heritage planning

Table 23.1. City Heritage Committee, Ayodhya.

23.6.2. Ayodhya- South Korea Project

23.6.3. Ramayana Circuit

Fig. 23.7. Ayodhya: Proposed Ramayana Circuit.

5 Hanumangarhi Dated ca 10th century, situated in the heart of the city,

9 Sahastradhara/ The Sahastradhara Ghat lies 150m north east of

23.7. Concluding Remarks

Dr. Sarvesh Kumar Prof. Rana P.B. Singh

* Coordinator, ICOMOS National Scientific Committee “Cultural Landscapes”

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