EDMHODR StudyGuide PDF

# 2005 University of South Africa
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Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
EDMHOD-R/1/2006-2008
97772178
3B2
A4 6-Pica
(iii) EDMHOD±R/1/2006-2008
Contents
Study unit Page

PREFACE (vii)
1 THE EDUCATOR AS MEDIATOR OF LEARNING 1
OUTCOMES 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 SKILLS WHICH LEARNING MEDIATORS MUST HAVE IN TERMS OF
NATIONAL POLICY 2
1.3 THE TASK OF A MEDIATOR 3
1.4 FROM TEACHER TO LEARNING MEDIATOR Ð THE ROLE OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM 4
1.5 MEDIATION OF LEARNING 5
1.5.1 Feuerstein's parameters of mediated learning experience (MLE) 6
1.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM 11

1.6.1 A learning mediator is both an intermediary and a link 11
1.6.2 Mediators of learning can communicate effectively 12
1.6.3 Learning mediators are sensitive to learners' differences and
needs 13
1.6.4 A learning mediator understand how learning takes place 13
1.6.5 Learning mediators recognise and build on learners' prior
knowledge 15
1.6.6 Learning mediators keep learners actively engaged in the
learning events 15
1.6.7 Learning mediators always focus on the context 16
1.6.8 Learning mediators create opportunities for learning by means
of social interaction 17
1.6.9 Learning mediators encourage learners to be investigative 17
1.6.10 Learning mediators make learning interesting and fun 18
1.6.11 Learning mediators motivate their learners by mediating 18
1.6.12 Transfer of learning is important 19
1.6.13 Every lesson should be a positive learning experience 20
1.7 REVIEW OF THE STUDY UNIT 20

1.8 TEACHING TIPS 20
2 THE ROLE OF THE LANGUAGE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

(LOTL) DURING LEARNING MEDIATION 22
OUTCOMES 22
2.1 INTRODUCTION 22
2.2 THE LINK BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 23
2.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND LEARNING 25
2.4 THE ROLE OF BODY LANGUAGE (NON VERBAL LANGUAGE) 25
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2.5 USE OF AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE AS THE LANGUAGE OF
TEACHING AND LEARNING 25
2.5.1 Language learning versus language acquisition 29
2.5.2 The relation between the home language and an additional
language 29
2.5.3 Social versus academic language 30
2.5.4 Understandable input 31
2.5.5 Code switching and code mixing 32
2.5.6 Making mistakes 32
2.5.7 Language and power 33
2.6 SUPPORTING LEARNING IN AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE 34

2.6.1 Language support 36
2.6.2 The duty of every educator 36
2.6.3 Strategies for supporting learners whose home language is not
the LOTL 36
2.6.4 Acquiring new vocabulary 37
2.6.5 Communicating positive expectations 37
2.7 SUPPORTING STUDY SKILLS 38

3 STRATEGIES FOR WORKING WITH LEARNERS WHO EXPERIENCE

BARRIERS TO LEARNING 41
OUTCOMES 41
3.1 INTRODUCTION 41
3.2 NEW POLICIES 42
3.3 THE SPECIAL EDUCATION NEEDS COORDINATOR 42
3.4 LEARNER DIVERSITY AND TYPES OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 42
3.4.1 Socio-economic factors 45
3.4.2 Language as a barrier to learning 47
3.4.3 Medical disabilities 58
3.4.4 Learning disabilities 66
3.4.5 Learners with behavioural problems 68
3.4.6 Gifted learners 70
3.4.7 Classroom factors that can cause obstacles 71
3.5 ADAPTING TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR USE IN THE INCLUSIVE

CLASSROOM 71
4 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING, LEARNING STYLES AND LEARNER

DIFFERENCES 74
OUTCOMES 74
4.1 INTRODUCTION 74
4.2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING 75
4.2.1 Learning implies change 75
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4.2.2 Underlying assumptions 75
4.2.3 The role of experience 75
4.2.4 Reflection on experiences 76
4.2.5 Memory 81
4.3 METALEARNING 82
4.4 THINKING 82
4.5 LEARNING STYLE 83
4.5.1 How the brain works, and how learning is affected by left brain
or right brain dominance 84
4.5.2 Field dependent and field independent learners 85
4.5.3 Multiple intelligence 85
4.5.4 Leider and Rosenberg's four learning styles 85
4.6 THE EFFECT ON LEARNING AND THE MEDIATION OF LEARNING OF

LEARNERS' DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL 86
4.6.1 Physical development 86
4.6.2 Cognitive development 87
4.6.3 Affective development 87
4.6.4 Social development 87
4.6.5 Moral, religious and personality development 88
4.6.6 How does all this help me to teach? 88
4.7 LEARNER DIFFERENCES 88

4.7.1 Differences in prior knowledge 89
4.7.2 Gender differences 89
4.7.3 Cultural differences 89

5 THE USE AND ADAPTATION OF TEACHING STRATEGIES 91

OUTCOMES 91
5.1 INTRODUCTION 91
5.2 THE INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT ON THE CHOICE OF TEACHING
STRATEGIES 92
5.2.1 Learners 94
5.2.2 Language 95
5.2.3 Learning contents 96
5.2.4 The educator 96
5.2.5 The school and the classroom 96
5.2.6 South Africa's unique society 97
5.2.7 Dealing with diversity in a multicultural environment 99
5.3 CHOOSING TEACHING STRATEGIES 101

5.4 THE ROLE AND PURPOSE OF QUESTIONING IN MEDIATION 102
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6 THE EFFECTIVE USE OF MEDIA AND EVERYDAY RESOURCES
WHILE MEDIATING LEARNING 106
OUTCOMES 106
6.1 INTRODUCTION 106
6.2 DEFINING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 107
6.3 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND LEARNING 107
6.4 USING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND EVERYDAY RESOURCES TO
OVERCOME BARRIERS TO LEARNING 108
6.5 SELECTING MEDIA 108
6.5.1 Outcomes and assessment standards 109
6.5.2 Group size 109
6.5.3 Educator's preferences 109
6.6 KINDS OF TEACHING MEDIA 109

6.7 USING EVERYDAY MATERIALS 110
7 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT THAT IS CONDUCIVE FOR

EFFECTIVE MEDIATION OF LEARNING 113
OUTCOMES 113
7.1 INTRODUCTION 113
7.2 A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 114
7.3 CLASSROOM CLIMATE 114
7.4 DISCIPLINE AS PRECONDITION FOR AN EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM
ATMOSPHERE 115
7.5 THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION IN THE LEARNING PROCESS 119
7.6 CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING ABOUT SOCIAL CONCERNS 122
7.7 CREATING A LEARNING ATMOSPHERE IN WHICH STEREOTYPING
IS EXAMINED AND QUERIED 125
7.10 IN CONCLUSION 127
BIBLIOGRAPHY 128
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Preface
Dear Student
We are glad to welcome you to this module on the role of educators as
mediators of learning, which is presented by the Department of
Teacher Education. You might be a teacher already in service as well as
a student, or you might be a student with absolutely no experience of
teaching. Whichever you are, the fact that you have enrolled for this
course shows that you want to learn how to plan learning opportunities
for learners which are interesting, meaningful and educational. We
hope that this course will adequately prepare you, whether you are a
prospective educator or a very experienced one, to mediate learning in
an outcomes-based system.
The art of mediating learning is just one of the roles which
contemporary educators must fulfil. The other roles, which you will
learn about in the other modules, are:
. interpreter and designer of learning programmes and materials
. leader, administrator and manager
. student, researcher and lifelong learner
. citizen, community member and pastoral caregiver
. learning area/subject/discipline/phase specialist
. assessor
These roles overlap, and can actually not be dealt with separately.
Module In this module you will find out about the relevant theories and
contents terminology relating to learning mediation. You will also find out about
the practical aspects of outcomes based education. Every South African
concerned with teaching and education should be aware of the effects
of a multicultural situation on the language of teaching and learning
(LOTL), and should know how to use the language of instruction Ð
especially if it is not the learners' home language Ð in such a way that
effective learning will result. In addition to the language differences
among learners in the same class, there will also be many other
differences, including those of culture, background knowledge, ability
and gender. Effective learning mediation will not be able to take place if
you do not take the learners' differences and their needs into
consideration. We all know that an intimidating, negative teaching
environment, like a lack of discipline in the classroom, can have a very
negative impact on the learning process. We also know from experience
that educators who cannot adapt their teaching strategies to the nature
and contents of the learning area or subject usually do not achieve
much success. All these aspects, and many more, are associated with
(viii)
learning mediation and are the kinds of topics you will encounter in this
module.
Teaching and educating are very practical skills, and you will have to
be able to apply in practice everything you learn in this study guide, so
we have tried to concentrate as far as possible on the practical
elements of teaching. Prepare yourself for lots of exercises, activities
and reflections on the learning contents.
It is not our aim to convince you that certain teaching and mediating
strategies are better than others Ð we will put some alternatives
before you and leave it up to you to try them all out and stay with the
ones that work best. Logically, some techniques and methods will work
better in some subjects and learning areas than in others. We would
like to challenge you, however, to do a thorough rethink of your
existing perceptions, views and opinions about education, and
especially about teaching, and to ask yourself the following questions:
. Am I open to new ideas, and willing to test them in practice?
. Do I know the wealth of learning mediation strategies that are
available to me, and am I going to use them in the teaching situation,
or am I just going to keep on doing what I have been doing all along?
. Am I going to teach as I was taught, or do I really want to adapt my
teaching to new insights about the learning process and teach in such
a way that I will prepare my learners for the demands of a different
world?
. Am I willing to take learner differences into account, or do I believe
that a `òne size fits all'' approach is adequate?
. Do I believe that an educator's job is to communicate learning
contents to the learners, or do I believe that an educator should just
function as a mediator or assistant, and lead the learners to
construct or create their own knowledge?
Read the above questions again, and think them over carefully!
As you work through this study guide, you will see that it is not just
your job to give instruction Ð you must also help the learners with
their development into independent, thinking people who can take
responsibility for their own learning, solve problems and work
effectively with other people. Let us think again about the critical
outcomes identified by the South African Qualifications Authority
(SAQA). The underlying intention of any course, module or qualification
should therefore be to lead the learners to achieve the following
outcomes in a meaningful way:
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. identifying and solving problems and taking decisions by using

critical and creative thinking
. cooperating effectively with other members of the team, group,
organisation and community
. organising and managing themselves and their activities respon-
sibly and effectively
. collecting, analysing, organising and critically evaluating infor-
mation
. communicating effectively in various ways by means of visual,
symbolic and/or language skills
. using science effectively and critically, and showing responsibil-
ity for the environment and the health of others
. showing understanding of the world as a set of interconnected
systems by acknowledging that problem solving contexts do not
exist in isolation
There are also a number of developmental outcomes which envisage

learners who will be capable of:
. thinking about and investigating a variety of strategies for
learning effectively
. participating as responsible citizens in the life of the local,
national and world societies
. being culturally and aesthetically sensitive in various social
contexts
. investigating training and career possibilities
. developing entrepreneurial opportunities
These critical and developmental outcomes are also the outcomes you
will have to achieve in this study programme, and so we expect you to
work with other people sometimes or to discuss the contents with your
colleagues, to communicate with us and with your fellow students, to
consider issues critically, and to solve problems! We also want you to
see that all seven of an educator's roles form a close unit and are very
closely related.
Activities in We would love to talk to you, but we do realise that this is only possible
the study by means of written activities in distance education. In a lecture, we
guide could ask a question and get your answer immediately, but here we
have asked questions and set activities which you will have to complete
in writing. In the activities we expect you to give your own opinion, or
to relate the contents to your everyday life or your experience, and to
bring them into the context of your own prior knowledge. We also
expect you to reflect on what you have learnt. You will have
opportunities to be creative, to do exercises and to state your point
of view. Remember that you do not necessarily have to agree with
everything we say. You might have discovered over the years a
particular technique which works differently from the ones we explain
(x)
here Ð we would LOVE to hear about it! Then we can share it with
your fellow students and find out if they have the same experience. In
that way we will all learn from each other in a good OBE fashion!
Journal book We would like to know what your answers to our questions are, what
your views of the issues are and how you may differ from us: for that
reason we expect you to keep a journal book. You should make notes in
it as you work through the study guide, and also do the activities which
we set for you in the study guide. Your journal book need not be very
tidy, and you need not write in full sentences Ð it can consist of brief
notes, or it can be full of mind maps, lists or summaries. It must be
your own, personal work and serve as evidence that you have worked
through the study guide and completed the activities.
Very Your journal book serves as one of the assignments which you have to
important complete for this module, so it is VERY IMPORTANT that activities in
the journal book MUST BE NUMBERED EXACTLY LIKE THE
ACTIVITIES IN THE STUDY GUIDE. Please draw a line across after
the exercises for each study unit. The journal book will be handed in
like an assignment, on a date to be provided in Tutorial letter 101, and
you will earn credits for it. We regret that you will not be admitted to
the examination if we do not receive your journal book in good time.
Prescribed This study guide is based on the following prescribed book:
book
Nieman, MM & Monyai, RB. 2004. The educator as mediator of
learning. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
We will refer you to sections in this book that should be read and
studied together and in conjunction with the information in the study
guide. You will be expected to read some sections, while a thorough
study of other sections will be required. Whenever you see the
following icon, you have to read or study sections in the prescribed
e
book:
We wish you all the best with your studies. We really hope that you will
make the best possible use of the skills which you will develop as you
work through this module when you are teaching your own classes.
1 EDMHOD-R/1
STUDY UNIT 1
The educator as mediator of learning
g OUTCOMES
After completing this study unit, you should be able to
. explain the implications of the practical, fundamental and
reflexive competences of the educator as a mediator of learning
. distinguish between the traditional approach to teaching and the
mediation of learning
. discuss the principles of learning mediation, indicate its teaching
implications, and apply those principles in your own teaching
. describe the role of the mediator in the learning process
. discuss the characteristics of a mediator
. display the characteristics of a mediator yourself
. demonstrate that you accept that learners are responsible and
have the necessary abilities, and that all learners can achieve
success with the right support
b Journal entry 1a
Reread the outcomes above, and the table of contents of this study
unit, and the table of contents in The educator as mediator of
learning, then answer the following questions:
(1) What do you think is the main theme of this study unit?
(2) What do you already know about this topic?
(3) To what extent do you think that this topic can help you to be an
effective educator, or a better educator than you are now?
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Being a good educator demands much more than just knowledge and
the ability to communicate it. Today's educators must keep on studying
in order to stay on top of developments, and to be able to apply their
teaching to the latest insights about how people learn. What is more,
the traditional role of the educator has expanded to such an extent that
it now comprises seven separate roles, one of which is that of a
mediator of learning. In this study guide we will investigate the
2
various aspects of learning mediation. Let us start by looking at what

the national education policy expects of educators in their capacity as
learning mediators.
e Read the `Ìntroduction'' in chapter 1 of The educator as mediator

of learning.
1.2 SKILLS WHICH LEARNING MEDIATORS MUST HAVE IN TERMS OF

NATIONAL POLICY
The Norms and standards for educators (Department of Education
2000) lists certain practical, fundamental and reflective competences
which must be mastered in respect of every role. These competences
are explained in The educator as mediator of learning.
e Study section 1.2 ``Competences required of educators by national

policy'' in The educator as mediator of learning. Make sure that
you understand what each of the three types of competences en-
tails, and that you know what practical, foundational and reflexive
competences will be expected from you as a mediator of learning.
The three forms of competence can be illustrated as follows:
FIGURE 1.1
Schematic presentation of the three forms of competence
Fo ucat hy ey a
th th ce
Ed ow at th
un
n
kn wh
in at
n ho te
da s sh ey do
ca s s pe
gs
tio
do w
or th re
m
na ow t re d g
th cat l co
lc
a
om at t ing
ey or
Ed ctic
pe
a
h
a
u
Pr
Applied
ten y
competence
ce
h
in
o
e
Reflexive competence
Educators can adapt
their knowledge and
practice to new situations
3 EDMHOD-R/1
b Journal entry 1b
Read through the competences (sect 1.2.3 in The educator as
mediator of learning) once again, and try to summarise them under
10 headings. For instance, many of the competences deal with the
effective use of language, so one of the headings will be Language
usage. Write down the other nine headings you have identified, one
below the other, in your journal book.
If we consider the practical, foundational and reflexive competences

more carefully, then it would appear that educators should do at least
the following during learning mediation:
. show sensitivity to the diverse needs of the learners, including
those with obstacles to optimal learning
. create a learning environment which is properly contextualised and
in which learners will feel inspired to do their best
. communicate effectively
. show respect for learner differences
. demonstrate not only excellent subject knowledge but also the
necessary knowledge of a wide variety of principles, strategies and
sources suited to the South African context
Headings under which competences can be placed could therefore

include: consideration of needs, recognition of diversity, creation of a
favourable learning environment, successful communication, subject
knowledge, teaching strategies, teaching aids, the South African
context, learner characteristics, the learning process.
b Journal entry 1b (continued)

1. How does your list compare with ours? Change your list in your
journal book if you like, using a pen of a different colour.
2. Define ``competence''.
An educator who reveals all these competences can therefore be termed

a competent mediator of learning. The word competent can be used as
a kind of synonym for ``good'', `èffective'' or ``successful''.
1.3 THE TASK OF A MEDIATOR
e Read section 1.3 ``The task of a mediator'' in The educator as

mediator of learning.
From the section you read, you have probably gathered that a mediator
is someone who can act as an intermediary, facilitate dialogue,
4
communicate well, and make it easy for other people to express their
own ideas or feelings. In practice, this means that educators who act as
mediators must be able to manage their own internal dialogue as well as
dialogue between the learners themselves and other sources of
information. Mediators in education should ask themselves how they
can teach in such a way that their learners get involved, and how they
can adapt their teaching so that their learners become independent
learners who take responsibility for their own learning.
1.4 FROM TEACHER TO LEARNING MEDIATOR Ð THE ROLE OF

CONSTRUCTIVISM
e Study section 1.4 ``From teacher to educator as mediator of

learning Ð the role of constructivism'' in The educator as
mediator of learning very well.
Constructivism contrasts with the view that learning just means that
the learners must take in and memorise the information that somebody
gives to them. (Constructing something means that we compile some-
thing, add to it or make something artificially.) Learning is seen as a
change in the meaning which we attach to something. Constructivism
does not focus so much on what learners learn as on how they learn it
(Taylor 2002:175). The skills which they learn (eg problem solving,
multiplication, research) are just as important as the learning contents,
if not more so.
While reading section 1.4 in the prescribed book, did you take note of
the important role that culture plays in the construction of knowledge?
Because cultural background plays an important role, a person living in
Europe or North America will for example have a completely different
view of democracy from someone living in the Democratic Republic of
Congo. Similarly, a child living in a block of flats in Johannesburg will
have experiences and perceptions about housing and sources of energy
that differ completely from those of an Eskimo child.
b Journal entry 1c
Think for a moment about what you have read so far. What is the
most important thing you have learnt about learning mediation?
Write down the first thought that comes to you.
You very probably wrote down: ``Learners should be actively
involved in learning''.
One of the ways in which learners can be actively involved in
learning events is by problem solving. Why do you think active
involvement and problem solving are important principles of
learning mediation? Complete the following list of reasons which
explain why it is important for learners to solve problems and con-
5 EDMHOD-R/1
struct meaning themselves, rather than have the educator spoon-

feeding them with learning contents and then giving them the
answers to problems. Your reasons need not necessarily come from
the previous section Ð you are more than welcome to add your own
ideas. We have provided the first two for you.
Reasons why learners should construct meaning for them-
selves:
(1) Learners understand better if they have solved a problem

themselves.
(2) If learners solve problems themselves, they construct knowl-
edge in their own unique ways.
Now add more reasons (in your journal):

(3) ...........................................................................................
(4) ...........................................................................................
(5) ..................................................................................... etc
How did you get on? Compare your answers with the following:
. Problem solving improves insight and understanding.
. Problem solving keeps learners actively involved in the work, which
means that they learn more.
. If learners can solve a problem in one situation, they can use those
skills to solve other, similar problems.
. Problem solving is part of everyday life Ð learners need to be
prepared for it. Problem solving makes learning relevant far beyond
the classroom.
. People remember better and for longer if they discover something for
themselves than if they are told about it.
. If people discover something for themselves, they will understand it
better than if they just absorb it.
. Learners are much more interested in the contents if they are
actively involved, experience problems for themselves, and solve
them.
. If learners construct their own knowledge and become actively
involved in their own learning, they are willing to take responsibility
for their own learning.
. Success leads to more success. Learners who succeed in solving a
problem successfully will be eager for the next challenge.
1.5 MEDIATION OF LEARNING
e Study section 1.5 ``Mediation of learning'' in The educator as

mediator of learning. Pay attention to Feuerstein's explanation of
the mediated learning experience (MLE). You should know the 12
parameters of MLE proposed by Feuerstein.
6
1.5.1 Feuerstein's parameters of mediated learning experience (MLE)

If one looks closely at the 12 parameters that Feuerstein proposed, it
becomes clear that mediators should perform specific functions,
including the following:
. They must ensure that the learners understand their instructions and
know what is expected of them.
. They must lead the learners to understand that they have in fact
learnt something, and that what they have learnt is relevant and
valuable to themselves as people.
. They must ensure that learners understand the application of what
they have learnt.
. They must build up the learners' self-confidence, and assure them
that their contributions are important and valuable.
. They must make learners aware of their own learning processes.
. They must create a sense of purpose in their learners.
. They must challenge learners to get down to work and take on
challenges.
. They must create opportunities for learners to assess themselves.
. They must believe in their learners, and let them know that each of
them has the ability to achieve their full potential.
. They must offer learners the opportunity to work together and to feel
that each of them can contribute to the coherence and the success of
the group.
. They must take into account the uniqueness and individuality of each
learner.
c Which function of a mediator, as listed above, do you think is the

most important? Underline or shade it, and think about how you
will ensure that you perform that function in the classroom.
We do not know which function you selected, but everyone who worked
on this study guide chatted about the choices we would have made if
we were you. One of us selected: ``... ensure that learners understand
the application of what they have learnt''. We could explain to the
learners how they can use their knowledge of nutrients in food to
decide whether they have a healthy diet or not. Someone else preferred:
``... offer learners the opportunity to work together and to feel that
each of them can contribute to the coherence and the success of the
group''. This can be achieved by providing many group discussions,
projects and group tasks. The third author decided that creating `à
sense of purpose in the learners'' would be her priority. She usually
does this be making very clear at the start of a lesson what the learners
will have to know and be able to do by the end. In this way the learners
know exactly what is expected of them and what they should aim for.
Did you choose one of the functions we found important, or not? Who is
right Ð you, or one of us? The answer is simple: nobody is right or
wrong! One function of a mediator is not necessarily more important
7 EDMHOD-R/1
than another. Similarly, one role of an educator (mediator, assessor or

manager) is not necessarily more important than the others either.
Different mediators will have different priorities in different situations.
Sometimes, opportunities for working together are the most important
by far, and other times Ð depending on the nature of the learning
contents which the learners have to master Ð it will be important for
them to work independently. When the work is very challenging, it is
important for educators to challenge the learners to succeed, while at
the same time conveying their confidence in the learners' ability. Most
of the time, however, the learning mediator will be performing a whole
lot of functions at the same time!
The learning mediator should not only be able to perform specific
functions, he should have certain personality traits (characteristics).
b Journal entry 1d
Think back to your own school days and your teachers. Which do
you remember the best? Who taught you the most? Who did you like
the best? Who did the worst job? What characteristics did they have
which you regard as outstanding and which you would like to
share? What characteristics did they have that worked to your
disadvantage and that you would not like to display yourself?
Copy the following tables into your journal book, and then
complete them.
Table 1 Table 2
Five or more characteristics Five or more characteristics of
of outstanding teachers mine that will make me a good
learning mediator
................................................ .............................................
................................................ .............................................
Five or more characteristics Five or more characteristics of

of teachers that I didn't like mine that I would like to get rid
of because they will not pro-
mote good learning mediation
................................................ .............................................
................................................ .............................................
All of us have good and bad qualities. The important thing is to know
what they are, and that we need to build on our strong points and try to
shake off our weak points and learn good ones to replace them.
What characteristics are generally regarded in the literature as
important for a good mediator of learning? According to Goldberg
(www.ascd.org/publications/books/104138/goldberg_ch26.html) and
Constantinides (www.celt.gr/hall_of_fame_article.htm), ideal media-
tors will have the following characteristics:
8
FIGURE 1.2
Characteristics of a good learning mediator
Dedication Friendliness
Ability to listen Firmness
Purposefulness Flexibility
Sense of humour
Openness
Interest in learners
Attentiveness
. Dedication. Good mediators will dedicate themselves completely to

their work, firmly believing that every learner is capable of learning,
taking pains to help learners with learning obstacles, communicating
with learners' parents, and sharing information with colleagues.
. The ability to listen. Mediators listen attentively to learners and try
to read between the lines.
. Purposefulness. Good mediators create a sense of purpose among
their learners, and keep them focused. They explain pleasantly to the
learners why they have to complete a particular learning task, and
how they will be able to apply it outside the classroom. In addition,
they teach the learners how to apply self-discipline and self-control.
. A good sense of humour. Learners must see that their educators are
also human. Humour can often defuse tense situations in the
classroom.
. Interest in learners. Mediators should show interest in their
learners, know their names, be familiar with their circumstances
and know about their interests and hobbies. They must also make it
clear to each and every learner that they are confident about the
learners' ability.
. Friendliness and firmness. Mediators must have a good, friendly
relationship with the learners, but should avoid familiarity because
it gives learners the impression that they can go too far.
. Flexibility and openness. Flexibility, rather than rigidity, is vital
because mediators have to take into account the learners' differences
and their circumstances.
. Attentiveness. Mediators must be sensitive to changes in learner
behaviour that could indicate problems. They must also be alert for
specific behaviour which could indicate attention-seeking.
9 EDMHOD-R/1
Ideal learning mediators encourage the learners to investigate, discover

and experiment. They set up the framework for experimental learning
within which the learners can safely take risks, with the support and
encouragement of the mediators. The learners will then construct
knowledge for themselves, and be able to reflect, to assess themselves
and to make changes with the encouragement and support of the
mediators. An ideal mediator will demand active, cooperative learning
while the learners take responsibility for their own learning.
c Now read the following case study.

High school XXX is situated in a middleclass neighbourhood in a
largish country town. There are 42 learners in the grade 9C class.
Fourteen of the 42 have a home language which differs from the
school's language of instruction. They are therefore taught through
the medium of their second, or in some cases their third, language,
because there is no other school close enough for them to go to. The
class is also very varied in terms of culture and race. Two of the
learners have very poor hearing, and a third sometimes suffers
from epileptic attacks. In general the learners are very diligent, but
two of them take no interest in their work at all and say straight out
that they are only going to attend school until the end of the year
because they won't be able to find work even if they do study
further. They do practically no homework, and when they are not
disrupting the class and pestering the other learners, they lie on
their tables or talk to each other. Some of the learners come from
quite wealthy families, while others hardly have the money for food
and depend on the food packages provided by the school during
break. The school is quite old and has very few facilities. There is a
laboratory, but not much apparatus.
The classroom situation described above is typically South
African. If you are not teaching in that kind of school at the moment,
the chances are that you will do so one day. What qualities will you,
as an educator, need to be able to manage and control a class like
the one in the case study well enough for each learner to have a fair
share of your time and attention? What qualities will help you to
deal with the learners with behavioural problems, and to handle the
deaf and epileptic learners? Give careful thought to this!
How is your profile as a learning mediator? The following exercise is

for educators who are already in the classroom. Very important: If you
are not yet teaching, please read through the statements thoughtfully;
you do not have to provide answers, however.
10
b Read the following statements, and mark each one in the

appropriate column.
(1) = Always (2) = Sometimes (3) = Hardly ever (4) = Never
(1) (2) (3) (4)
I am flexible, and try to accommodate the divergent
needs of my learners.
I create a sense of purpose in my learners and
encourage them to participate.
I build up my learners' self-esteem and give them
a sense of competence.
I have arranged my classroom in such a way that
learning is encouraged.
I can handle conflict in a positive way, and I
also encourage my learners to practise deliberate
self-control and self-discipline.
I always explain to my learners the meaning, value
and purpose of a learning activity.
The learners in my class are, in general, actively
involved in their learning.
I mediate learning; I do not dish out information.
I encourage learners to take risks, and to develop
a positive, enthusiastic attitude to problem solving
and other complex tasks.
I encourage learners to understand the applicability
of ideas, principles and strategies outside the
classroom.
I give learners plenty of time to discover infor-
mation for themselves and to work individually.
I give learners ample opportunity to work in
groups, to learn from each other and to support
each other.
Learners have the opportunity to assess them-
selves or their friends before I do my own
assessment.
Learners have the opportunity to find infor-
mation for themselves from a number of sources
which I make available for them in the classroom.
I try to make the learners aware of their own
learning processes.
11 EDMHOD-R/1
Add up your marks.

30±45: You have the qualities necessary to be a good mediator of
learning.
20±29: You are developing the qualities you need in order to be a good
10±19: You must try to develop your mediation skills.
0±9: You are still trapped in the old teaching system. You need to
change.
By the way, the questions above are largely based on the 12 parameters
which Feuerstein identifies for ``mediated interaction''.
1.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM

Up to now we have focused on mediators and considered their role,
functions and characteristics. Next we will pay more attention to the
classroom, and see how mediators should mediate knowledge there.
e The following sections should be studied conjointly with section 1.6

`Ìmplications of the norms and standards, constructivism and
mediated learning for the classroom'' in The educator as mediator
of learning.
1.6.1 A learning mediator acts as both an intermediary and a link

Mediators should not see themselves as the sources of all knowledge,
responsible for conveying it to the learners. Because knowledge is the
result of personal interpretations of things experienced, one person's
knowledge can never be completely (in totality) conveyed to others
(Snowman & Biehler 2000). This constructivist approach to learning
does not deny the importance of factual knowledge, but it does
emphasise that the best way to retain and use this kind of knowledge is
to put it into a larger, more true-to-life context which will stimulate
learners to reflect, organise, analyse and solve problems (Borich &
Tombari 1997:180).
The community and the culture within which children grow up
influences the way they see the world around them, and therefore
also influences what they ``know''. Educators can therefore not convey
meaning; they can only function as mediators or intermediaries,
because in the long run the learners will attach their own meaning to a
concept. This meaning will be part of their cultural context. The
mediator operates as a link between what the learners already know
(their pre-existing knowledge) and the new information or knowledge
that they ought to acquire.
The fact that mediators act as intermediaries and links between the
learners and the learning contents does not mean that they can just sit
12
back and leave everything to the learners! They should provide the
necessary background information by means of explanations, setting a
reading task, questions and answers, a case study, a story or even a
lecture. In this way, they provide the opportunity for experiences, and
help the learners to reflect on and to verbalise about what they are
doing and how their understanding is changing. After that, possible
problems and questions must be identified, and the mediators guide the
learners to find their own solutions and answers. They monitor the
discussions, pose questions, provide running commentaries where
necessary, give encouragement, provide feedback and make sure that
the learners are on the right track. They encourage the learners to
evaluate constantly how a specific activity helps them towards better
understanding. The fact that mediators are just links between the
learners and the learning contents implies that they will allow
numerous interpretations and ways of solving a given problem.
e Study section 1.6.1 ``The mediator as intervener'' in The educator

as mediator of learning.
What it is basically saying is:

. Learners should be helped to understand their own learning
processes.
. The educator should create learning opportunities.
. Meaning should be negotiated.
1.6.2 Mediators of learning can communicate effectively

Every day, educators are communicating in different ways. Commu-
nication is not only verbal: it can also be nonverbal, in the form of tone
of voice, facial expressions and eye contact. People are usually amazed
to hear that up to 65% of human communication is nonverbal! You
should be very aware of your body language and movements during
communication. A frown, a raised eyebrow, fingers impatiently tapping
the table while you wait for a learner to answer, a bored expression, no
eye contact, a superior smile or an indrawn breath all communicate
much more negativity than one might imagine.
b Journal entry 1e
Look at the following verbal and nonverbal reactions to learners'
behaviour or their contributions in class, and enter them in two
columns headed: Positive communication and: Negative
communication.
a smile; folded arms; flaring nostrils; a nod of the head; holding
head in hands; leaning forward slightly when learner talks; eye
contact; rolling eyes; looking away while a learner is talking to
you; remarks like: ``hmm ...'', ``good'', ``that's interesting'',
13 EDMHOD-R/1
``that's not right, but I like the way you argued your case'';
remarks like: ``that is a fresh approach to the topic''; remarks
like: ``pathetic'', `òh no! Oh for goodness' sake, you'll never get
it into your head!''; remarks like: `Ì didn't think you were
going to make it, but you did! Well done!''; drumming your
fingers on the table
You probably didn't have much difficulty in identifying the comments

as positive or negative. There was just one trick question! Where did
you enter: remarks like: `Ì didn't think you were going to make it, but
you did! Well done!''? Although it might look positive at first glance,
when you think about it, it is actually negative because you are letting
the learner know that you actually haven't got much confidence in her
ability! Learning mediators must never do that. They believe that all
their learners can succeed, and they regularly let them know about this
confidence in their abilities.
e Now read section 1.6.2 ``Communication'' in The educator as

In study unit 2 we will give you more information about the important
role of language in ensuring effective communication.
1.6.3 Learning mediators are sensitive to learners' differences and needs

An important part of the mediator's role is to ensure that all learners,
whatever their differences, have equal access to learning opportunities
in the classroom. As educators, we must ensure that our actions and
relationships create a classroom atmosphere in which we show that we
care about all our learners. This means that we must admit that there
are differences between learners, and take the responsibility of
bringing the best out of all of them.
e Also read section 1.6.3 ``Sensitivity to learners' differences'' in The

educator as mediator of learning.
In study unit 3 you will learn more about all the possible differences
between learners, and how to deal with them while mediating learning.
1.6.4 Learning mediators understand how learning takes place

Educators who are familiar with the way in which learning takes place
will understand that if learners fall behind at some stage, the rest of the
learning will be meaningless for them. It helps if the mediator divides
14
the learning task up into little chunks, and constantly checks whether
learning is in fact taking place.
If mediators do not understand how learning takes place, they will not
be able to mediate in such a way that learners can learn effectively; for
that reason we provide more information about the learning process in
study unit 4.
e Read section 1.6.4 `Ùnderstanding how learning takes place'' in

The educator as mediator of learning.
Metacognition is discussed in detail in study unit 4, but you will have a

preview of it when you do the following exercise.
c Let's apply metalearning to the subject matter of this theme in the

course Ð the role of the mediator. You should actually have been
able to do it at the very beginning of the course, but it will also work
if you begin applying it now. Do this by asking yourself the
following questions:
Questions on the planning of the learning task and learning
strategies
. What do I already know about this topic (the role of the educator
as mediator of learning)?
. What is this topic connected with?
. Where does this teaching role fit into the course?
. What else might be dealt with in this module?
. Have I been reading thoroughly and completely so far?
. What is expected of me in this module?
. How is the information in this module connected with what I
already know?
. More or less how long will it take me to work through this
module?
Questions to monitor your progress
. How does my newly acquired knowledge compare with what I
predicted?
. Do I need to change the ideas I had before I started this module?
. How is my progress?
. Do I understand what I am doing?
. Am I still on the right track?
. What have I still got to do?
Questions to evaluate the outcome and future usefulness of my

learning task
. Do I understand this module completely?
. What more can I read or do in order to add to my knowledge of
this module?
15 EDMHOD-R/1
. How does my learning compare with other people's?

. The next time I tackle a similar task, how can I improve?
. What have I learnt from this module?
. How can I apply my newly acquired knowledge in the future?
Remember that in the real world, we only answer these questions in

our own minds. Learners can however be helped with the metalearning
process for the first few times by asking them to provide written
answers to questions like the ones above.
1.6.5 Learning mediators recognise and build on learners' prior

knowledge
Prior knowledge may have been acquired during formal learning
experiences (at school, religious school, etc), or it may have been
gained through personal experiences. The fact that experience plays a
very important role in learning suggests that learners' prior knowledge
must be thoroughly taken into account and that new learning contents
must be linked to existing knowledge. Sometimes it is necessary to
clarify misunderstandings that might form part of learners' prior
knowledge before meaningful learning of new contents can take place.
e Read section 1.6.5 `Ùnderstanding the importance of learners'

existing (prior) knowledge'' in The educator as mediator of
learning.
The educator should ask the learners what they already know about a
topic before starting the lesson. A Physical Science teacher who wants
the class to understand chemical reactions could start by asking the
learners about their everyday experiences of chemical reactions, such
as rusted tins or wires, what happens when baking soda is added to
vinegar, why copper and silver ware get tarnished or why a compost
heap sometimes catches fire. Learners who live on farms will have
prior knowledge which is very different from that of city children.
Educators must build on prior knowledge by linking new knowledge up
to it, and they must also encourage learners to reflect on their own
learning experiences. They should compare their prior knowledge with
their newly acquired knowledge.
1.6.6 Learning mediators keep learners actively engaged in the learning

events
e Read section 1.6.6 `Àctively involving learners in the lesson'' in

16
You will get more information on learning strategies that can be used to
keep leaners actively involved in study 5.
1.6.7 Learning mediators always focus on the context

Learning tasks should always be put into context for the learners.
When they have to learn a list of new words, in the language classroom,
which have nothing at all to do with each other, they will find it much
more difficult than if the new words were associated with a theme, and
listed as they occurred in a reading item about that theme. The reading
item provides the context within which the words occur and have
meaning.
Read the following dictionary definition of ``context'' (English

learner's dictionary. Collins Cobuild. 1994:198):
con.text /'k ntekst/, contexts.

O
(1) The context of an idea or event is the general information about the time,
place, and situation in which it occurred which you need to know in order to
understand it fully. EG We need to place present events in some kind of
historical context ... ... the relevance of these ideas in the context of Britain.
(2) The context of a word or sentence consists of the words or sentences before
and after it which help to make its meaning clear. EG What do we mean by `growth'
and `power' in this context? ... This remark was taken completely out of context.
Here is another example of what is included in context: In study unit 3

we explain that learners must sometimes be allowed to inject
themselves! That sounds dreadful, but if you realise that it is referring
to diabetic learners, it makes sense immediately. Thus by putting
things in context when you are mediating learning, you are making sure
that your learners understand them more readily. This means that you
will always put a topic in context for your learners when you are
mediating their learning, by giving them the time, place and
background of the events as well as by explaining the roles, status
and relationships between the people concerned.
The mediation of learning in context also means, however, that

educators must at all times take into account the learners' socio-
economic background, developmental level, prior knowledge and
experience, as well as the available resources, the community and so
on when doing their preparation and while they are teaching. We will
look more closely at this in study unit 5.
e Read section 1.6.7 ``Taking context into account'' in The educator

17 EDMHOD-R/1
1.6.8 Learning mediators create opportunities for learning by means of

social interaction
e Read section 1.6.8 ``Creating opportunities for learning through

social interaction'' in The educator as medator of learning.
How ready are you to bring about learning by means of social

interaction? Find out by evaluating the following statements and
answering ``Yes'' or ``No'' to each.
b Complete this exercise in writing, answering ``yes'' C or ``no'' B

every time.
. It is more important for learners to work together in the
C B
classroom than it is for them to compete with each

other.
. The value of academic achievement is enhanced when
learners work towards a common goal.
. I believe that learners must take responsibility for their
own learning, but that I must give them the support they
need.
. If above average achievers and below average achievers
work together, both will benefit.
. It is important for learners to share their findings with
each other, even if the findings are sometimes wrong.
. Learners are more motivated if they work together,
because the chances of success are better for people
working in a group than they are for people working
alone.
. If you explain something to another person, you will
understand it better yourself.
. Learners can learn a lot from each other.
. Learners should have the opportunity to assess each
other's work and make suggestions on how to improve
it.
We hope you answered ``yes'' to all the questions! In study unit 5 we

will give you more information on how to promote group work and
cooperative learning.
1.6.9 Learning mediators encourage learners to be investigative
e Read section 1.6.9 `Èncouraging an inquiring attitude in learners''

in The educator as mediator of learning.
18
How can we help learners to develop an investigative frame of mind?

Have you got an investigative frame of mind yourself? This can be
cultivated through experience with problems, and by answering a
learner's question with a counter question: ``What do you think?''
Interesting lesson presentations will also stimulate learners to find out
more about a topic. Study unit 5 provides more about this.
1.6.10 Learning mediators make learning interesting and fun

The educator in the classroom Ð you! Ð must compete with TV shows
and computer games that are exciting, action packed and colourful.
Increasing emphasis is placed on edutainment, which amounts to the
fact that educators must educate, but must also entertain. This makes
big demands of educators, and demands a lot of creativity.
If you, the mediator, are not enthusiastic and motivated yourself, you
will not be able to motivate your learners or make the work interesting
for them. The atmosphere in the classroom will determine whether
learners enjoy learning or not, so it is important that there should be a
learning friendly, nonintimidatory atmosphere in your class. Learners
need to respect you, not fear you.
The better organised the learning process and the learning environment
are, the better are your chances of success in the classroom. If you, the
educator, are anxious, rushed or restless, it disrupts the whole class.
This leads to frustration for everyone connected with the learning
process. Effective planning and good organisation lead to cooperation
from the learners. Effective classroom management helps to make the
learning environment as friendly and relaxed as possible, while also
being safe and pleasant. Effective classroom rules and discipline help
to create an open, friendly and learning centred learning environment.
e Study section 1.6.10 ``Making learning interesting and enjoyable''

In study unit 7 you will find more information about classroom atmos-
phere and how to motivate learners.
1.6.11 Learning mediators motivate their learners by mediating

Motivation is one of the keys to successful learning mediation.
Educators cannot just assume that the learners are motivated to solve
problems Ð they must make their problems as interesting and relevant
as possible if they want to keep the learners involved in the learning
process.
19 EDMHOD-R/1
e Study section 1.6.11 `Ùsing learning mediation to motivate

learners'' in The educator as mediator of learning.
1.6.12 Transfer of learning is important
e Study section 1.6.12 ``Concern for the transfer of learning'' in The

eductor as mediator of learning. Think of ways in which you can
transfer what you are learning in this module.
1.6.13 Every lesson should be a positive learning experience
e Study section 1.6.13 ``Making every lesson a positive and produc-

tive learning experience'' in your prescribed book.
We hope that you have a good idea by now of what is expected of you as
a learning mediator, and that you are looking forward to learning more
about all your responsibilities in the following study units. In these
study units we will return to quite a few of the aspects of learning
mediation which we discussed in this study unit. We will, for example,
look in greater detail at aspects such as language support, accom-
modating learner differences, creating a pleasant classroom atmos-
phere, teaching strategies, using media and many more.
Before we move on to that, it will first be necessary to consolidate
everything you have learnt so far about the role of a mediation.
b Journal entry 1f
The ABC of a good learning mediator
Read through this study unit again, as well as the relevant chapter
in your prescribed book. Then see if you can find a characteristic,
task, competence or principle of a good learning mediator that
begins with each letter of the alphabet in turn. We have started you
off with the first few letters. You can go on from there if you like, or
you might prefer to start from A with your own examples.
A Ð Active involvement. Mediators keep their learners actively
involved in the learning activities.
B Ð Body language. Mediators with positive body language
encourage their learners all the time.
C Ð Cool. Mediators understand that learners sometimes want to
do cool stuff in the classroom.
20
1.7 REVIEW OF THE STUDY UNIT
G . In this study unit we looked at the competences that a good

learning mediator should have.
. We saw that mediating learning means that mediators do not just
supply information, but that they function more as intermediaries
or go-betweens between the learner and the learning contents,
and design a series of activities which lead the learners to con-
struct knowledge for themselves.
. We also saw that learning mediators should possess certain
qualities such as flexibility, fairness, enthusiasm and good
communication skills.
. We considered how mediators should behave in the classroom,
but this was done very superficially; each of those aspects of the
mediator's classroom activities will be discussed in more detail in
other study units.
Now turn back to the start of this study unit, and look again at the
outcomes which we set out there. If you can answer the following
questions, you have achieved those outcomes. If you find yourself
constantly turning back in order to find the right answers, we suggest
that you should work through the study unit again.
b Journal entry 1g
(1) Briefly describe the role of educators as mediators of learning.
(2) What is the difference between traditional teaching and
learning mediation?
(3) Name four principles of learning mediation, and indicate what
you will do in the classroom to ensure that these principles form
the basis of the ways in which you mediate learning.
(4) Explain how you will do each of the following in the classroom:
. involve learners actively in the lesson events
. use enjoyable and interesting individual and group activities
. mediate learning in context
. take the differences between learners into account
. find out what learners already know about a subject
. create an effective learning environment
1.8 TEACHING TIPS
b Journal entry 1h
At the end of each study unit we will expect you to write down a
number of teaching tips. These tips might be based on the specific
21 EDMHOD-R/1
study unit and theme you have worked through, or they can be
something you read about somewhere else or heard from someone.
You might like to make your teaching tips stand out by writing them
in another colour or drawing a border around them each time.
Now write at least four teaching tips in your journal book. Give
them a clear heading: TEACHING TIPS.
Hint: Don't write down too many tips, as they lose their impact.
Just write down the ones you regard as the most striking and
important.
c Turn back to your very first journal entry. Has this study unit lived
up to your expectations? Have you learnt what you expected to
learn?
22
STUDY UNIT 2
The role of the language of teaching

and learning (LOTL) during learning
mediation
g OUTCOMES
When you have completed this study unit you must be able to
. explain the role of language in learning
. understand the implications of multilingualism and multi-
culturalism in the classroom, and be able to use the language of
instruction in such a way that multilingualism does not prove to
be an obstacle to learning
. use a second official language in such a way that you can explain
key concepts in your learning area or subject in a conversational
style
. improve learners' language skills in any subject or learning area
across the curriculum
. explain the relationship between language and power in the
classroom, and take it into consideration while you are teaching
. explain the role of questioning in mediation, and be able to pose
good questions
b Journal entry 2a
Reread the outcomes above, and also the table of contents for this
study unit, and then answer the following questions:
(3) To what extent do you think this topic can help you to become
an effective educator, or a better educator than you are at
present?
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Learners in the South African social context are nothing if not
multicultural and multilingual, with the result that our classrooms
also have those characteristics. We all know that in the past, as a result
23 EDMHOD-R/1
of South Africa's unhappy history of apartheid education, schools were

rather homogeneous. Very few of us, therefore, have had experience of
teaching in multicultural classrooms like the present day ones. As a
result of the school language policy, however, the chances are good that
you might have experienced what it is like to be educated in a language
that you did not speak at home.
e It is very important that you read the introduction (sect 2.1) to

chapter 2 in The educator as mediator of learning. Please don't
skip it, because it contains essential background information.
b Journal entry 2b
Think back to your own school career. If the LOTL (language of
teaching and learning) was also your home language, answer the
questions in section A. If the LOTL was not your home language,
answer the questions in section B.
Section A
(1) Did you sometimes have difficulty in understanding what the
teacher said in the classroom?
(2) Do you think that you would have been able to learn in your
second language as in your home language? Substantiate your
answer.
(3) What problems do you think learners experience if they are
taught through the medium of their second language?
(4) What will you do to help learners overcome these problems?
Section B
(1) Did you sometimes battle to understand what the educator was
saying in the classroom?
(2) Did the educators use any strategies to support you in the use of
your own language? If yes, what strategies did they use?
(3) What was the most difficult part of being taught through the
medium of your additional language?
(4) What will you do to ensure that your learners do not have
difficulties if they are taught through the medium of their
additional language?
In this study unit we are going to see how we can utilise our many
languages as a ``valuable classroom resource''.
2.2 THE LINK BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

The close link between culture and the language or languages that
people speak is particularly obvious in a multicultural society. Culture
24
determines the language used, and language in its turn creates culture.
Educators must not lose sight for a second of the fact that language is
an inseparable part of culture.
Not just learners have cultural differences. There might also be cultural
differences between educators and learners. This can result in many
misunderstandings.
In some cultures, for instance, it is regarded as rude to arrive late. In
others, it is perfectly acceptable. Talking openly about yourself is
acceptable in some cultures but not in others. Cultural differences have
a significant effect in the classroom.
The connection between culture and language is often most clearly
visible in the sociolinguistic aspect of language. The culture one
belongs to has certain rules about politeness in formal conversations,
what kind of language to use in a specific context, what to say when
greeting people (Hello, Hi, Howzit, Good morning or Good afternoon) or
introducing them to others, when to be casual with other people and
when not. Americans, for instance, tend to abandon all formality very
soon, while Japanese consider formality as something that must be
maintained at all times.
e Read section 2.2 ``The relationship between language and culture''

b Journal entry 2c
Read the following case study, and answer the questions that
follow.
Sharon, a fourteen year old girl, is in the same class as learners
from four different ethnic groups. The educator, Mr Visser, is a
white Afrikaans-speaking man who teaches Xhosa as a second
additional language. Sharon previously attended an English private
school which placed a lot of emphasis on critical thinking and the
learners' own opinions. She therefore questions a lot of what Mr
Visser says, and often argues with him. Mr Visser constantly loses
his temper with her, because he thinks it is rude for children to
backchat. This causes a lot of tension between them. Funnily
enough, Mr Visser doesn't get on well with Ndileka either, though
she is the very opposite of Sharon. Ndileka never makes a sound in
class, and seldom if ever asks a question. When Mr Visser talks to
her, she never looks directly at him: he regards this as a sign of bad
manners. He is also annoyed with her because he thinks that she
should be doing much better in Xhosa because she is black. (What
he doesn't know and hasn't bothered to find out is that she is a
Sotho.)
25 EDMHOD-R/1
(1) Can you explain Sharon's behaviour?

(2) Can you explain Ndileka's behaviour?
(3) Is Mr Visser right to be angry?
(4) Is Mr Visser's irritation with Ndileka's average achievement
justified?
(5) How should Mr Visser behave towards Sharon and Ndileka?
Compare your answers with our discussion below.

Mr Visser definitely does not have the knowledge he needs about
different cultural groups and the fact that communication styles differ
from one culture to another Ð for instance, symbols, habits, gestures,
eye contact and even silence or nonverbal communication. Learners
from some cultural groups will never criticise a teacher, and will also
not ask questions or interrupt a teacher if they do not understand
something. In other cultures, like Sharon's, it is acceptable to challenge
teachers' opinions and to be very critical of them. Mr Visser should
learn more about Sharon's and Ndileka's cultures so that he can
understand the girls better. As a language teacher he should also know
that some African languages are very different from others.
2.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND LEARNING
e Study section 2.3 ``Language and learning'' in The educator as

2.4 THE ROLE OF BODY LANGUAGE (NONVERBAL LANGUAGE)
e Study section 2.3 ``Body language'' in The educator as mediator of

learning.
2.5 USE OF AN ADDITIONAL* LANGUAGE AS THE LANGUAGE OF

TEACHING AND LEARNING
Multilingual classrooms can refer to the use of more than one language
of instruction in the classroom. There may, however, be learners in a
multilingual classroom who only understand one language, which
might be the dominant language. Although these learners are actually
behind the others, who know more than one language, in practice they
often seem to be ahead of the rest because they speak the dominant
language Ð the LOTL. Learners who speak the dominant language can
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ
* We use the terms: mother tongue, home language and first language for the language which a learner speaks at
home most of the time. Terms: second language, third language and foreign language refer to additional
languages that learners can speak. We often distinguish between a first additional language and a second
additional language.
26
often be the most powerful in the classroom situation, even though they
are monolingual. When the LOTL is not the learners' home language,
the communication and mediation process becomes very complicated.
Research proves that when learners' progress in the LOTL is limited,

the quality and scope of their learning is limited as well. Research also
proves that when the educator explains new, difficult concepts in the
learners' home language, they will participate more actively than when
the explanation is in their additional language. If the educator switches
from the language of instruction to the learners' home language, it will
be easier to find out whether the learners actually understand the
explanation (www.teacher.co.za/200004/language.html). When this
kind of switch does not take place, the learning can be defective.
e Read `Ùsing an additional language as the language of learning and

teaching'' in The educator as mediator of learning, before
attempting Journal entry 2d.
b Journal entry 2d
Read the following reports from Beeld, and Business Day, Tuesday
22 June 2004, p 12:
The language of education
The debate on mother tongue education results in Maths and Science to the inability of
which was detonated by the new Education children (and of many teachers) to master
Minister's remarks in parliament is a healthy difficult concepts in their second, third, fourth
one. or fifth language Ð usually English.
Minister Naledi Pandor said that she is It is important that this debate should be
committed to the reinforcement of mother about education principles, and not form part
tongue education in the first three school of what the ANC calls the ``national ques-
years, because mother tongue education tion''.
provides a sound foundation for the under- The point is, quite simply, the effective
standing of concepts. education of the masses, the people who will
It is actually just a confirmation of the have to make South Africa's economic and
existing policy. Language experts believe, social development a success.
however, that it is not enough.
Some of them even attribute poor matric Source: Beeld: Wednesday 30/6
Language
Dr Peliwe Lolwana, head of the Umalusi Cer- Such children presumably speak their
tification Council, called for a national strategy mother tongue fluently, and a bright mind
to improve the teaching of English as a second which understands is a bright mind which
language in a parliamentary committee. learns.
She said that learners are sometimes Surely there are no insurmountable obsta-
practically illiterate in English, and that this cles to teaching children in their mother
affects their matric results. tongues right up to matric. Then English as
Learners often end up in high schools where a second language could be exactly that Ð a
they are taught through the medium of second (or third) language.
English and have to express themselves in a The first objective must, after all, be to
language which they did not properly master acquire knowledge and skills. A second
in their primary schools. language comes next.
Another option might be to consider
mother-tongue education. Source: Beeld, Thursday 9 September 2004
27 EDMHOD-R/1
See newspaper article ``Skills boost, not money alone...'' on next

page.
(1) Answer the following questions based on the reports:
1.1 Are you in favour of mother tongue education, or do you
prefer to have learners in Grade 4 switch over to English
as the language of instruction?
1.2 Do you think that you have got the necessary language
competence to be able to explain complicated concepts
from your subject specialisation area in English in various
ways? If you answered ``no'', what can you do to improve
your language skills? If you answered ``yes'', what can
teachers do to improve their language skills if they are not
up to standard?
1.3 It is well known that the majority of learners in this
country have their academic achievement negatively
affected by their level of competence in English. Learners
who write their final Grade 12 examinations in a language
which is not their mother tongue get an extra 5% added on
to their final marks. Do you think this is a justifiable
practice? Substantiate your answer.
1.4 What is your solution to the language dilemma in educa-
tion?
1.5 What role does language play in the poor performance of
Black matrics, as discussed by Joffe?
(2) For the next two months, please read as many newspapers and
magazines as you can, and paste all reports or articles on the
issue of language in teaching into your journal. (If you can't
find any articles on this topic, you can paste in any other
articles dealing with problems in education, and write a letter
about one of them instead.)
In order to mediate learning effectively for learners who are not being
taught through the medium of their home language, basic background
knowledge of first language acquisition and the acquisition of
additional languages is necessary. (We sometimes refer to the home
language as the mother tongue or the first language, while an additional
language is also known as a second language.)
During the last three decades, a tremendous amount of research has
been done into language acquisition, and although the debate on how a
language is acquired will probably continue for a long time, two people
have laid the foundations for any further debate. The research and
insights of Jim Cummins and Stephen Krashen are very significant in
the context of teaching through the medium of an additional language.
Krashen focused on analysing the acquisition of a second language,
while Cummins emphasised the interaction between the first and the
second languages.
28
29 EDMHOD-R/1
2.5.1 Language learning versus language acquisition

A distinction can be made between deliberate learning of a language
and natural acquisition of a language in a social environment where the
language is used.
e Read section 2.5.1 ``Learning a language versus acquiring a

language'' in The educator as mediator of learning to see what
this difference entails and what the classroom implications are.
b Journal entry 2e
(1) Do you agree with Krashen that there is a difference between
the acquisition of an additional language and the learning of it?
Substantiate your answer.
(2) Your opinion about this will definitely influence your teaching.
Write a short paragraph in which you explain how your opinion
manifests itself in your teaching.
Krashen believes that it is much better to acquire a second language

than to learn it in a formal situation. We believe, though, that both the
acquisition and the learning of a language are important, and that
educators should try to find a balance between the two. In a country
like South Africa, where learners often have little or no opportunity to
speak English (the usual language of instruction) outside the school
with mother tongue English speakers or to be taught by English
speaking people, language learning is going to play a far more
important role than language acquisition.
The implication of this is that every teacher will also have to be a
language teacher!
2.5.2 The relation between the home language and an additional language
e Study section 2.5.2 ``The relationship between home language and

an additional language'' in The educator as mediator of learning.
The fact that home and additional language competences interact with
each other implies that second language development can build on and
benefit from what learners know in their first language. Miramontes,
Nadeau and Commins (1997:21) explain this as follows:
The primary language can serve as the tool to expand students'
conceptual foundation at a more rapid pace than is possible when
only the second language can be used. The knowledge developed in
the primary language can then be expressed in the second language
30
as students gain proficiency and fluency in its words and

structures.
Competence in the first language provides the foundation for language

acquisition in an additional language, so learners who are skilled in
their home language have a better chance of being able to use their
additional language effectively than learners who have not developed a
very good knowledge of their home language.
c The previous section emphasises the fact that the learners' home
language is very important, that the development of their additional
language takes place more readily if the home language is well
developed, and that the educator in the classroom must
acknowledge and build on the learners' home languages.
(1) Do you agree with this view?
(2) We hope you answered ``yes'', but now we would like you to
think about what you could do if the learners in your class came
from five different language groups of which you understand
only three. How will you acknowledge these learners' home
language if you do not understand it?
During group work, learners can be allowed to switch over to their

home language while they are working in small groups, but when
feedback is given it must be in the LOTL. Learners can also be asked to
write the translation of a particular concept on the board. It is usually
interesting to see how the words for a given concept are similar or
different in different languages.
2.5.3 Social versus academic language

It is relatively easy to communicate on an informal level in your addi-
tional language. It is, however, not so easy to have an academic conver-
sation on complicated abstract concepts in one's additional language.
e Read section 2.5.3 ``Social versus academic language'' in The

b Journal entry 2f
(1) Do you think that only the language teacher is responsible for
ensuring that learners develop the necessary interpersonal and
cognitive academic language skills?
(2) What will you do to ensure that learners do in fact acquire the
necessary cognitive academic language competences in your
subject or learning area?
31 EDMHOD-R/1
Language development in multilingual classrooms is not just the

responsibility of the language educator, but of every educator.
Learners are in particular need of support when new concepts and
vocabulary are introduced that are peculiar to a specific subject or
learning area. Even if you are not a language teacher, you can support
learners who are battling with the LOTL in the following ways:
. The educator can switch to the learners' home language, or invite
learners who do understand the concepts to explain them in simple
terms to their classmates who do not understand.
. Use can be made of illustrations or objects.
. Making sketches on the board can help to explain the meaning of
words or concepts.
. The use of various synonyms can help learners to understand new
vocabulary.
. Tasks like simple experiments can help learners to fix concepts.
. Giving learners interesting tasks, like a courtroom hearing, can help
them understand a story and also give them the opportunity to
practise their additional language in an informal context.
. Group tasks can be extremely helpful, but they require careful
planning.
2.5.4 Understandable input
e Read the first paragraph under ``Comprehensible input''

(sect 2.5.4) in The educator as mediator of learning.
Context plays an important role here. The educator must provide a

context very clearly, so that it will be possible for the learners to work
out the meanings of new words from the context.
If the learners know that a story deals with someone who is very angry,
and the educator says: ``The woman's blood was boiling'', the learners
will be able to figure out that her blood was not literally at boiling
point, but that this is an expression that can be used to express rage.
e Now read the rest of the discussion under ``Comprehensible input''

(sect 2.5.4) in The educator as mediator of learning.
b Journal entry 2g
What do you see as the teaching implications of understandable
input?
We are sure that you can see that you will have to use language yourself
in such a way that it is just a little bit more advanced than the learners'
32
existing level of understanding, but not so highflown and filled with

new words that the learners will be unable to deduce the meaning of
the new words from the context.
2.5.5 Code switching and code mixing
e Read section 2.5.5 ``Code switching and code mixing'' in The

c In the discussion on code switching and code mixing in The

educator as mediator it is explained that it is acceptable for second
language speakers to move from one language to another or to mix
their languages. Do you think it is acceptable for learners to mix or
switch their language codes in written work?
Codes are often switched and mixed for a good reason. It is acceptable
for learners to use a fragment of their own language to support a
position, create atmosphere, for emphasis or because they feel that
they understand it better if they use their own language. But when they
do it for no good reason, we should not accept it. Code switching and
code mixing are more acceptable in spoken than in written language.
Learners should be discouraged from mixing their languages in written
work Ð it makes a sloppy impression and is unacceptable. If they do
use words from their own language in a written piece of work, they
must be taught to put them in quotation marks at all times.
2.5.6 Making mistakes

All speakers, even mother tongue speakers, make mistakes when
learning a language!
e Study ``Making mistakes'' in The educator as mediator of

learning.
b Journal entry 2h
You have dealt with a large amount of information about language
acquisition. What teaching tips can you formulate for yourself,
based on this new knowledge? Remember to write your teaching
tips in a different colour, or to use some method of making them
stand out. (Do not write down too many teaching tips Ð they lose
their impact.)
33 EDMHOD-R/1
2.5.7 Language and power

I am quite sure that you are aware that, although South Africa has a
multilanguage policy which acknowledges many official languages, not
all of them have the same status.
e Read section 2.5.7 ``Language and power'' in The educator as

The presence of high status and low status languages means that
language minority groups form in a society. If ``minority'' is defined in
terms of power and not of numbers, then all groups whose home
languages are not official languages in the countries they live in are
linguistic minorities. These linguistic minorities are, for practical
purposes, forced to become bilingual or multilingual.
Sridhar (1996:54) states that movements are under way in various
countries, trying to get recognition, power and status for indigenous
languages which were suppressed or marginalised during colonial and
postcolonial times. This is the case in South Africa as well. Since the
new political system came into operation and gave equal status to the
11 leading languages in the country, there have been increasing appeals
for the development of the indigenous African languages. The new
education policy on language in education regards indigenous
languages as equal in dignity, and is trying to end their subordinate
status with respect to English.
This is most encouraging, because from a linguistic point of view all
languages do have equal status. As a (future) teacher, you must first
understand how important it is to acknowledge the potential equality of
all languages, and in the second place you must realise that
stigmatising learners' home languages can cause considerable psycho-
logical damage. There must be an end to linguistic racism. Heugh and
SiegruÈhn (1995:97) say that ``... misconceptions about the inherent
superiority and inferiority of languages undermine the status of
nondominant languages''.
c (1) What can be done to ensure that all learners experience their
home language as equal in dignity to all other languages?
(2) Do you think that your own language is inferior to English? If
so, explain why.
(3) What do you think about using learners' home language as the
LOTL?
(4) Have you ever felt inferior in certain situations because you
speak a particular language? Do you sometimes expect people to
laugh at you if you were to make mistakes in your additional
language?
34
Learners' languages must enjoy recognition at all times. Keep the

following in mind:
. Learners' home language (mother tongue) must be thoroughly
developed, because competence in one's mother tongue lays the
foundation for the acquisition of an additional language.
. Educators should have a basic knowledge of the learners' home
language.
. Code switching and code mixing must be regarded positively.
. All languages must be respected.
. Making mistakes must be seen as an important part of language
acquisition.
b Journal entry 2i
Read the review (English and Afrikaans still seen as gateway to
success) of a chapter in a book which appeared recently, and then
answer the questions that follow.
QUESTIONS
(1) Why is English still the most popular choice, in spite of the
official protection and promotion of black languages?
(2) What are the consequences of this?
(3) How do your answers to questions 1 and 2 and the rest of the
article fit in with all that you have learnt so far about language
and power?
(4) The article refers to ``flexible language policy''. Write down a
few suggestions for compiling a flexible language policy for use
in South African schools.
(5) (a) Why do you think the experiences of speakers of African
languages in English medium schools are often ``frustrating,
demoralising and even traumatic''?
(5) (b) What do you think can be done to make these learners'
experiences less traumatic, frustrating and demoralising?
(6) Do you agree with the reasons given by Prof Mda for the
marginalisation of African languages? Explain your answer.
(7) ``These fears pose a real threat to the redress and
democratisation process in SA.'' Why do you think this is so?
2.6 SUPPORTING LEARNING IN AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE
e This section should be studied in conjunction with ``Supporting

learning in an additional language'' in The educator as mediator of
learning.
35 EDMHOD-R/1
Source: Business day, Monday 14 June 2004, p4.

36
2.6.1 Language support

When learners start learning in a second language, most of their
learning comes through listening. They listen to stories in which
words or sentences are repeated. After a while the learners start
making sense of what they hear. They pick up words and sounds. At
this stage their understanding of the language is better than their
ability to speak it. Their self-confidence must grow before they will
feel comfortable about speaking the language.
It is important to build a strong foundation for understanding the
spoken language. This includes knowledge of language and vocabulary
which learners pick up naturally as they listen to others during free
activities. This foundation is also important when learners begin to
read and write in their new language. Learners must be encouraged to
develop their listening and speaking skills. You, as an educator, must
encourage them to talk more, and to ask if they do not understand. You
can also make generous use of movements, pictures and real objects in
order to explain words.
e Study section 2.6.1 ``Language support'' in The educator as

mediator or learning.
2.6.2 The duty of every educator

Because language is the medium granting access to learning
experiences and learning contents, the saying arose that every
teacher is also a teacher of language.
e Study section 2.6.2 ``Language across the curriculum'' in The

2.6.3 Strategies for supporting learners whose home language is not the
LOTL
e Study section 2.6.3 ``Supporting learners whose home language is

not the LOTL'' in The educator as mediator of learning. This is a
very important section and should be studied in depth.
Apart from the techniques discussed in the text book, the following
techniques can be used with learners whose second language is their
medium of instruction (www.teacher.co.za):
. Use drills regularly for practise in basic language and vocabulary,
but do not overdo them.
. Do not use every available moment in class for teaching: give the
learners time to think about what they have learnt, and to reflect.
Use brief written exercises if necessary.
37 EDMHOD-R/1
. Provide for explicit teaching of syntax (grammar) and semantics (the

meanings of words) to facilitate formal language teaching and to
develop competences in written communication and interpretation.
. Make provision for alternative methods of replying: oral instead of
written, graphic instead of verbal and so on.
. Divide the task into more manageable sections instead of setting one
big task.
. Ensure that learners experience themselves as successful by giving
simpler tasks which gradually get more difficult.
. It is a good idea to allow learners to choose between alternative
tasks and activities.
. Modify your presentation of abstract concepts by using concrete
learning activities, and make sure that learners have the vocabulary
they need for academic cognitive tasks.
. Choose written texts which are on the same level as the learners in
respect of the complexity of vocabulary and concepts.
. Set down your academic and behavioural expectations, and
communicate them clearly to the learners.
b Journal entry 2j
(1) Which two subjects or learning areas do you intend to teach
(or, are you teaching at present)?
(2) Explain which of the strategies above will be the best to use in
each of those subjects or learning areas in order to support
learning through the medium of an additional language.
(3) Explain why those specific support strategies will be suited to
the subjects or learning areas you will teach or are teaching.
2.6.4 Acquiring new vocabulary
e Study section 2.6.4 `Àcquiring new vocabulary'' in the prescribed

book.
2.6.5 Communicating positive expectations

There are many ways in which you can communicate to your learners
that you think they are capable of doing the work and that you have
high expectations of them. You need to communicate your expecta-
tions to the learners, whether they are learning through the medium of
their home language or an additional language.
. Face the reality of the challenges confronting your learners.
Remarks that are intended to encourage and motivate learners (like
`Ì'm sure you all know ...'', or `Ìt's very easy to ...'' or `Ànyone
can work this out in five minutes'') could well have the opposite
effect on learners who are finding the work difficult and do not
always get the right answer. They could easily get the impression
38
that the educator, and their classmates, will think they are stupid if
they have difficulty with such a simple task, and then they certainly
won't ask for help.
. Acknowledge all contributions. Acknowledge all the contributions
that the learners make, even if they are not exactly what you
wanted. Point out the bits of an answer that are correct, and explain
where the learner went off the track.
. Encourage questions. Remind the learners regularly that questions
are always welcome, and that whoever asks a question is doing a
favour to all the other learners who are silently battling with the
same problem.
. Get regular feedback. Find out from your learners regularly what
they think they are learning, and what you and they together can do
to help them to learn better. You might for instance ask them to
write down at the end of every lesson just one thing that they learnt
that day, and just one thing that they are still not sure about.
We conclude this section on language support with a quotation Ð let's

say that it could be a warning Ð from Miramontes, Nadeau and
Commins (1997:155) about the overuse of learners' home language in
the classroom:
Even if translations could be done fully, students would then in
effect receive all of their instruction in the primary language,
leaving the question of when they would be able (or need) to learn
their second language. This lack of instruction in English would
undermine their ability to function proficiently in monolingual
English-content settings. Constant translation of content materials
also undermines the power of the primary language and sends
another strong message to students Ð that their primary language
is not really a language to learn through, but rather a prop that is
necessary because they are not proficient enough to learn like
everyone else. Although a quick fix in some instances, translation
can create dependency in students that does not let them fully
develop their abilities to communicate clearly in either language.
What is the message of this quotation? We think it is that a balance

should be found between the use of the home language and the LOTL.
2.7 SUPPORTING STUDY SKILLS

Because there is such a close link between language and learning,
there is also a close link between language and studying.
It is very important to teach the following study skills to your
learners:
. how to approach a text that must be read
. how to take notes
. how to organise their notes to improve recall
. how to organise their notes into a coherent summary
. how to identify key concepts and ideas in a written text
. how to make a mind map
39 EDMHOD-R/1
. how to draw conclusions

. the use of dictionaries, especially explanatory and subject diction-
aries
. how to plan a written text
e Study section 2.7 ``Supporting study skills'' in The educator as

G . In this study unit we examined the role of language during

learning mediation.
. We saw that language and culture are very closely connected,
and that the home language(s) of the learners must be
acknowledged and respected because second language skills
develop better if mother tongue competence is well developed.
. We also saw that if a learner is not familiar with the LOTL, the
educator must provide the necessary support to ensure that the
language is not an obstacle to the learner's progress. We noted
especially that all educators, not just those who teach languages,
should improve the learners' language usage.
Now turn back to the beginning of this study unit and take another
look at the outcomes which we set there. If you can answer the
following questions, you have achieved those outcomes. If you had to
keep turning back to check the answers, we suggest that you should
work through the study unit once more.
c (1) Your friend from the Netherlands, who speaks fluent English,
has accepted a teaching post in Gauteng. She has worked as a
teacher in the Netherlands, where the learners are fairly
homogeneous in terms of language and culture. She asks you to
explain to her how a multicultural and multilingual society
influences the teaching situation in South Africa. What will you
tell her?
(2) Now that you have given your friend her answer, she would
like you to explain the teaching implications and all the things
that one should keep in mind when mediating learning through
the medium of an additional language. How would you respond
to her query?
(3) What tips can you suggest to stimulate learners' language and
cognitive development at the same time?
(4) Why do you think it is the responsibility of all educators, not
just the language teachers, to develop learners' language skills?
40
2.9 TEACHING TIPS
b Journal entry 2k
Now that you have come to the end of this study unit, you have
probably got a number of teaching tips to write down. Do that now
in your journal book. Remember to mark them clearly Ð
TEACHING TIPS Ð so that they stand out. Remember also not to
enter too many teaching tips, as they will lose their impact.
c Reread your journal entry 2a. Has this study unit lived up to your
expectations? Have you learnt what you expected to learn?
41 EDMHOD-R/1
STUDY UNIT 3
Strategies for working with learners

who experience barriers to learning
g OUTCOMES
After working through this study unit, you should be able to
. explain what inclusive teaching involves
. explain the nature of barriers to learning
. discuss and apply several teaching strategies which can
overcome barriers to learning
. discuss and apply effective strategies to meet learner needs and
to overcome barriers to learning
. list a few characteristics of learners with behavioural, physical,
emotional and learning barriers, and support learners with these
barriers through effective mediation
. have an understanding, supportive approach to learners with
special needs and disabilities
b Journal entry 3a
Read the outcomes again, as well as the table of contents for this
(3) To what extent do you think that this topic can help you to be
an effective educator, or a better educator than you are at
present?
(4) Are you looking forward to working through this study unit?
Explain your answer.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Until now, almost all teachers have been trained to function either in
mainstream education or in schools for learners with disabilities. If
learners with barriers to learning, disabilities or special needs landed
up in mainstream education, it was a major adjustment for the
educators, who were likely to feel threatened. According to the latest
education policy, learners with learning impairment and special needs
42
should be supported in mainstream education in such a way that their

various needs can be met there. All educators are therefore facing the
challenge of minimalising, removing and preventing all obstacles to
learning in order to give all learners Ð regardless of their short-
comings Ð an equal chance of success. A classroom in which learners
with different needs and abilities are grouped together is known as an
inclusive classroom. It is vitally important for all educators to be
aware of and to be sure that they have the knowledge and skills needed
to mediate learning effectively in an inclusive classroom.
3.2 NEW POLICIES
e Study section 3.2 ``New policies'' in chapter 3 of The educator as

mediator of learning. Pay attention to the distinction made
between mainstream education and inclusion.
There is a complex relationship between the learner, the school, the

broad education system and the social, political and economic context
of which they all form a part. When a problem arises in one of those
areas, it affects the learning process and causes failures of or
exclusion from learning. If the system does not manage to meet the
different needs of a wide variety of learners, it will result in learners
learning ineffectively or not being able to keep on learning effectively.
It is therefore essential for you, the educator, to understand the wide
variety of obstacles which can stand in the way of effective learning.
3.3 THE SPECIAL EDUCATION NEEDS COORDINATOR
e Read section 3.3 ``The role of the special needs coordinator

(SENCO)'' in The educator as mediator of learning.
3.4 LEARNER DIVERSITY AND TYPES OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING

We, as educators, should be very concerned about learner diversity in
our classrooms. Learners differ from each other in many ways. They
have different abilities to achieve, different learning styles and needs,
and some learn faster than others. They also differ in respect of
gender, ethnicity, culture, socioeconomic status and home language.
Some have special needs because they have problems like visual or
hearing impairment, intellectual disabilities, because they are gifted,
etc. These differences have implications for the mediation of learning,
curriculum design and implementation, as we can see in the following
quotation from Ainscow (1995:17):
The rather token mention of special education needs is being
gradually replaced by a recognition that the special needs agenda
43 EDMHOD-R/1
should be seen as an essential element of the drive for education

for all. Thus instead of an emphasis on the idea of integration,
with its assumption that additional arrangements will be made to
accommodate exceptional learners within a system of schooling
that remains largely unchanged, we see moves towards inclusive
education, where the aim is to restructure schools in order to
respond to all needs of all children. [Our emphasis]
If we consider the above extract, we are actually obliged to provide

access to education for all learners and to meet all their educational
needs. This kind of teaching must not discriminate against children,
whatever their circumstances. A learner's origins, background or
circumstances make no difference: learners have the right to educa-
tion. Ainscow (1995) also believes that ordinary schools will have to be
adapted to accommodate all learners. The emphasis must be on a
system which has to satisfy the needs of all learners, and to unlock
their full potential rather than on a system which isolates or excludes
from mainstream education the learners who need special support. The
system should thus be adapted to meet all learners' needs.
If schools accommodate all learners, it is logical that there will be
learners with certain disabilities and barriers which would prevent
them from learning if they did not receive the necessary support. Read
the previous sentence again! What it is actually saying is that all
learners can achieve success, provided that they get the right
support. This position is emphasised very strongly in an outcomes
based education approach.
b Journal entry 3b
(1) Write down, in two columns, all the factors that helped or
hindered you from achieving when you were at school.
(2) Draw a table with three columns in your journal book.
2.1 In the first column, list all the possible barriers you can
think of that could prevent learners from learning
effectively.
2.2 In the second column indicate what needs you think a
learner with those barriers will have.
2.3 In the third column, write what you think the educator can
do to meet the needs of those learners without neglecting
the others.
(3) Answer this question only if you have access to videos and to a
TV and video machine. Borrow the videos ``Dangerous minds''
and ``The Mona Lisa smiles''. Watch them, and see what
learning barriers you can identify in them both. Write them
down in your journal book. (Please make a real effort to watch
these videos, even if it means asking a neighbour or relative if
you can watch them on their equipment!)
44
e Study the table (Summary of barriers to learning) in section 3.2 in

Compare the table you drew up with the one provided by the Education
Department. Did you tend to concentrate on medical barriers only,
such as hearing impairments, visual impairments, illnesses and so on,
or did you realise that factors like gender issues (discrimination
against women, for instance) and a lack of basic facilities such as
water, electricity and toilets can also be barriers to learning?
If you were able to watch the videos, you will have seen that socio-
economic factors like poverty, parents who are negative towards the
school, drug abuse in the neighbourhood, gangs and gang warfare,
peer pressure, a defective view of the future and inadequate aids at the
school (too many learners needing too few aids) can be barriers to
learning for many of the learners. In ``The Mona Lisa smiles'', the
perception that women do not really need education was a barrier to
learning for many of the girls.
b Journal entry 3c
Read the following newspaper report which appeared in the Star,
Monday 14 June, p 6.
E Cape toilet boon, but many teachers

and pupils still use the bush
Although Eastern Cape schools will get another have houses around the schools.''
697 toilets, pupils and teachers in over 800 According to the United Nations Children's
schools still have to use the bush. Fund, inadequate sanitation facilities at schools
Launching a development programme to can drive down attendance and is one of the
provide toilets for over 16 000 pupils and reasons that some girls drop out of schools when
teachers in 35 schools, Education MEC they start menstruating.
MKhangeli Matomela this week said that the The new toilets Ð which will cost R10-million
department had resolved to ensure that all of the department's R498-million infrastructure
schools had water and sanitation by 2006, and budget Ð will be pit latrines, as many of the
that all mud-structured classrooms and badly schools are in areas that are not part of a water-
dilapidated classrooms were replaced `ìn the borne sewerage system.
shortest time possible''. The programme includes plans to install water
The new toilets would be built in, among tanks to collect rain so that children can wash
other places, Lusikisiki, Mbizana and President their hands.
Thabo Mbeki's hometown Idutywa. ``That is very important to us,'' Khaile said.
Matomela said that in 1995, the department The department has entered into a service
had been faced with 1 487 schools without agreement with the Rapid Infrustructure De-
toilets and 1 972 without water. velopment Agency, and the programme will be
Since then, 597 schools had been provided managed by an NGO, the Mvula Trust.
with toilets. But the department still faced the Matomela urged small contractors to obtain
challenge of providing toilets to another 890 supplier numbers to participate in infrastructure
schools by 2006. repairs, which had also provided many jobs.
`Ìt is a backlog, it is terrible,'' Gay Khaile, He said provisions had been made to ensure
the department's communications director, said. that women were allocated work in the con-
``The children have to use the bushes and struction programmes.
teachers have arrangements with people who Ð Sapa
45 EDMHOD-R/1
Question:
(1) Make a list of all the barriers to learning that you can identify
in the report.
In the next section we will discuss just a few of the barriers which we
have identified so far.
3.4.1 Socio-economic factors

Have you ever seen a child who is very hungry, cold or frightened?
Children like that cannot concentrate on their school work! But fear
and poverty are not the only barriers to learning. In wealthy suburbs,
children might not suffer from hunger but they do suffer from too much
freedom, too much money and too little attention from their parents, so
that they escape for pleasure to other places; this leads to a variety of
problems such as drug abuse. The thoughts of children from homes
where they are often assaulted or abused by their parents are usually
far away from their school work. It is most unlikely that learners who
are hungry, frightened or abused will make the best of their learning
opportunities. The school work done by such children will definitely
suffer. The immediate reaction of any teachers is to ask what they are
supposed to do about it Ð after all, it is impossible to give a bunch of
children food every morning, or to visit all their parents and make them
change their ways. Where possible, Social Welfare should be
approached for help. Churches also sometimes help out with food
parcels, and some schools have feeding programmes which can help.
As educators, you must know that learners with problems at home
need special attention and support, and that you need to take special
care to get and keep the attention of these learners in the classroom.
Families where learners have to work in and around the house with
little time left for homework or learning, where parents are negative or
neutral towards the school, where there is not enough space available
to do homework or not enough money for stationery or other aids such
as atlases or dictionaries are often regarded as barriers to learning.
If learners begin their school careers with a backlog (poor language
development, faulty vocabulary, lack of reading readiness), and if this
backlog is not removed in the junior schools, then it will be a barrier to
learning in the senior and FET phases.
e Study section 3.4.1 ``Socio-economic factors causing barriers to

learning'' in The educator as mediator of learning. Pay special
attention to the proposals for supporting learners with this type of
barrier.
In study unit 4 we explain that socio-economic factors are a contextual

aspect which educators have to take into account when mediating
learning.
46
c Read the following newspaper reports.
Pandor must get more for education

We welcome the fact that Minister is to wipe out the backlog of 40 000
Naledi Pandor, minister of education, classrooms.
admits that R50 billion is needed to In the Ekurhuleni D6 district alone, in
eliminate the classroom backlog. But will the Gauteng Department of Education,
she be able to persuade the rest of the over 40 000 unexpected learners have
Cabinet to allocate a bigger slice of the arrived from other provinces.
Budget to education? Until the government provides more
The education budget has unfortu- classrooms, basic education needs are
nately dropped since 1999 from 23 not being met. Teachers will not be able
percent of the total to 19 percent. In to apply Curriculum 2005 properly.
Gauteng it has shrunk from 40 percent to The level of literacy and numeracy will
23 perpcent. remain unacceptably low.
Pandor's first responsibility is to
ensure that the children who learn under David Quail, DA MPL, Gauteng
trees get proper classrooms. The second Source: Beeld, 9 June 2004
Make a list of the barriers to learning that you can identify in the
report.
School fees unpaid,

so deaf children sent home
Marthinus van Vuuren confirmed last week that the school has
When Mrs Gladys Nkosi and her not received its subsidy from the Depart-
husband Simon's three children from ment of Education for the current term.
Pretoria turned up at their home in Other special schools have had to break
Mpumalanga, she knew something was departmental regulations and take out
wrong. bank loans to pay running costs, he said.
Tombi (19), David (13) and Bongi Meanwhile, Beeld has learnt that the
(7) Ð all deaf like their parents Ð were Filadelfia Secondary School for the
sent home the week before last by the physically disabled in Soshanguve,
Transoranje School for the Deaf in north of Pretoria, the MC Kharbai
Pretoria because their parents can no School for the Deaf in Lenasia, the
longer afford the boarding fees. Prinshof School for the Visually Im-
This means that they will no longer paired in Pretoria and the Transvalia
receive schooling. School for Epileptics in Pretoria have
A total of 102 children have had to not received their subsidies either.
leave the school's boarding house, and Mr Thebe Mohatle, spokesman for
24 have had to leave the preprimary the Department of Education, said on
school. They could not afford the Friday that the subsidies had not been
boarding fees either. paid out as a result of an `àdministrative
``The school is not refusing them delay''. The documents were currently
access; it has no more money to being processed and the subsidies would
accommodate them,'' said Mrs Lulu be paid out soon, he said.
van der Walt, a music teacher at the After Mr Nkosi Ð who has been
school. ``These children cannot go to a unemployed for a considerable time Ð
local school for hearing learners until the found work again last week, he was able
problem is resolved because they need to send Tombi (Gr 10) and David (Gr 5)
specialised teaching. Boarding facilities back to school.
are essential.''
Mr Rassie Erasmus, financial chair- Source: Beeld 9 June 2004, p 6
man of the school's governing body,
47 EDMHOD-R/1
What problems confront us when learners with medical and other

disabilities are included in mainstream education? How can we
overcome these problems?
Read newspapers regularly, and see if you encounter any other
obstacles in the way of learning.
3.4.2 Language as a barrier to learning
e Read section 3.4.2 ``Barriers caused by language in The educator

In section 2.5 of study unit 2 we discussed the issue of learners who

are taught through the medium of their additional language. The
important role of language in learning was emphasised, and we
indicated in particular how necessary it is to support these learners in
various ways. One kind of language support which we would use with
hearing impaired learners is sign language. Turn back to section 1.2. If
you look at the practical competences listed in the Norms and
standards for educators, you will see that educators have to be able
to use sign language if necessary; for that reason we are going to
exchange a few ideas about it now.
Some of the evening news bulletins on TV have a sign language
interpreter, whose job it is to make the news accessible for Deaf
people. Sign language is the twelfth official language of South Africa,
and it is becoming increasingly important for us as educators to learn
something about it, even just a few signs. The signs used are widely
available and can be learnt in class. Even if the learners only learn one
sign a day, they will acquire a general understanding of the system.
This means, however, that you will have to know how to use it.
Learning sign language cannot be done overnight. We will give you
only the basic information about sign language and refer you to the
right people to contact if you are interested in taking a formal course
or getting more information. As inclusive education becomes a reality,
you will have to consider such a course.
In South Africa we use South African Sign Language or SASL. It differs
from the sign languages used in countries like the United States and
Britain, but SASL is so simple that anyone will be able to understand it
quite easily.
(1) Sign language

SASL is a natural language used by members of the South African Deaf
community. It is a language which arose naturally over time because
the user community (Deaf people) need to communicate, just like any
other people. SASL has all the features of any other language. Sign
language is made up of symbols, like all other languages and
48
communication systems, and is productive Ð in other words, it can

generate an infinite number of utterances, and any new message or
topic can be produced at any given time. The only difference is that
communication takes place by means of gestures in what we call a
visual gestural modality. This means that sign language is produced
by using the hands, face, head and upper body, and is processed by the
eyes. (Spoken language is produced by the mouth, tongue and vocal
cords and is processed by the ears.)
(2) Deaf culture

Deaf people all over the world regard themselves as members of a
linguistic minority with a unique culture. Deaf culture has its own
values, social norms, customs and technology which are handed down
from generation to generation. This is why we spell ``Deaf'' with a
capital letter, just like Jew, Tswana or American. Any community is
linked together by certain common aspirations, culture and language;
in the case of the Deaf, sign language is the linking factor.
People who can hear used to regard Deaf people as sick, different and
prone to learning problems as a result of their shortcomings, and
believed that they needed to be treated completely differently from
hearing people. They focused on the differences between themselves
and the Deaf, rather than on the similarities. This view is outdated,
and nowadays Deaf people are seen as belonging to a subculture which
shares a particular way of communicating. Deaf people do not regard
themselves as disabled at all Ð just as people with a particular
culture which differs from other people's cultures. The schools which
Deaf people attend, where they come into contact with others like
themselves, link them very strongly to their own culture. Deaf people
also identify very strongly with other Deaf people, and it is very
difficult for a hearing person to become part of the Deaf culture.
(3) Dos and don'ts in Deaf culture

3.1 Dos
. Tap a person's shoulder lighly to attract their attention.
. If you are too far away for physical contact, wave your arms in the
air until eye contact is established.
. Switch lights on and off to attract attention.
. Keep a comfortable distance between yourself and the person you
are communicating with.
. Make eye contact before you start communicating. In some cultures
this would be interpreted as staring rudely, but not in Deaf culture.
The eyes play an important role in conveying messages.
. Wait your turn to begin signing (as you would in any spoken
conversation).
. Make sure that your face is not obscured by your hair or a scarf.
. Show that you are paying attention by nodding slightly. If you display
no emotion, people will assume that you are not paying attention.
49 EDMHOD-R/1
3.2 Don'ts
. Do not touch another part of the body (head, face, stomach) to
attract a person's attention.
. Do not make a fist, kick or throw things to attract attention.
. Do not walk between two people who are conversing in sign
language. If it cannot be avoided, then apologise first.
. Do not stand too close to the other person.
. Do not look away; this is a sign that the conversation is over.
. Do not use sign language when you are holding something (like a
book or a pen).
. Do not eat or chew while signing.
(4) The structure of signs

4.1 Signs
When you use SASL there are four important points to be aware of:
handform, location, movement and orientation.
(1) Handform. This refers to the different forms that the hand takes.
The following are examples:
(2) Location. This indicates the areas where the handform is situated,
such as the head, the chest or the neutral space in front of the
body, for example:
(3) Movement. There is movement in every sign, for example:
(4) Orientation. This refers to the position of the palm of the hand in
relation to the body, for example:
To sign ``perhaps'', point the palm upwards, and point it downwards

to sign ``children''.
4.2 Facial expressions

You also need to know that facial expressions are very important in
sign language because they indicate grammar. They are referred to as
nonmanual grammatical markers, nonmanual behaviours and/or
50
nonmanual signals. Facial expressions are governed by rules. For

example, facial expressions for Yes/No questions are completely
unlike those for the WH-questions (why, what, where, when, etc). For
Yes/No questions the eyebrows are raised, the eyes are wide open and
the head and shoulders are forward. For WH-questions the eyebrows
are lowered, the eyes are narrowed, the head is tilted slightly and the
shoulders are forward. When the facial expressions changes, a
completely different message can be conveyed. Facial expressions
can also be used to express different kinds of sentences such as
rhetorical questions, conditionals and commands.
4.3 Fingerspelling
Fingerspelling is the method of making the 26 letters of the alphabet
by using the hands. It is used to spell people's names, especially when
they are being introduced, and to show the names of places, concepts
or words for which there are no signs or if the person has forgotten the
signs. Fingerspelling is not signing. It is a form of code switching
(when you are speaking one language and they use a word from a
different language because it expresses your thought better or because
you do not know the word in the language you are speaking).
Fingerspelling is limited to people, both Deaf and hearing, who have
been exposed to written English or any other written language.
4.4 Interesting facts about sign language

Did you know that sign language has its own grammmatical structure
which is independent of any spoken language like English, Afrikaans,
Zulu, etc? And did you know that the majority of Deaf people (90
percent) have parents who can hear, and therefore did not learn sign
language as their mother tongue? They learnt sign language from their
friends at school. Only 10 per cent of Deaf people have parents who
are also Deaf.
It is also interesting to know that, although there are regional
differences and variations in SASL, it has the same grammatical
structure all over the country. There is not a one-to-one relationship
between English and SASL. One sign can be translated into English by
more than one word, or perhaps by a phrase or a sentence. Similarly,
there can be more than one sign for a single English word.
SASL is not more or less abstract than any spoken language. People
can use sign language to communicate anything, however complex,
that can be expressed in any other language.
Remember that sign language is not universal or international. In

every country the Deaf community develops its own sign language.
The way in which Deaf Americans decide to refer to the world around
them can be different from the way Deaf South Africans do it. There
are however certain grammatical correspondence which occur in all
the sign languages in the world. Some sign languages may use certain
51 EDMHOD-R/1
handforms which could be culturally unacceptable in other Deaf

communities. Similarly, certain handforms and movements may look
identical in two different sign languages, but their meanings could
differ.
We hope that this introductory information (most of which we

obtained from the Deafsa website, http://www.deafsa.co.za) will
stimulate your interest so that you decide to take a more formal
course. The University of the Witwatersrand and the Free State
University both offer full-time degree courses; if you prefer part-time
study, the Tshwane North College for FET in Pretoria offers short
courses. You can contact these institutions for more information.
Here are a few of the signs which are used in SASL. Try to learn some
of them, and teach them to your learners. Start with one a day, and
make learning the signs a game or competition so that your learners
will also be keen to acquire knowledge of SASL.
See next few pages of inserts.
FIGURE 3.1
The alphabet in fingerspelling
52
FIGURE 3.2
A few examples of SASL
53 EDMHOD-R/1
54
55 EDMHOD-R/1
56
57 EDMHOD-R/1
58
3.4.3 Medical disabilities
c Imagine the following scenario in your class:

One of the girls in your class, Mpo, wears glasses with very thick
lenses but even so she can hardly see. She often trips over the bags
and other things that lie around on the classroom floor. Tina,
another learner, is completely deaf in one ear and has only limited
hearing in the other. A third learner, Thobela, moves with
difficulty: He was in a motor accident and as a result, one of his
legs is shorter than the other. Unfortunately, some of the boys and
girls in your class have got no empathy with these three learners at
all. They keep on making remarks about their disabilities, and
laugh at their problems.
The question is, what can you do, as the mediator of learning, to help
the three learners and also to make the classroom bullies more
understanding of the disabled learners. If you study the following
sections carefully, you should be able to draw up a plan of action to
overcome this problem.
3.4.3.1 Visual impairment

It is easy to identify learners with broken limbs or in wheelchairs as
disabled. But how can you tell if learners are visually disabled? What
signs might they give to indicate that they do not see well? Some
learners will tell you about their problem, but others will not! That is
why it is a good idea, at the beginning of the year, to invite learners to
see you in private about any disabilities they may have.
59 EDMHOD-R/1
The effect of the impairment on learners' learning capacity depends to

a considerable extent on the time when and the way in which their
sight was damaged. Some learners gradually lose their vision over a
period of years, while others were born blind. Some learners might
also be light sensitive, have poor or limited vision or peripheral vision
(where they can only see out of the corners of their eyes). It is
important to remember also that vision can fluctuate considerably in
some cases. Vision and light tolerance can be much better on some
days than on others.
e Read section 3.4.3.1 ``Visual impairments'' in the prescribed book

up to the section ``Proposals for supporting ...''.
a Communicating with learners with visual impairments

When you communicate with learners who are visually impaired, re-
member that you must only ever speak to them in a normal voice. These
learners rely heavily on your voice and your tone of voice, and so you
must speak clearly and naturally at all times. Interactions with them
must always be respectful, and must acknowledge their human dignity.
It is usually advisable to speak personally to these learners, to find out
what their needs are, and then to decide on a plan of action in consul-
tation with them. Their parents should also be consulted. The plan
could be to allow extra time for reading, to enlarge handouts or to pro-
vide them a day early, to use a cassette recorder, to let the learner sit in
front, etc. Don't call undue attention to learners with special needs.
b Mediating learning for a group containing learners with

visual impairments
What can you, as a mediator of learning, do to help visually impaired
learners to learn effectively? Here are a few ideas:
. Describe all activities. Try to make laboratory work, experiments
and expeditions easier for these learners, or replace them with a
cassette recording of what people can see.
. Allow more time. Give these learners their reading tasks early, or
give them more time in which to read. Enlarge work.
e Now make a thorough study of ``Proposals for supporting learners

with visual problems'' (sect 3.4.3.1) in The educator as mediator
of learning for more guidelines on how to support these learners.
Remember that all the other principles for the successful mediation of
learning still apply when you are teaching visually impaired learners.
In other words, you must be sure that the learners know what and how
to learn. You can do this by showing learners how new information fits
60
in with other parts of the work or with other subjects (learning areas),
and also by giving them the opportunity to think over and reflect on
what they have learnt and how it links up with their previous learning
experiences. They must also work out what they do not yet know, but
need in order to progress. Make it very clear what you expect learners
to learn in a particular lesson, and how they are going to be assessed.
c Assessing learners with visual impairments

Nobody intends you to lower standards in order to accommodate
learners with disabilities. All you are expected to do is to give these
learners a fair chance to demonstrate what they have learnt. You can
do this by giving them more time to complete a task, especially one
that requires a lot of reading. You can also read the test questions
aloud to these learners one by one, or record the questions on tape in
advance, or enlarge the questions using a photostat machine. These
learners often need extra space, especially if they use a cassette
recorder or enlarged materials. If necessary, they should also get
extra time to finish tests or examinations Ð remember that they
usually read more slowly than other learners. If the subject (learning
area) lends itself to an oral examination, they can be allowed to sit for
one (Noble & Mullins 1998).
3.4.3.2 Auditory impairments

The kind of hearing loss, as well as the time when it happened and the
extent of the problem, determines its effects on learners, just as in the
case of visual impairment. Learners might have lost their hearing
gradually, been born Deaf, or lost their hearing at a later stage, either
totally or partially, as a result of illness. Learners with a hearing
impairment sometimes have difficulty with certain frequencies of
sound, and are disturbed by background noise. Tinnitus is also a
widespread hearing problem. It is a high, monotonous, singing or
ringing sound in one or both ears. Some learners use hearing aids,
which might improve their hearing but will not necessarily make it
perfect. Hearing impaired learners will use lip reading or sign language,
or a combination of the two. If their home language is not the LOTL,
many of them will have difficulty with the lexical (vocabulary) and
syntactic (grammatical) structure of the LOTL and will also have a
limited vocabulary. Some Deaf learners also have speech dysfunctions.
e Read section 3.4.3.2 `Àuditory impairments'' in The educator as

mediator of learning up to ``Proposals for supporting ...''.
a Communicating with hearing impaired learners

When we communicate with these learners, we must also show our
respect for their human dignity. We must help them to realise that we
do not regard them as `à case'', `à victim'' or `à sufferer'', but as a
61 EDMHOD-R/1
learner. Speak slowly and clearly, and keep on asking whether you
need to repeat something. When speaking to a learner who lipreads, it
is not necessary to speak louder than usual or to make exaggerated lip
movements.
Learners with hearing impairments have hearing which fluctuates a
lot, so they are sometimes unsure of whether to tell the educator about
their impairment. You should therefore invite learners to discuss any
problem with you, however small, and try to decide with the learner
how you will both overcome the problem in the classroom. Find out
from the learner if you can share this information with your colleagues
or not. You can also consult with the learners' parents to find out how
to best support the learner.
b Mediating learning in a group containing some learners with

hearing impairments
. Encourage them to sit close. Encourage learners with hearing
impairments to sit in front and in the middle of the class, where they
can see you and the chalkboard very clearly. This is especially
important when the learners lipread, rely on visual cues, or use a
hearing apparatus with only a limited reception area. A distance of
between one and two metres is best for effective communication,
because hearing impaired learners cannot lipread at a distance. It is
also impossible for them to lipread during group work or in large
lecture halls.
e Study ``Proposals for supporting a learner with a hearing problem

in the classroom'' (sect 3.4.3.2) in The educator as mediator of
learning.
The same principles mentioned in the prescribed book apply to

learners who use sign language to communicate. Sign language can
also be followed only if one person at a time is signing. The hearing
impaired learners must also be able to see the educator's face, and the
educator can only focus on one such learner at a time. Remember that
the learner needs time to interpret sign language Ð allow a few
moments to catch up.
Keep the following additional guidelines in mind:
. Limit background noise. Keep background noise to a minimum.
. Supply written material. It always helps to give all tasks to hearing
impaired learners in writing. Remember to make sure that they
under-stand what is expected of them. It is also vital to ensure that
they have access to all the learning material in written or printed
form.
. Repetition of questions. Repeat all questions from other learners
before you answer them.
62
. Use cassettes. Encourage the learners to record lessons on cassettes

and ask someone to type them out for them.
. Provide terminology beforehand. Before they need it, give learners
a list of all the subject terminology and jargon that they will need.
. Provide for poor reading abilities and limited vocabulary. Many
hearing impaired learners have poor reading skills and a limited
vocabulary. Take this into account, and give them more time for
reading; you can also explain difficult words, either using sign
language, providing a glossary or allowing them to lipread
explanations.
c Assessing learners with hearing impairments

If learners have a limited vocabulary, they can be allowed to use a
dictionary or thesaurus during tests and examinations. Extremely
privileged learners can use a computer with a spell check and
grammatical help. Learners must have extra time to complete tests
and examinations, and if they so choose, the questions should be
shown to them in sign language. It is a good idea to use self assessment
and peer assessment. In this way, these learners find out how they
compare with other learners. Discuss alternative assessment strate-
gies for these learners with colleagues who have had experience of
learners with impairments. You, and your department, should
regularly revise your alternative assessment arrangements to ensure
that they meet the needs of the learners (which can change with time)
and also accommodate the assessment standards of the subject (Noble
& Mullins 1998).
b Journal entry 3d
(1) What are the implications for you as an educator if you have a
hearing impaired learner in your class of 40?
(2) How will you ensure that this learner gets the right attention in
order to be successful?
(3) Mention a few strategies you could use to make sure that
learning is taking place.
What implications will there be for the other learners in the
class?
3.4.3.3 Physical impairments

Physical impairments can hamper learners' mobility in many different
ways. The mobility of learners can be permanently or temporarily
impaired. (A broken arm or leg is a temporary problem.) Factors which
can give rise to mobility problems for learners include cerebral palsy,
rheumatism, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's
disease and frequent injuries as a result of muscular overexertion.
Learners with back or neck injuries may also have limited mobility.
Coordination and balance can be affected to a greater or lesser extent
63 EDMHOD-R/1
by any of these conditions. Your class might even include a learner in a

wheelchair, or on crutches. In many cases, learners with limited
mobility find difficulty in writing and manipulating objects. They are
also often permanently tired as a result of exertion.
e Read section 3.4.3.3 ``Physical impairments'' in The educator as

mediator of learning up to the section ``Proposals for
supporting ...''.
a Communication with learners with a mobility defect

As with learners who have other kinds of impairments, it is very
important to acknowledge and respect the human dignity and equality
of these learners when communicating with them. If you discuss these
learners' mobility impairments with them, you can ask them to
provide documentation so that you know exactly what their condition
involves.
Learners in wheelchairs often complain that people condescend to
them and behave as if they were Deaf, retarded or abnormal. When
you talk to these learners, you must do whatever you do with all the
others. Do not lean on a learner's wheelchair or move it around
without permission Ð the wheelchair must be treated as part of the
learner's personal space. Find out if the learners have got any
technology at their disposal which could simplify their learning tasks.
b Mediation of learning in a group containing learners with

impaired mobility
Keep the following in mind:
. Provide for additional activities. Academic activities outside the
classroom (such as expeditions, trips to the library, working in the
grounds) can cause problems. Let learners know in advance about
these activities. Find out if they can be replaced by other
experiences such as films or videos.
. Allow more time. Learners who write slowly or with difficulty
should be given extra time in which to complete their work.
e Study ``Proposals for supporting learners with physical impair-

ments in the classroom'' (sect 3.4.3.3) in The eductor as mediator
of learning.
c Assessing learners with impaired mobility

Consider the following:
. Give oral tests of examinations if possible. If necessary, they can
do an oral test or examination instead of a written one. Take note
64
that an oral answer is seldom as logical and structurally coherent as

a written one, where the learner has been able to plan. A
combination of oral and written work will suit some learners best.
Learners might for instance be allowed to plan their answer or write
down a few key words and then to give an oral answer.
. Let learners who write slowly have extra time. Some learners with
a mobility dysfunction need rest periods because they cannot sit for
long. The examination can be split in two for them, or they can be
allowed to write at home under the supervision of their parents
(Noble of Mullins 1998).
3.4.3.4 Chronic and infectious diseases

Chronic and infectious diseases can have a variety of side effects.
Learners with epilepsy may have speech defects, for instance, as a
result of brain damage, while their balance and coordination can also
be affected. Learners with medical problems often suffer from
headaches, backache, weakness, dizziness or a numb feeling. These
symptoms are variable, and may be worse at some times than at others.
e Read section 3.4.3.4 ``Chronic and infectious diseases'' up to the

section ``Proposals for supporting ...'' in The educator as
a Communicating with learners with medical problems

Learners are often sensitive, anxious and reluctant to discuss their
medical problems. Invite them at the beginning of the year to come and
talk to you, and reassure them that the conversation will be kept con-
fidential. Find out from them what you can do to reduce their dis-
comfort in the classroom and to improve their concentration. Because
these learners often have gaps in their knowledge as a result of
hospitalisation, you should try to find out while you are communicat-
ing with them what knowledge they have missed out on, and then
recommend additional reading that will help them to overcome these
defects. They are often inclined to set themselves unrealistically high
standards. Help them to focus on more realistic, achievable standards
and objectives. Consult their doctor or parents if necessary.
b Mediation of learning in a group containing learners with

medical problems
Learners who are sickly, especially those with an infectious or
contagious disease, are often rejected by their peers. These learners
demand even more insight and empathy from you than usual, because
they can easily get discouraged and end up with no belief in them-
selves. You should keep on motivating them, and also help the other
learners to support them instead of rejecting them.
65 EDMHOD-R/1
Many schools nowadays have HIV+ learners. They are allowed to

attend the school, but how does this situation affect you, the educator?
Read the White paper, 6 of 2001, which discusses specific measures.
Remember that neither educators nor other learners are allowed to
discriminate against any HIV+ person. It is also easier to address and
to solve these learners' problems with their school work than it is to
solve the concomitant social problems.
e Study ``Proposals for supporting learners with chronic or

infectious diseases in the classroom'' in The educator as
c Assessing learners with medical conditions

If a medical condition is in an active phase and the learner is enduring
a lot of pain and discomfort, a test or examination should be post-
poned until the learner has recovered enough to be able to sit for it
(Noble & Mullins 1998).
b Journal entry 3e
One of the greatest needs that learners with physical impairments
have is to be accepted by the other learners, and to be treated
equally. We as educators must show them that we do accept them
and acknowledge them as individuals. They also need to know that
we accept and appreciate the ways in which they are different, but
also that they have things in common with the other members of the
class.
Now reread the section above which deals with the learners
who have physical problems that can be barriers to learning. Draw
up a comprehensive list of suggestions for how to handle these
learners. Add a few of your own ideas.
In addition to the suggestions you could have found in the previous

discussion, you might have added the following:
. Encouragement is important. Encourage learners with physical
impairments to do as much as possible for themselves. Acknowledge
them when they succeed at something.
. Guard against overprotectiveness or excessive sympathy. Rather
help them to accept that they are different. Set them goals which are
realistic and possible for them to reach.
. Make sure that they acquire skills. Focus on the skills they will
need in the adult world.
. Help others to be empathetic. You must lead other learners to show
sensitivity to the feelings of learners with impairments to successful
66
learning. Misunderstandings must be cleared up and fears laid to

rest.
. Talk to the parents. Consult these learners' parents in order to
establish their needs and to find out what the school can do to
stimulate development.
. Provide a helper if possible. It might help to allow someone from
the peer group to act as a friend or protector. This person can help
to explain work, make tasks more accessible, etc.
. Create learning opportunities. Be willing to create more opportu-
nities for learning than you would for normal learners. Adapt the
times of tests and their length in order to help these learners to
succeed.
3.4.4 Learning disabilities

When we think about the school environment and our learners, we
cannot help thinking about the learners who are not good achievers;
who have some or other kind of problem which serves as a barrier to
learning. These learners demand more of our time and attention, as
well as a special way of interacting.
Learners with learning disabilities are those learners who find

difficulty with aspects of literacy, language or numeracy. In other
respects their intellectual functions are normal. They fall behind other
learners in their age group. Learning problems can lead to a variety of
other problems, including behavioural problems. If the learning
problem does not receive attention, the learners can develop poor
self-images. They also start avoiding tasks, because their attitude to
school is becoming negative. The learning and the behaviour of
learners are greatly affected by the expectations they have of
themselves. The educator's expectations of learners with learning
disabilities are just as important. The educator wants to get positive
results out of learners with learning problems, and might become
prejudiced in their favour. Be alert for this when you are working with
a learner with this kind of impairment.
Learning disabilities are the result of a nervous system dysfunction

which means that affected people receive and process certain
auditory, visual or spatial information inaccurately. Learning
disabilities mostly go unobserved, and the first sign of them often
comes when the learners hand in written work. These indications are
often unusual or inconsistent spelling, reversing letters in words
(using a p instead of a b or a d) or numerals in numbers (72 instead of
27), omitting parts of words or sentences, or omitting prepositions or
pronouns. These learners might also pronounce words wrongly or
misread them, and find it difficult to learn new vocabulary or a new
language. Their reading speed is usually, though not always, slower
than average.
67 EDMHOD-R/1
Attention deficit disorder also occurs frequently. Learners affected by

it experience severe problems in paying attention and concentrating.
They also get bored with a task within a few minutes. In some cases
the learners are also hyperactive. Hyperactive learners have difficulty
in sitting still, feel restless all the time, and are usually overactive.
They are very impulsive, have difficulty in controlling their reactions,
and talk before they think. Other characteristics often include under-
achievement, learning problems, aggression, rejection by the peer
group and sometimes truancy.
e Also read section 3.4.4 ``Barriers caused by learning problems'' up

to the section ``Proposals for supporting ...'' in the prescribed
book.
a Communication with learners with learning disabilities

These learners often have emotional baggage as a result of unpleasant
experiences in the past. It is important to handle them sensitively, not
to label them, and to encourage and motivate them regularly.
b Mediation of learning when a group contains learners with

learning disabilities
e Study ``Proposals for supporting learners with learning problems

in the classroom'' in the prescribed book.
Also keep the following in mind:

. Plan activities which promote communication and respect.
Learners can be exposed to activities which improve communication
and facilitate mutual respect among classmates.
. Use peer teaching and cooperative learning. Peer group teaching
and cooperative learning promote positive interactions among
learners. If learners with little self-confidence are allowed to work
with more successful learners, then both are allowed to experience
success and also sometimes to fail at what they do.
. Allow in-depth studies. These learners should be allowed to make
an in-depth study of a few texts instead of a broad review of many.
. Vary your presentation. When you explain sequences, procedures
or processes, you must be certain to emphasise steps or phases.
Information should be provided in a variety of formats: worksheets,
transparencies, on the chalkboard and orally.
Educators must try to get these learners on task and keep them there
so that they can complete their work. The learners can be rewarded if
they stay in their place, keep focused on their work and complete their
tasks. Regular feedback is a must.
68
Avoid constant corrections. If the learner has to be corrected, do so

calmly.
Because all learning in South Africa is based on the same curriculum,
educators should adapt the curriculum so that different learning needs
and styles can be accommodated.
c Assessing learners with learning disabilities

It may be necessary to adapt the assessment tasks for learners with
learning disabilities, but without lowering standards.
. Give them extra time. Learners with learning disabilities take
longer to organise their ideas and their material. Allow extra time if
you expect them to do these things.
. Make instructions clear and brief. Keep the written instructions
and questions in tests and examinations concise and clear.
Questions with clear subdivisions or bullets will be easier to
understand.
. They battle with multiple choice. Remember that these learners
often have difficulty understanding multiple choice questions,
because they are unable to spot minimal differences in the list of
possible answers.
. Give second chances. If learners hand in an unsatisfactory piece of
work, discuss the problem with them; they should be given the
opportunity to resubmit it instead of just receiving a very weak
mark (Noble & Mullins 1998).
3.4.5 Learners with behavioural problems

Read the following case study:
c Dillon is in grade 10; he is every teacher's nightmare. He has been

kept back before, so he is older than his classmates. He is also a big
boy with strong leadership qualities. His school achievement is
unsatisfactory. He does not concentrate, and pesters the other
learners by throwing erasers at them, bumping into them or
throwing the books out of their bags. A whole 45 minute period can
go by in which he does not even write two sentences. He regularly
makes uninvited, irrelevant remarks while the educator is
explaining something. The Afrikaans teacher has tried sending
him out of the class, but then he just stands outside next to the
window and pulls faces at the other learners.
He has been tested, and is capable of satisfactory work, but he
is not interested. The educators take a lot of trouble with him but
always come up against a brick wall. Dillon gets into trouble
almost every day for not doing his homework. He is a fixture in the
detention class, and has been caught playing truant.
69 EDMHOD-R/1
His parents are divorced and he lives with his mother. She
does not have much control over him, and admits that he doesn't
take much notice of her. He has very little contact with his father.
He is always surrounded by friends, who say that they do not find
his friendship an embarrassment. It is clear that he has a lot of
influence over them.
b Journal entry 3f
Before corporal punishment was outlawed in schools, learners
with behavioural problems were often caned. Now that we are not
allowed to give physical punishment, educators have to be very
creative in their approach to punishment. They must also be able
to justify what they do, or they will violate the learners' human
rights.
(1) What forms of punishment are used at your school, or any
school that you are familiar with, for learners with behavioural
problems?
(2) Do you think these methods are successful? Explain your
answer.
(3) Do you think that Dillon has a positive self-image? Explain your
answer.
(4) Do you think Dillon's educator did the right thing by sending
him outside?
(5) What advice would you give to that educator about how to
handle Dillon?
e Read section 3.4.5 ``Barriers caused by behavioural problems'' in

Educators can use specific classroom techniques with learners with

behavioural problems, but they must be consistent and persistent. It is
important to note that positive reinforcement can be used for good
behaviour as well as for bad: sending learners out of the class can
reward them if they want to avoid doing their work, or to join another
learner who has also been sent outside; or, as in Dillon's case, it gives
him even more opportunity to disrupt the rest of the class. Dillon's
educator was therefore wrong to send him out.
Ayers and Gray (1998:55) have the following advice, which you could
give to Dillon's educator:
. Use positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement, or rewarding
good behaviour, must be applied. It will not be successful, however,
unless it is done regularly, consistently, steadily (not as a one-off)
and suited to the behaviour. The reward must motivate the learner.
When Dillon does do his homework, the educator might reward him
70
by giving him slightly less homework for the next day than the other
learners.
. Withdraw reinforcement as punishment. Punishment must take
the form of the withdrawal of reinforcement. No verbal acknowl-
edgements are given, and the learner might even be ignored
sometimes. Sarcastic comments and anything that humiliates the
learner must be avoided.
. Let the learner attend parent interviews. The parents should be
interviewed in the presence of the learner. Parents and educators
can come to a joint agreement, and the learner can receive a formal
warning. It is important, however, to set positive and possible goals
during such meetings. Criteria for successful behaviour can be set.
. Help the learner to acquire social skills. Correct social skills can be
taught by focusing on the right verbal and nonverbal communication
competences. This can lead to better social interaction with peers
and educators. It is important for the educators to model the kind of
behaviour they want to see from their learners. Negative behaviour
or vocabulary on the part of the educator must be avoided, there-
fore. Rather say: ``We don't behave like that in this class, Dillon''.
. The parents' approach to discipline must be investigated. They
should be encouraged to acknowledge and reward good behaviour
from difficult learners, to ignore minor misdemeanours, and not to
give any positive reinforcement for negative behaviour. Parents
should use the withdrawal of privileges rather than corporal
punishment. Where possible, there should be correspondence
between the parents' intervention practices at home and those of
the educator in the classroom.
e Also study ``Proposals for dealing with learners with behavioural

problems in the classroom'' in your prescribed book.
It is important for educators to avoid serious confrontations with

learners. The only result is a power struggle. More experienced edu-
cators can sometimes tell from the learners' behaviour if they arrived
at school that morning in an aggressive or difficult mood. It helps to
have a calm, firm and fair chat to these learners outside the classroom.
Learners with behavioural problems should be referred to the school
psychologist before the problem escalates to such an extent that it gets
out of hand. In study unit 7 we will look more closely at discipline in
the classroom, and provide more tips for dealing with behavioural
problems.
3.4.6 Gifted learners
e Read the section on gifted learners (sect 3.4.6). ``Proposals for

dealing with gifted learners in the classroom'' should be studied in
detail.
71 EDMHOD-R/1
3.4.7 Classroom factors that can cause obstacles to learning
e Study section 3.4.7 ``Classroom factors that can cause barriers to

learning'' in the prescribed book.
b Journal entry 3g
Many of the obstacles listed in the prescribed book can be directly
attributed to the educator's own behaviour. Write a paragraph in
which you explain how you will make sure that you do not form a
barrier to your learners' learning.
3.5 ADAPTING TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR USE IN THE INCLUSIVE

CLASSROOM
It is very probable that you will have one or more learners in your
class with one or more of the obstacles to learning that we have
discussed above.
As an educator, you will not only need to know how to teach in an

inclusive classroom; you will also have to be a very keen observer so
that you can spot the learners with barriers to learning. You will then
have to be able to adapt your teaching so as to make provision for the
needs of these learners.
b Journal entry 3h
Reread what we said about all the possible obstacles under the
headings Mediation of learning ... and Assessing ... . Summarise
the activities which educators can employ when mediating and
assessing learners with learning obstacles. (Do not focus on one
particular obstacle: consider obstacles in general.)
e Compare your list of activities with the list of activities and ways
to adapt them as discussed in the prescribed book. It is a good
summary of what we have explained so far.
In an inclusive classroom the educator needs to respond to diversity

by using a variety of teaching methods and learning experiences.
Ainscow (1995) proposes that the capacity of schools to react to
learner diversity can be facilitated by an atmosphere of cooperation in
which all learners are cooperatively involved in the learning task.
We hope that you know by now that learning success can be promoted
by the creation of a warm, positive atmosphere in which all learners
are encouraged to learn. The basic rule for inclusive classrooms is:
72
Respect each other!
c Revise the list of obstacles to learning which you drew up in the

second journal entry of this study unit. Do you still agree about the
obstacles which you identified then? Do you still have the same
ideas about the needs of those learners? Do you still go along with
the ways of dealing with those needs which you suggested in the
third column?

New legislation requires learners with special needs, who were
previously put into special classes, to be included in mainstream
education. Accommodating these learners will demand a lot of you as
an educator, because you will have to support these learners while
making sure that you do not neglect the other members of your class.
G . In this study unit we have identified certain obstacles to

learning.
. We have seen that these obstacles can be physical, social,
medical or even pedagogical, and that learners often try to
conceal their problems. You will have to be very observant to
recognise possible problems and obstacles.
. We also established that educators must attempt to mediate
learning in such a way that these obstacles are reduced, and that
you can do this by adapting your level of support, your study
material or your assessment methods.
. Our most important point was that learners with problems must
be treated with respect, and that you must reveal an
understanding, supportive attitude to these learners.
Turn once more to the beginning of this study unit, and reread what
we said there. If you can answer the following questions, you have
achieved the stated outcomes. If you find yourself frequently turning
back in order to answer the questions, we suggest that you work
through the study unit once more.
b Journal entry 3i
Answer any three of the following questions in your journal.
(1) You have a visitor from overseas who has no idea what
inclusive education involves. Explain in detail what informa-
tion you will give him.
(2) What teaching strategies can you recommend for use in an
inclusive classroom when there are two hearing impaired
learners, one with learning disabilities, and a diabetic?
73 EDMHOD-R/1
(3) How will you use group work to accommodate learners with
diverse needs? How will you group your learners?
(4) You need to convince a parent that her child's poor results are
caused by behavioural problems. What characteristics does
this learner have that you can mention to the parent?
(5) You have to recommend intervention strategies for this learner
to your colleagues. What will you recommend?
(6) Your colleague asks for your advice on how to deal with two
ADD learners. What tips can you recommend, so that she can
help the learners to achieve success?
(7) One of the educators in your school shouts a lot in class. When
you mention this to him, he explains that he has not got the
patience to help learners with learning problems. In his
opinion, these matters are the parents' responsibility, not the
school's. What answer will you give him?
3.7 TEACHING TIPS
b Journal entry 3j
Now that you have come to the end of this study unit, you must
have plenty of teaching tips that you want to write down. Do this
now in your journal book. Remember to mark them clearly Ð
TEACHING TIPS Ð so that they stand out. Remember once again
not to write down too many Ð just a few really effective tips will
be enough.
c Go back to your journal entry 3a, and reread what you wrote there.
Has this study unit met your expectations? Have you learnt what
you expected to learn?
74
STUDY UNIT 4
Understanding learning, learning

styles and learner differences
g OUTCOMES
When you have completed this study unit, you should be able to
. understand how learning takes place
. explain the role of experience and prior knowledge in learning
. explain and apply metalearning
. show how thinking takes place, and develop learners' lower and
higher order thinking skills
. distinguish various kinds of learning styles, and explain how
teaching should be modified to accommodate learners with
different learning styles
. understand how learners learn at different stages of their lives,
and how you can adapt your teaching accordingly
. understand differences between learners
b Journal entry 4a
Reread the outcomes above, and the table of contents of this study
unit, and answer the following questions:
(2) What expectations have you got about this study unit Ð in
other words, what do you think you will learn from it?
(4) To what extent do you think that this topic can help you to be
an effective educator, or a better educator than you are now?
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered about these questions: Why do we learn and
remember some things, but forget others the moment we have learnt
them? What happens in the mind of a learner when important facts
75 EDMHOD-R/1
and information have to be mastered? Why are some things easy to

learn and others more difficult? Does everyone learn in the same way?
Is there a difference between learning and studying? How can learning
be made easier? What is the connection between teaching and
learning? How do people learn?
We hope that you will find out more and more about these questions as
you progress through this study unit.
4.2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING

Learning is part of our lives. It begins on the day we are born, and
ends with our death. It is a lifelong process. You must be careful not to
confuse learning and studying. Although the two concepts are related,
they are not identical. What do you think the difference is? Learning
implies the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and attitudes, while
studying is a process during which those contents are deliberately
stored in the longterm memory. In this study unit we are going to
examine learning more closely, because the way mediators see the
learning process will affect the way they mediate learning.
e Read section 4.2 `Ùnderstanding learning'' in The educator as

mediator of learning. Pay attention to the difference between rote
learning and meaningful learning.
4.2.1 Learning implies change
e Read section 4.2.1 ``Learning implies change'' in The educator as

4.2.2 Underlying assumptions
e Study section 4.2.2 `Ùnderlying assumptions'' in the prescribed

book.
4.2.3 The role of experience

One of the ways in which learning is brought about Ð very well known
to all of us Ð is the process of `ìf at first you don't succeed, try, try,
try again''. The fact that people can learn in this way emphasises the
important role of mistake making in the learning process (Marsick and
Watkins 1990:13)! It also emphasises the importance of experience.
76
Miller and Boud (1996:8) regard experience as the most important

manner in which people observe reality and make sense of what they
observe. They explain it in this way:
Learning is the process which takes this experience and trans-
forms it in ways which lead to new possibilities, which may
involve changes in actions, ways of viewing the world of
relationships. While there is no simple demarcation between
experience and learning Ð making sense is always a learning
process Ð it is convenient to adapt the assumption that learning
is an act of becoming aware of experience, building upon it,
extending it and in the process creating new experiences which
become part of what we know.
e Study section 4.2.3 ``The role of experience in learning'' in The

educator as mediator of learning. Take note of the ways in which
learners' experiences can be utilised when mediating learning.
4.2.4 Reflection on experiences
e Study section 4.2.4 ``Reflection on experiences'' in the prescribed

book.
Reflecting on experiences is very similar to forming associations;

together they form the basis of many of our learning activities.
Association means that every new fact, idea or concept is learnt better
if it is connected with already existing information. In this way,
learning can be compared with the building blocks that children often
play with. Each new block is added to the existing set. Sometimes the
block fits in firmly and is snapped into position; sometimes it is put
into place loosely. In the same way, people add each new ``block'' of
information to their existing store. If the new block fits in with or can
be connected with existing knowledge, long term learning will be
facilitated. It is for this reason that a learning mediator should create
ample opportunities for the learners to reflect upon their experiences.
Mediators should also help the learners to associate new information
with their prior knowledge.
77 EDMHOD-R/1
c Think about the following questions:

(1) How far back can you remember? What are your earliest
memories? Are they about things that you learnt sponta-
neously, or things that you learnt formally? Why do you think
that these memories have not faded from your memory after all
this time?
(2) Think of a few things which you have learnt from experience
without having any direct or formal training.
(3) Has this ever happened to you? Someone gives you their
telephone number and you repeat it a couple of times. A few
minutes later, you can still remember the number. You want to
phone the person the next day, but you cannot remember the
number at all. OR: You put something in a safe place, and find
that you have no idea later of where you put it.
Have you thought carefully about these questions? Now do the

following task:
(4) Take a magazine or a book, and read a section about a topic that
you know nothing, or very little, about. While you are reading,
think constantly about what happens when you are reading this
new information. Do you, for instance: read sentences two or
three times if you do not understand the first time; think about
what you have read; bring what you have read into the context
of things you already know; repeat certain words a few times to
be sure that you remember them; try to think of ways in which
you can make use of what you have read.
The questions raised above are all connected with the view expressed
by Mellander (1993:11) that spontaneous learning forms the basis for
all formal learning. He supports this opinion as follows:
Apparently, we learn things all the time Ð spontaneously, and
without making an effort Ð that seem practically impossible to
learn in a classroom setting or with a textbook. Does this mean
that we learn easier without a teacher than we do when we're
taught? Oddly enough, that seems to be the case. Why?
Our ignorance induces us to complicate things for ourselves. In
doing so, we diminish rather than enhance our ability to learn in a
formal setting. If we can become more aware of how we learn
spontaneously, we can improve our ability to learn consciously
and according to plan in a formal learning situation.
He explains that the first and most obvious condition for all learning,
formal and informal, is attention. Attention can be roused in the form
of curiosity, excitement, fear, expectations, challenges, etc. But what
happens next? Mellander (1993:11) explains the spontaneous learning
process by using the example of a woman who buys a camera. Her
attention already exists as a result of her interest and excitement
78
about using the camera. She is curious to know how it works, and is
therefore very receptive for the information and instructions she
receives. (The information and instructions can be equated with the
teaching she receives.) While she reads the instructions, she
spontaneously selects and assimilates (receives) certain information
which is meaningful to her, and ignores other items. The information
which she assimilates is processed in her brain and associated
(brought into context) with information which the brain already has,
so that a meaningful whole is formed from the new information and
her prior knowledge. She keeps reading and fiddling with the camera
until she understands how it works. Then she uses it a few times to
make sure that she has come to the right conclusions.
We can deduce from this example that the learning process takes place
as follows:
. Attention makes us receptive for
. information which we
. process together with prior knowledge, until we
. reach conclusions and understand things, which we then
. apply and test for confirmation.
It is often easy to observe every stage in this process when children

are concerned, but with older learners and adults the process does not
always begin as a direct result of external impulses or information
from outside. It can begin from an idea which suddenly appears and
grows. Sometimes, associating something with something else can
lead to a conscious cognitive process, or the older or adult learners
might search their memories for knowledge or information and then
suddenly discover connections between pieces of information which
they had never noticed before. This process is often unconscious;
which explains why people often wake up suddenly in the middle of
the night with the solution to a problem that they have been battling
with for a long time, and why they often get good ideas while driving
or sitting at a bus stop. It is also why a name which we have been
trying unsuccessfully to remember will suddenly pop up in a
completely different context. Mellander (1993:14) explains this as
follows:
Your brain simply took matters in its own hands Ð if you will
excuse the expression Ð and kept on working on the problem long
after you'd given up.
This learning process has clear implications for teaching. These will
become clear if we take a closer look at exactly what happens during
the learning process.
. Attention. Paying attention can be thought of as the activation of the
brain cells in which previous experiences, knowledge or needs are
stored. Learners' attention must be engaged, their curiosity must be
stimulated and their prior knowledge relating to the topic must be
activated.
79 EDMHOD-R/1
. Information. Learners will only be receptive (open) if the informa-

tion being presented satisfies their expectations and, to a reasonable
extent, meets their needs. If the information is incomprehensible or
too easy for them, if there is too much of it or not enough, or if it is
useless or inaccurate information, then the learning process is very
likely to grind to a halt. If learners find the information useful and
meaningful, they will keep on listening or reading attentively, or
they will be prepared to participate actively. But even if learners
find the information meaningful and useful, they have still got a long
way to go before they have really learnt it and therefore obtained
new knowledge. The reason for this is that new information which is
initially assimilated is only stored temporarily in the brain's short
term memory (STM).
. Processing. The ``brain work'' or intellectual processing is probably
the most important stage. This is when learners compare existing
knowledge which is already stored in their long term memory (LTM)
with the new information they have acquired in an effort to find
links and relationships. We can often see this happening when
people learn. They often stop and look up, to give their brains a
chance to make additional associations. Learners therefore sponta-
neously interrupt their own learning processes in order to give the
processing mechanism a chance to work. Remember that learning is
still taking place long after a teaching session is over (for instance,
while people are thinking about what they have learnt), and you will
see that the brain is still actively processing the information and
creating new associations.
As the associations are formed, more and more brain group cells are
involved and more and more connections take place between cells and
brain group cells. In this way, old and new information items are
connected with each other in a variety of different ways. The new
connections can activate a whole lot of other brain group cells in their
turn, which will set up even more connections.
. Conclusion: Associations are important. The brain is constantly
searching for meaningful associations, also known as Gestalts.
Mellander (1993:12) points out that the definition of a Gestalt
suggests that it is a whole made up of parts. This whole can be an
image, an idea, etc. When the relationships between certain things
become clearer to you, you experience an `Àha!'' moment, which is
when new knowledge is formed. Once the brain has found mean-
ingful associations, it stores the information in the long term
memory or LTM.
People use their intellects to name or express the new Gestalt which
has formed. In this way, experience is transformed into knowledge. All
the brain cell groups which had been involved up to then can be
reactivated again later by using the name of or the expression for the
new Gestalt. Mellander (1993:21) goes on:
80
This ``knowledge unit'' or gestalt is sometimes called a ``concept''

and the process is called ``conceptualisation'' (the birth of knowl-
edge). Thus, a concept consists of insight, understanding as such,
and the name or expression (label). Simple concepts like ``chair''
mean more or less the same thing to most people, while expressions
like ``democracy'' trigger different associations in different people,
depending on how they acquired their knowledge of democracy.
Educators must try to help learners to see connections between things.

This can be done by setting exercises, posing problems, asking ques-
tions and giving good examples. They must also provide learners with
the opportunity to associate new information with existing knowledge.
. Application. Once learners have obtained new knowledge (insight,
understanding, conclusions, syntheses), they usually feel a need to
apply their knowledge in some way. This process of application
usually results in new learning experiences, because it leads to the
formation of additional associations and experiences. Application
reinforces and internalises the knowledge stored in the LTM.
Application and practice also ensure that the specific knowledge
will be easier to call up from the LTM in the future.
b Journal entry 4b
Reread what we said in study unit 1 about constructivism and the
view that experience and reflection on experience play a very
important role in learning. Does Mellander's view of the learning
process differ from that of constructivism, or are they the same?
The human mind is bombarded every day with millions of little bits of
divergent information which has to be transformed into intelligent
thoughts. The brain does this by evaluating, sorting, deciding and re-
deciding about sequences and relationships, by rejecting what is
irrelevant, either by connecting new information with prior knowledge
or by storing new information for later use. Memory therefore plays a
very important part in the learning process.
b Journal entry 4c
The fact that the first important step in the learning process is
attention must have implications for the mediation of learning.
What do you think they are?
Learning also takes place through observing and noticing. Megginson,

Joy-Matthews and Banfield (1993:76±77) see observation and per-
ception as ``the simple process of making sense of the world we live in;
through `seeing' it in particular ways, and giving meanings to what is
`seen' ''.
81 EDMHOD-R/1
4.2.5 Memory
e Study section 4.2.5 ``Memory'' in The educator as mediator of

learning. Pay attention to the factors that could cause poor
memory and think of ways in which they can be overcome.
c Why do you think people forget some things but remember others
very well? Is there any information that you will never forget? How
did you obtain that information, and why will you never forget it?
What implications does the information you have learnt about
memory have for your teaching?
In spite of good teaching, learners do forget what they have learnt.

Some reasons for this are:
. Learning contents are learnt but never used.
. Repression of learning can be a result of unpleasant experiences or
emotional instability.
. Proactive and retroactive hindrances are the most usual and the
most important reasons why learners forget. Newly acquired
knowledge can interfere with prior knowledge, which makes the
learner forget (retroactive interference), or existing knowledge can
interfere with new knowledge so that the learners forget their new
information (proactive knowledge). Memories of what the learners
have to learn are therefore influenced by what they have already
learnt (proactive interference) or by what they still need to learn
(retroactive interference) (Hamachek 1990:203±204).
Nothing that has been effectively learnt gets forgotten completely and
lost. Learners' inability to remember should be seen as an inability to
recall information.
b Journal entry 4d
Revise the section above (and all the information in the prescribed
book) by rereading it, and then answer the following questions in
your journal.
(1) Write down the five most interesting facts about learning that
you have read.
(2) Write down the five facts about learning that will have the
most influence on you as a learning mediator.
(3) Write down the five most important things you have learnt
about learning.
(4) Why do you think it is important for a mediator to understand
the learning process?
82
4.3 METALEARNING
``Cognition is described as the thought processes whereby knowledge
is acquired and the structuring of those thought contents into a
reference framework'' (Slabbert 1992:162). The Greek prefix ``meta''
indicates a higher order use of the concept it is linked to. Metacog-
nition therefore indicates a higher order of cognition or consciousness
of thought contents and thinking processes. Cognition indicates that a
person possesses, for instance, reading skills, while metacognition
refers to awareness of and deliberate control over those skills (Stewart
& Tei 1983:36).
e Read section 4.3 ``Metalearning'' in The educator as mediator of

learning.
c Turn back to study unit 1, and redo the metalearning activity

suggested there. Try to ask those questions of yourself at the end
of each subsection.
4.4 THINKING
e Study ``Thinking'' in the prescribed book. While you are studying

pay attention to the importance of stimulating learners' higher
order thinking levels.
b Journal entry 4e
(1) Choose any topic from your subject area, and write it in your
journal book.
(2) Formulate two questions that you could put to your learners on
each of the following cognitive levels; leave a line or two open
after each question.
. Knowledge
. Understanding
. Application
. Analysis
. Synthesis
. Evaluation
(3) Use the line you left open to explain why you say that each
particular question was set at a particular level.
(4) Now read each of the following questions or tasks, and write
down the level on which it was formulated. Do not answer the
questions Ð just identify the cognitive level.
83 EDMHOD-R/1
4.1 What is the difference between facilitating and mediating

learning?
4.2 Define metalearning.
4.3 How will you help learners to apply metalearning?
4.4 What is the best way of making learners aware of their
own learning?
4.5 How will you assess a hearing impaired learner?
4.6 Explain the meaning of: cognition.
4.7 What causes learning disabilities?
4.8 Discuss the characteristics of an effective mediator.
Teachers who use only low order questions (testing only knowledge)
are most certainly not meeting the requirements of outcomes based
education. You will be amazed at how quickly learners get used to
answering higher order questions. The advantage of this kind of
question is that it encourages learners to make judgements, express
their own opinions, substantiate what they say, notice connections
between things, evaluate, search for solutions to problems, create new
things and make predictions. These kinds of skills are absolutely
indispensable in everyday life, and they must therefore enjoy special
attention in the classroom.
4.5 LEARNING STYLE
c Read the following conversation, which took place in a group of

grade 8 learners on the playground after a German class:
Mpo: I hate it when FraÈulein Schulze starts with her activities.
When I've got to pretend I'm a doctor's receptionist and then
have a discussion with some patient in German, I just panic! I
can't say a word. I can't act, and I can't talk like that with no
preparation. I like to have enough time to prepare what I
want to say and how I want to say it. I don't know why we've
got to talk so much anyway. I'd much rather she just gave us
language rules to learn and then we could use them in
sentences. I like to learn on my own Ð I get too nervous in a
group.
Nthabiseng: I'm your complete opposite. I don't enjoy listening to
a bunch of old rules and then using them in a bunch of old
sentences. I much prefer getting involved in an activity
where I can actually do stuff and speak German all by
myself. It doesn't help me if somebody tells me how to do
something. I don't learn anything that way. I've got to try out
stuff in practice Ð that's my best way of learning.
What do you deduce from this conversation?
Clearly, Mpo and Nthabiseng have different learning preferences, and

learn in different ways. Learning preferences differ from one person to
84
another, and we can identify different learning styles on the basis of

these preferences.
Learning style refers to the tendency of an individual to learn in a
certain way Ð usually the most effective way for that person. It covers
learners' preferences for visual or auditory learning, for moving
around as they learn, for working in a group or as an individual.
Learners learn better and faster if the educator adapts the teaching
methods to each learner's learning style. On the other hand, they can
be very frustrated if the educator's teaching style does not comple-
ment their learning style. A broad knowledge of learning styles will
help you greatly to understand the learning preferences of your
learners and to vary your teaching methods so as to support learners
with different learning styles. The simple truth is: ``The more ways
you teach, the more learners you reach''.
4.5.1 How the brain works, and how learning is affected by left brain or
e
right brain dominance
Read section 4.5.1 ``How the brain works, and the effect of left
brain or right brain dominance on learning'', in The educator as
mediator of learning. Take note that the way in which the brain
functions has implications for learning mediation.
Source: http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=gal/brain-xsection
b Journal entry 4f
How will you make sure that your learners' reptililan brains are
calm and their limbic systems are satisfied before you stimulate
their neocortices in the classroom?
85 EDMHOD-R/1
Researchers who work on learning styles have identified a wide

variety of different ones. They have also used various methods to
make these classifications. In the next section we will briefly discuss
just a few of these styles.
4.5.2 Field dependent and field independent learners

Educators in South Africa should be very much aware of field
dependent and field independent learning styles.
b Journal entry 4g
This journal entry is only for those of you who are teaching at
present.
(1) Are most of the learners in your class field dependent or field
independent?
(2) Explain your answer.
4.5.3 Multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner distinguishes seven domains of ability in his theory
of multiple intelligences: linguistic/verbal, logical/mathematical,
spatial, musical/rhythmic, physical/kinaesthetic, interpersonal and
intrapersonal (Gardner 1983), and also naturalistic, which he added
later (Gardner 1993). A brief explanation follows of each of these
intelligences, as described by Taylor (2002:141±145).
e Study section 4.5.3 ``Multiple intelligences'' in the prescribed

book. Think of ways in which you can stimulate all the intelli-
gences in your class.
4.5.4 Leider and Rosenberg's four learning styles

Leider and Rosenberg (Encarta 2002) identify the following four
learning styles:
Feelers They learn by intuition, and through their sensitivity to
feeling and atmosphere. They like learning by seeing,
hearing and feeling. They learn by means of games, role
play and other actions, and rely on feelings as well as
events.
Observers They enjoy learning through perception and observation.
They like lectures, demonstrations and similar activities
which they can observe.
Thinkers They enjoy logical analysis and the creation of meaning
for themselves. They like reading about theories, and are
capable of selfstudy.
86
Doers They prefer to learn by trying things out, and are willing
to take risks. For that reason they prefer practice to
theory. They enjoy learning activities in which they can do
things, such as projects, tasks and discussions.
b Journal entry 4h
(1) What have you learnt about learning styles so far? Write down
the four facts which you think contain the most important
information.
(2) If it is true that learners have different learning styles, what do
you think is the case with teaching styles?
4.6 THE EFFECT ON LEARNING AND THE MEDIATION OF LEARNING OF

LEARNERS' DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL
Learners' developmental level has an important role in the learning
process. The learning mediator should take note of this, because it will
also affect the mediation process. If the work is too easy, or much too
difficult, mediation will not work successfully. If strategies are used
which bore or confuse the learners, learning mediation will also be
hindered. If mediators do not consider that learners in this age group
(senior phase and FET) are often going through a phase of insecurity,
tremendous physical changes and difficult socialisation, they will not
manage to reach these adolescent learners either.
The following aspects of learners in the senior and FET phases are
important:
4.6.1 Physical development

There are many aspects of the adolescent's physical development
which may play a role in learning. We will discuss physiological needs
and puberty.
e
4.6.1.1 Physiological needs
Study section 4.6.1.1 ``Physiological needs'' in the prescribed book.
c Page back through the study guide. Considering everything that

you have learnt so far, what is Maslow's theory important for?
We hope that you realised immediately that learning obstacles will

arise if learners' basic needs are not being satisfied. (Reread study
unit 3.)
87 EDMHOD-R/1
4.6.1.2 Puberty
e Study section 4.6.1.2 ``Puberty'' in the prescribed book.
4.6.2 Cognitive development

There are two basic approaches to cognition and thinking. The first is
the Piagetian approach which emphasises the qualitative changes in
cognitive development which take place in stages. The second is the
information processing approach, which describes the progressive
steps, actions and operations that take place when the adolescent
receives, perceives, remembers, thinks about and utilises information
(Rice 1996:141).
4.6.2.1 Piaget
e Read section 4.6.2.1 ``Piaget'' in The educator as mediator of

learning. Study the last two stages in detail, and take note of the
educational implications.
4.6.2.2 Integrative theory of intellectual development

In 1985 Robbie Case introduced a new theory of cognitive develop-
ment that attempts to integrate Piaget's notion of stages with recent
empirical findings by information processing researchers.
e Read section 4.6.2.2 `Ìntegrative theory of intellectual develop-

ment'' in The educator as mediator of learning.
4.6.3 Affective development
e Study section 4.6.3 `Àffective development'' in The educator as

4.6.4 Social development
e Study section 4.6.4 ``Social development'' in The educator as

88
4.6.5 Moral, religious and personality development
e Read section 4.6.5 ``Moral, religious personality development'' in

b Journal entry 4i
Explain how you will consider the development of the
adolescents in your class in respect of the following aspects
when you are mediating learning:
. cognitive development
. affective development
. physical development
. social development
. moral development
. personality development
4.6.6 How does all this help me to teach?

Educators should use their knowledge of child development when they
mediate learning.
e Study section 4.6.6 ``The influence of the level of development on

mediation of learning'' in The educator as mediator of learning.
4.7 LEARNER DIFFERENCES

Learners differ in the levels of their development, and in many other
ways as well.
b Journal entry 4j
Make a list of all the differences that there can possibly be between
learners.
Compare your list with the following. Learners differ in respect of

their prior knowledge, culture, background, gender, preferences,
learning style, motivation, language ability and many more. Educa-
tors can therefore not use a `òne size fits all'' approach in the
classroom. Learner differences must be taken into account, and
learning mediation must be adapted accordingly.
89 EDMHOD-R/1
b Journal entry 4j (continued)

Choose any of the learner differences which you identified in
journal entry 4j, and indicate how you will provide for this
difference while mediating learning.
Educators can, for example, take learners' differing language abilities

into account by dividing them into heterogeneous groups, so that the
groups contain first language speakers as well as speakers of
additional languages. Different backgrounds can be accommodated
by giving extra reading tasks ahead of time to learners with imperfect
background knowledge. Now let us look more closely at possible
differences between learners and how to deal with them while
mediating learning.
4.7.1 Differences in prior knowledge
e Study section 4.7.1 ``Differences in prior knowledge'' in The

4.7.2 Gender differences
e Read section 4.7.2 ``Gender differences'' in the prescribed book.
4.7.3 Cultural differences
e Read section 4.7.3 ``Cultural differences'' in The educator as

G . In this study unit we have established that learning is a complex

process which mediators need to understand in order to mediate
learning successfully.
. We have seen that it is particularly important for mediators to
take into account the fact that learners have different learning
styles and learning preferences, and that they should vary the
ways in which they mediate learning so that learners with
different learning styles will all be able to learn successfully.
. We have also established that learners differ in respect of their
learning styles, and also in respect of their levels of develop-
ment, motivation, language and cultural differences, and that
many other differences must be taken into account as well.
90
Check whether you have fully understood this study unit by answering
the following questions. Try not to refer back for the answers.
b Journal entry 4k
Answer any four of the following questions in your journal:
(1) Explain the constructivist theory of learning.
(2) Discuss the role of experience in learning.
(3) Why is it important for learners to become good
metalearners?
(4) How will you help your learners to become good
metalearners?
(5) What is the difference between lower order and higher order
cognitive skills?
(6) How will you set about developing higher order cognitive
skills in your learners?
(7) Do you think that knowledge, which is the lowest cognitive
level, is unimportant? Explain your answer.
(8) Define: learning style.
(9) What are the implications for the learning mediator of
learners with different learning styles?
(10) How will you set about utilising your learners' prior
knowledge while mediating learning?
(11) Do you think that learning should be mediated differently for
boys and for girls? Explain your answer.
4.9 TEACHING TIPS
b Journal entry 4l
Now that we have come to the end of this study unit, it is time to
write down a few teaching tips based on it. Do this now in your
journal book. Remember to mark them clearly: TEACHING TIPS,
so that they show up well.
c Now reread what you wrote down in journal entry 4a. Did this
study unit come up to your expectations? Have you learnt what you
expected to learn?
91 EDMHOD-R/1
STUDY UNIT 5
The use and adaptation of teaching

strategies
g OUTCOMES
. understand how contextual factors can affect the mediation of
learning
. use a wide variety of teaching strategies, and to adapt them as
the context requires
b Journal entry 5a
Reread the outcomes listed above, and the table of contents for this
study unit, and answer the following questions:
(2) What expectations have you got of this study unit Ð in other
words, what do you think you are going to learn?
(4) To what extent do you think this topic can help you to be an
effective educator, or a better educator than you are at
present?
5.1 INTRODUCTION
It is essential to use certain strategies to mediate learning, and
educators should have a broad knowledge of teaching strategies in
order to be able to use the right one at the right time.
A strategy is a broad plan of action for teaching and learning activities
which is used in order to achieve one or more outcomes. Educators use
methods, media, learner activities and learning contents in order to
implement a strategy.
In this study unit we will discuss a number of strategies which are
particularly suitable for outcomes based education. Before we do so,
however, we would like to remind you that learners learn better if the
educator does the following:
92
. Moves from the known to the unknown. New information must

always be brought into the context of what the learners already
know. When mapwork is being done, learners will first look at maps
of their own immediate vicinity before studying maps of places they
do not know.
. Moves from the simple to the complex. Learner activities must be
presented in a well planned sequence, which should begin with
work which the learners will find easier to understand.
. Moves form the concrete to the abstract. Learners must understand
physical apparatus and principles before they can move on to the
abstract (Berens 2001:94).
This study unit will discuss a variety of learning strategies.
5.2 THE INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT ON THE CHOICE OF TEACHING

STRATEGIES
Although all learners in all schools have to reach the same prescribed
outcomes, the ways in which these outcomes are taught to them will
vary from school to school because their contexts differ. Problem
solving in a farm school in a rural area with limited facilities will be
mediated completely differently from problem solving in a wealthy,
urban school. This is because rural learners have different problems
from learners in urban areas, just as learners in a squatter camp have
different problems from township learners. What we mean by
``context'' is therefore circumstances, conditions and geographical
situation. It also includes the learners' background. It is not just the
facilities and available resources (buildings, classrooms, learning
material, etc) that determine the context. Learners' ages, levels of
development, prior knowledge, experiences and needs also determine
the context (Jacobs 2004:64).
Contextual factors play a very important role in the planning of
classroom activities. Contextual factors should not only be considered
immediately before the time: they must also be analysed and taken
into account during lessons. If educators discover, for instance, that
learners lack the background knowledge they need to understand new
contents, they will have to adapt their lesson. This analysis of the
context is also often referred to as an analysis of the teaching
situation. Clark and Starr (1991:45) refer to this context analysis as a
diagnosis: ``By diagnosis we mean the sizing up of a situation to
understand it fully and to find clues for deciding what to do.''
Analysing the context provides educators with information about the
teaching-learning situation which they must take into account when
preparing and presenting their lessons.
b Journal entry 5b
Read the following case study and then complete the activity:
It is Munira Moodley's first day at Wide Horizons school. She is an
93 EDMHOD-R/1
experienced Physical Science teacher who taught for many years at

a leading school in Johannesburg. When her husband was
transferred to Wide Horizons Ð a very small country town Ð
she decided to give up teaching. But, after just a month, the
principal of the local school phoned her with a request: they
needed someone to do relief teaching in the place of their Science
teacher who had died unexpectedly.
Munira walked into her classroom and felt hopeless. About 40
tables and chairs were squashed into the room, all of them dirty
and rickety. There were no pictures on the walls. A bench at the
back of the room had a few test tubes, measuring beakers and
other apparatus. Nobody had ever prepared her for this! How in
the world could she get her learners to do experiments in groups,
as she had planned? She believes that educators should never tell
learners anything which they can find out for themselves, and that
interaction between learners is very necessary for effective
learning: for that reason she has always made a lot of use of
experiments, observations, class discussions and independent
research when she mediated learning. What was she going to do
here?
The next moment, the bell rang and seconds later 40 grade 9B
learners rushed into the classroom and crashed into their desks.
Munira looked at them. It was a multicultural group of boys and
girls Ð mostly black, with three coloureds and the rest white Ð
and she could tell at once that there was quite a wide age range
between the youngest and the oldest learners. In the next few days
she discovered that several of the learners were repeating grade 9,
that some were quite young because they had been sent to school
early, that a group of learners came from the informal settlement
outside the town (and walked five kilometres every morning in
order to get there), and that other learners were the children of
prominent citizens of the town. Some of the learners had English as
their mother tongue, but the majority were studying through the
medium of English as their second or third language. There were
Zulu, Tswana, Afrikaans and Xhosa learners in the class, some of
them with a very weak knowledge of English so that they battled to
understand the textbook, which was in English. As an Indian
woman herself, she felt insecure about how to handle all the
differences between these learners.
During one lesson she tried to use the example of balls on a snooker
table to clarify the concept ``friction'', but a large number of
learners stared at her blankly. She was frustrated every day
because the apparatus in her classroom was so primitive, and it
looked as if the previous teacher had done experiments with
apparatus which she had made herself. At her previous school,
Munira often told learners to watch a particular programme on the
Discovery channel on DSTV if she knew it would link up with the
next day's lesson. This was impossible in Wide Horizons, where
94
most of the learners did not have access to a TV at all, and

certainly not to DSTV.
(1) Analyse the case study, and write brief notes on how the
following contextual factors will affect Munira's teaching:
1.1 the learners (social and cultural background, levels of
intellectual, affective, physical, psychomotor and social
development, experience, prior knowledge)
1.2 language (language of instruction, language skills, text-
books)
1.3 learning contents (Physical Science)
1.4 the educator (social and cultural development, teaching
style, skills, preferences)
1.5 the school (situation, facilities, class size and composition)
1.6 the classroom (arrangement of furniture, creating an
atmosphere appropriate to the subject)
1.7 the environment (changed circumstances, extramural
activities)
1.8 the unique South African community
(2) Turn back to study unit 3, and quickly revise the section on
obstacles to learning. Now write down all the obstacles you
can identify in the case study.
How did you fare? Compare your notes with the discussion below.
5.2.1 Learners
The learners in Munira's class obviously differ in their social and
cultural backgrounds. Black, coloured and white learners come from
cultures which differ in respect of behaviour towards adults, the way
in which children are brought up and their attitude to learning. In
many cultures, for instance, children are brought up to believe that
children should be seen and not heard. Learners from these cultures
will tend to be reserved and withdrawn in class. It is highly likely that
learners from the informal settlement will have to help around the
house, for instance find firewood, make the fire and supervise their
younger siblings; learners from the wealthier homes in the town will
have electricity, and will be able to concentrate on their homework in
the afternoons. They will also very probably have access to the
Internet. Educators should take these factors into account when using
illustrative examples in class. Examples must be varied and adapted
to the needs of learners from both kinds of backgrounds.
Learners from prosperous homes are more exposed to reading matter,
computers, the Internet and other sources of information. Learners
from less wealthy homes experience a lack of such material. The
socioeconomic status of learners from the informal settlement and
from the town in Munira's class must vary tremendously, and will
definitely affect their learning, because they do not have the same
95 EDMHOD-R/1
background knowledge and experience. The different groups will also

have different norms, values and attitudes. Learners from the informal
settlement will depend on natural sources for survival (wood for fuel,
cooking and heating), and will probably have a completely different
view of environmental conservation from learners in an urban
environment. Educators should be aware of the traditions, super-
stitions, traditional games, dances, songs and stories of the different
learners so that they can use these in class to link up with new
information.
Many learners have to walk great distances to get to school and then
back home again, so Munira will have to consider that when she sets
homework. Learners with far to walk will also have problems when it
is very cold or raining.
The parents of children from impoverished homes tend to keep them
away from school when there are important tasks to be performed.
Regular absence makes it difficult to make up missed work, and the
more a learner is absent, the more work is in arrears and the easier it
becomes to take another day off rather than work hard to catch up the
missed work.
The learners in Munira's class are on different levels of intellectual,
physical and psychomotor development. Some learners are much
younger than others, and might even be too young to learn particular
skills. Munira will have to bear that in mind when she expects her
learners to do experiments. It is also likely that her learners will have
different kinds and amounts of prior knowledge. Knowledge, skills and
attitudes are prerequisites for the acquisition of new knowledge.
Munira's learners will probably also differ in the levels of their
affective development. This will determine their interests, level of
motivation, attitudes, aspirations and willingness to learn.
Do you remember what you learnt in study unit 3 about obstacles to
learning? Read section 3.3.1 again to refresh your memory. The
socioe-conomic circumstances of learners are often obstacles to
learning.
5.2.2 Language
Munira is a mother tongue speaker of English. Most of her learners on
the other hand battle with English, so she will have to be very careful
not to use difficult words and long, complicated sentences when she is
talking to them. If Munira says something like: ``The equator is an
imaginary line round the middle of the earth at an equal distance from
the North Pole and the South Pole'', some learners still will not know
what the equator is because they do not know what `ìmaginary''
means, they might have misheard ``lion'' instead of ``line'', and they
do not know what an `èqual distance'' is either. On the other hand, it
is also possible that the learners might understand all the words, but
still not understand what the equator is because they do not have the
necessary prior knowledge about the North and South Poles. Refer to
study unit 2 for information on just how difficult it is for learners who
96
are not studying through the medium of their home language to

understand scientific concepts.
Learners in Munira's class find it difficult to understand the textbook,
so she will not be able to rely on it, or she will have to go out of her
way to explain the difficult words.
c What other options has Munira got for overcoming the difficult
language used in the textbook?
We hope that you mentioned options like compiling a glossary, visual

presentations, and summaries of difficult parts of the textbook.
5.2.3 Learning contents

Munira teaches Physical Science. The nature of the subject and the
topic of a specific lesson will determine the method she will use. If she
wants to explain the use of a microscope, the demonstration method
will work best. An experiment will work better if she wants to explain
that hot air rises or that sound travels in waves.
5.2.4 The educator

Munira believes that learners must find things out for themselves, and
that there should be a lot of interaction between the learners. She
enjoys involving learners with the learning contents and keeping them
productively busy. Munira's preferences determine her style of
teaching. In the same way, your convictions and your views of what
learning is and how effective learning takes place will also determine
your teaching style. You should however have a flexible approach, and
know how to adapt your teaching style and approach to fit in with the
learners, the learning contents and the outcomes. In other words, you
can alternate a direct teaching style, where you tell the learners
something or explain it directly to them, with an indirect style where
the learners have to find out and think for themselves. Then learners
are allowed to observe for themselves, to discuss, to ask questions and
to discover. Learners can be allowed to learn by trial and error.
5.2.5 The school and the classroom

Munira's school has very few facilities. She should have a laboratory
in which she can let her learners do Science experiments and where
she can store her apparatus. The fact that there is no apparatus
available, and no laboratory either, does not mean that she can sit
back and do nothing. There are lots of ways in which people can make
their own apparatus out of discarded materials like plastic bottles. A
little initiative works wonders!
97 EDMHOD-R/1
Munira's classroom, like many in South Africa, is overfull, with little

space to move between the tables. She will have difficulty in moving
the tables if she wants to do group work or if she wants to be sure that
all the learners can see her when she does a demonstration. A solution
could be to divide the learners into two groups, giving one group some
work to get on with and performing her demonstration for the others.
Then the groups change over.
Munira should also put up a few pictures in her classroom so that
visitors immediately know that it is a Science classroom. Expensive
posters from a shop are not necessary. She can make her own Ð
showing formulas for instance, or a microscope Ð or she can ask the
learners to help her make placards relating to the sections of the work
that they find the most interesting or the most difficult. Learners
usually enjoy seeing their work displayed on the wall.
5.2.6 South Africa's unique society

The situation in Munira's class is typically South African, with all the
educational, social and economic implications of first world and third
world situations existing side by side. In more prosperous urban
areas, learners usually have more resources and aids available than
their peers in the rural areas. Educators in the rural areas should not
be deterred by this shortage of resources, however. People in the
district, and the environment itself, can provide valuable opportu-
nities for arranging speakers and excursions.
Parents are often unaware of the importance of being involved in their
children's learning activities. This is sometimes because they are
illiterate themselves, and at other times because they are just not
interested. It is possible to involve these parents by asking them to
come and tell the learners about local history or local culture. In this
way they acquire a sense of dignity and also get involved.
Munira's classroom reflects the diversity of our society. Education for
diversity implies that learners' varied ways of thinking and living
should be considered in the classroom, and should form part of the
ethos and daily practice of the educators. Lindeque and Vandeyar
(2004:141) give this explanation:
Education for diversity should cut across all learning areas, and
address the histories and experiences of people who have been
left out of the curriculum. Its purpose is to help us deal equitably
with all the racial and cultural differences that are found in a
society. It is also a perspective that allows us to find explanations
for why things are the way they are in terms of power
relationships and equality issues.
Education for diversity should equip learners, parents and
teachers with the tools needed to combat racism and ethnic
discrimination, and to find ways to build a society that includes
all people on an equal footing.
98
Five years after being introduced, outcomes-based education is yet to take off
Back to school for Curriculum 2005
Hopewell Radebe They argue that due to a lack
Deputy Political Editor of capacity, essential aspects of
this training were subcon-
Outcomes-based education is tracted to a range of consul-
not being properly implement- tants and non-government
ed almost five years after it was organisations. As a result,
introduced, because most ``quality of training was un-
South African schools lack the even''.
facilities it requires, say re- They say that the cascade
searchers. model remained problematic as
Ken Harley and Volker many of teachers trained early
Wedekind examine the effect were not sufficiently equipped
of Curriculum 2005 in their
to replicate the training in their
book, Changing Class. Educa-
districts and schools.
tion and social change in post-
Inadequate co-ordination
apartheid SA, published by the
and management, insufficient
Human Sciences Research
capacity in terms of personnel
Council.
The curriculum is yet to be also an urgent need for curri- and finance, inadequate teach-
effectively implemented, they culum reform to be geared er development, and limited
argue, particularly in formerly towards ironing out variations curriculum development have
black schools. This is due to in the curriculum used by the bedeviled the programme, they
both the insufficient training of different education depart- say.
teachers and a lack of re- ments. This `ùnintended effect,''
sources. Curriculum 2005 was set to they argue, has come about
The authors say the new be implemented in Grade 1 in because the new curriculum
curriculum is widening the 1998, and Grade 7 in 1999. It ``has been embraced as a
gap between formerly advan- was to be phased in progres- political project that has been
taged and disadvantaged sively Ð in a ``cascade'' model. successful in the ideological
schools and is working against The outcomes-based education domain. But as a pedagogical
its transformation aims. De- system was positioned so cen- project, it has not been success-
spite admirable policy inten- trally in its design that it
ful.''
tions and the goodwill of became synonymous with Cur-
The policy overlooked the
teachers the new curriculum is riculum 2005.
harsh inequalities and contex-
reproducing class inequalities. The new design for educa-
tual realities of South African
Government has overlooked tion also included an integrated
schools.
constraining realities with re- system with subjects jettisoned
and eight learning areas intro- Harley and Wedekind say
spect to the curriculum's de- the prospects of turning the
mands and expectations, they duced from Grade 1 to 9. It
also promoted a learner- situation around are difficult,
say. For example, there needs since the new curriculum has
to be sufficiently equipped centred principle of teaching.
Unfortunately, Harley and become an `àrticle of faith by
school libraries, laboratories virtue of its political values''.
and other material. Yet more Wedekind say, the education
department seemed too eager They suspect that the state
than half of black schools still
to implement the system and may have invested too much to
lack basics such as chairs,
did not calculate, nor antici- countenance the loss of face
textbooks, and running water.
pate, the level of complexity that would accompany a fun-
Harley and Wedekind say
that would unfold in its im- damental rethink and revision.
the adoption of the demo-
plementation. ``Without serious knowledge
cratic constitution demanded
that the educational landscape Given the fact that it had to and understanding of the way
be reconstituted, bringing to- be actualised within 12 months, in which (the new curriculum)
gether 18 education depart- the department had ``no choice is being enacted in schools,
ments teachers with different but to provide crash-course there can surely be little hope
classroom practices under one training for teachers'', say the for the political project it was
administrative body. There was researchers. intended to serve,'' they say.
99 EDMHOD-R/1
b Journal entry 5c
(1) Read the newspaper article above, and make a list of all the
things that are typical of the South African situation.
(2) Identify two problems that are mentioned in the article and
propose possible solutions.
(3) Which of the problems that Munira has, are mentioned in the
newspaper article?
5.2.7 Dealing with diversity in a multicultural environment

The following ideas will help you to teach effectively in a multicultural
teaching environment:
. Get information on other population groups. Basic knowledge of the
cultural values of other population groups, and willingness to find out
more about them, will help you to link new learning con-tents to
learners' existing knowledge and background. Learners can for
instance hold a class discussion in which learners from each ethnic
group represented in the class talk about their group's myths (such as
stories about the full moon, lunar eclipses or the rainbow), traditions
(marriage and funeral customs), superstitions (walking under a
ladder) and customs. Then they can investigate similarities and
differences between the groups. You will be able to learn a lot from
this kind of exercise yourself. Never make assumptions or general-
isations which are based on the racial, ethnic or cultural group that
you yourself belong to. Treat each learner as a unique individual.
. Be sure that all cultural groups are respected. Be sure that your
classroom conveys positive messages about all ethnic groups Ð not
just the one you belong to. You can do this by displaying posters,
calenders and pictures which reflect the rich ethnic diversity of South
Africa. Never present one ethnic group as inferior to another, and do
not ever belittle learners because of their cultural or ethnic
background. Act instantly if some members of the class make
negative, disparaging remarks about the cultures of other groups. If
you do not react immediately, the learners will assume that you
approve of this behaviour. Make it very clear that during group
discussions the learners are allowed to question or attack the quality
and validity of an argument, but not the validity of other learners'
personal convictions. Acknowledge the value of each culture, and
make it clear to learners from the start that you value and respect the
diversity in your classroom. Let your actions prove that this is so.
. Acknowledge minority groups. Acknowledge the rights and
concerns of minority groups.
. Be aware of racism and sexism. Watch out for racist or sexist
contents in textbooks and other study material, and discuss it in
class. Use your judgement when you use media! Some media (pic-
tures, posters, etc) are full of blatant racial or gender stereotyping.
If you absolutely have to make use of such material, discuss it with
100
the learners and show them that you are aware of stereotyping and
do not necessarily agree with it.
. Acknowledge differences. Be sensitive to your learners' opinions
about race and ethnicity, and do not simply assume that children are
``colour blind''. Do not pretend that there are no racial and ethnic
differences in your class Ð rather be positive and sensitive about
them.
. Create a climate of openness. Be aware of your own cultural and
ethnic background, and how it differs from those of the learners in
your class. Speak openly to them about this, and create an atmos-
phere in which learners will be willing to share their background
and culture with you.
. Communicate equally with all ethnic groups. People are very
much inclined to respond more easily to one ethnic group (usually
the one they belong to) and to communicate chiefly with other
members of it. Be aware of that! Communicate in a balanced way
with learners from all the different ethnic groups.
. Promote ethnic integration. Make use of cooperative learning and
group work to promote racial and ethnic integration among learners.
. Make sure that diversity is reflected. Make sure that school plays,
school publications and other activities acknowledge and reflect the
diversity of the learners (Lindeque & Vandeyar 2004:143).
. Take everybody into consideration. Vary your teaching style so
that you will get a response from all your learners. Be especially
aware of the difference between field dependent and field
independent learners (reread section 4.5.4). Remember that field
dependent learners will need much more support from you. Give it
to them at first, but then withdraw gradually so that they can learn
to work independently.
b Journal entry 5d
(1) Read the following quotation from Lindeque and Vandeyar
(2004:141), and then indicate if you are, or would like to be,
like the first group of educators or the second:
Diverse learner populations make some teachers want to
study further and expand their teaching repertoires. Many
of these teachers express genuine concern for individual
learners' needs and make special efforts to understand and
respond to the unique features of the cultural backgrounds
from which their learners come. For other teachers
diversity is viewed as a problem. What they teach, how
they teach and the environments they create are the same
as in years past when their students possessed cultural
characteristics similar to their own. For these teachers,
conceptions of cultural diversity are found in their
descriptions of the inability of learners to fit in and act
as they `should' and in their derogatory comments about
learners' parents, home lives, neighbourhood and cultural
backgrounds. Some of these teachers believe that a good
101 EDMHOD-R/1
number of their learners are not capable of succeeding

and, as a consequence, abdicate any responsibility for
helping them to do so.
(2) We hope that you indicated that you are, or want to be, like the
first group.
Now explain what you will do in your classroom to ensure that you
do in fact take learners' diversity into account.
5.3 CHOOSING TEACHING STRATEGIES

When educators plan how to mediate learning, they can choose from a
large number of teaching strategies. All the contextual factors which
we discussed above will, of course, determine which strategy will be
chosen.
e Chapter 5 in The educator as mediator of learning, deals with

teaching strategies. Make a thorough study of all the sections in
this chapter. Then do the journal entries.
Group work
b Journal entry 5e
(1) Explain how learning in smaller groups differs from learning in
a class group.
(2) Use the learning area in which you teach, or one that you are
familiar with. Select any topic suitable for small group work.
Explain why learners might learn more about the subject
through involvement in group work than by being part of the
whole class when you are teaching.
(3) Why do some learners feel uncomfortable during group work?
What solutions can you suggest?
Cooperative learning
b Journal entry 5f
(1) What will you do with learners who cannot cooperate with the
group during cooperative learning? What will you tell them
when they ask to work by themselves?
(2) There is a group in which the learners compete against each
other and will not cooperate. How will you persuade them to
work together?
(3) Why are group objectives important? And, why is individual
accountability in the group just as important?
102
Problem solving
b Journal entry 5g
(1) Formulate a problem from your subject or learning area for
your learners to solve.
(2) Will you let them solve the problem individually or in groups?
Explain.
Case studies
b Journal entry 5h
(1) Page through this study guide and identify at least three case
studies used here. Look at them carefully, and explain how we
used them.
(2) Explain why we say that a case study can be the first stage of a
discussion.
(3) Explain how a case study can give rise to role play or
brainstorming.
(4) Is it possible to use case studies in your subject area?
We have made use of several case studies, for instance, Ndileka and
her language problem. This case study should also illustrate to you
why we say that a case study is the beginning of a discussion. We first
sketched the unique situation, and then used it to explain to you how
the educator should act. Case studies can also present certain events,
and learners can then be asked to brainstorm solutions to the
problems in the case study.
Large amounts of information can be conveyed by means of case
studies if they are correctly used. Learners can also use case studies to
test or to practise specific skills such as problem solving, decision
making and the collection of information.
5.4 THE ROLE AND PURPOSE OF QUESTIONING IN MEDIATION

Just about no learning mediation can take place without questioning,
so we will deal with this topic as fully as possible.
Does this seem familiar to you?
Mr Smith: Yesterday we were talking about the earth. Jennie, what
three layers does the earth consist of?
Jennie: I think ... er ... no, I can't remember.
Mr Smith: Come on now, Jennie, you haven't been paying attention
again. The earth consists of the crust, the mantle and the
core.
Munira, which layer is the thinnest?
103 EDMHOD-R/1
Munira: The mantle, sir.

Mr Smith: For goodness' sake, don't you lot know anything? The crust
is the thinnest. Asnath, what two basic elements is the
crust composed of, in other words, what is it made of?
(A long silence follows.)
Jane: Sial and sima, sir.
Mr Smith: I wasn't asking you, Jane Ð keep quiet. Asnath, I'm still
waiting.
Those questions were directed at nothing more than the recall of

factual knowledge. What if the learners don't know the answers
tomorrow? Will the educator keep on asking the same questions in the
hopes that one day they might get them right? Will the learners know
the answers now, after this question and answer session?
e Study section 5.9 ``Question-setting skills'' in The educator as

Questioning is a central part of the repertoire of effective teaching

methods. There are not many professions in which as many questions
are asked as in teaching, and where so much time is devoted to setting
questions. If learning mediators are unable to set good questions, then
they are unable to communicate well; they will therefore not be good
mediators of learning. The ability to ask the right question at the right
time and place is what distinguishes good mediators from average
ones. The questions that mediators ask can determine whether
learners just repeat what they have memorised, or whether they are
encouraged to think for themselves and acquire their own insights in
an exciting learning environment. There are lots of reasons for asking
questions, of which these are some (Kyriacou 1991:37):
. stimulating thinking
. investigating understanding, knowledge and skills
. establishing the level of prior knowledge before introducing a topic
. revising, recalling and renewing existing knowledge
. as an aid to classroom management and for discipline
. to direct the learners' attention to something
. teaching the class by means of the answers given by the learners
. giving everyone a turn to answer
. involving shy, withdrawn learners in the activities of the class
. permitting the expression of emotions, empathy and personal
opinions
Learners sometimes feel very emotionally tense when they have to

answer questions in front of their classmates. You must be very
careful to ensure that the atmosphere in your classroom is one of
support and respect for the learners' answers, both from your own
104
side and from the other learners. Some learners just do not want to
answer questions in class, and will do anything to evade it.
e Study section 5.9.3 ``Types of questions'' in The educator as

b Journal entry 5i
(1) Formulate three open questions for your learning area or
subject.
(2) Formulate three closed questions that you could ask in your
subject or learning area.
(3) Look again at the questions which the teacher put to Jennie and
the other learners at the beginning of this section (p 57). How
would you change the questions now?
(4) Write down all these strategies, one below the other. Leave a
line between each one. Now write down a theme from your
subject or learning area which you will be able to teach by
making use of that particular strategy. Also indicate whether
you would be able to use another strategy to teach the same
theme.
G . In this study unit we have seen that contextual factors such as

the socio-economic circumstances of the learners, the
preferences of educators, the school and the community all
determine the choice of teaching strategies.
. We also established that there are very many teaching strategies
to choose from.
Answer the following questions to see if you have achieved the

outcomes of this study unit:
c (1) When would you use direct teaching as a strategy?

(2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct teaching?
(3) How will you deal with difficult behaviour on the part of
learners during discussions?
(4) How will you implement cooperative teaching?
(5) What teaching methods will you use when you want learners to
acquire problem solving skills?
105 EDMHOD-R/1
5.6 TEACHING TIPS
b Journal entry 5j
Now that you have completed this study unit, it is time to write
down a few teaching tips. Try to enter into your journal one or two
tips for each of the teaching strategies we have discussed.
Reread everything you wrote as journal entry 5a. Has this study
unit satisfied your expectations?
106
STUDY UNIT 6
The effective use of media and everyday

resources while mediating learning
g OUTCOMES
After completing this study unit, you should be able to
. identify a large number of media and indicate how everyday
resources can be used to support learning
. explain what underlying assumptions about learning justify the
use of media to support teaching
. make effective use of media such as textbooks, the chalkboard,
posters, overhead projectors, computers, videos and tape
recorders while mediating learning
. use popular media and resources like newspapers, magazines
and everyday artifacts while mediating learning
b Journal entry 6a
Reread the outcomes listed above and the table of contents of the
(2) What expectations have you got about this study unit Ð in
other words, what do you expect to learn from it?
(4) To what extent do you think this topic can help you become an
effective educator, or a better educator than you are at
present?
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Teaching media are very important when mediating learning.
Kemp and Smellie (1989:3±4) mention the following advantages of
using teaching media:
. It can make lessons more interesting. Learners' interest can be
aroused and their attention held for longer.
107 EDMHOD-R/1
. Better memory. Teaching media help learners to understand and

remember important information better.
. Audiovisual media provide excellent support. Audio and visual
media can reinforce and explain a subject very effectively, and the
combination of audio and visual media is even more effective
because it involved the two most important senses.
. Teaching media help to bring reality into the classroom. Learners
might not be able to see real DNA or RNA cells, but if we show them
pictures or models, they can have a substitute experience.
. The time required for a lesson can be reduced. With the aid of
media we can interest our learners and convey large amounts of
information in a short time.
. Learners become more positive. Learners' positive attitude to what
they are learning, and to the learning process, can be enhanced.
Learners enjoy teaching media and find its use satisfying.
. Learning quality can be improved. When visual images are
integrated with words, communication improves.
. Media can help learners to observe links between concepts. When
links between subsystems in a unit are presented visually by means
of diagrams, tables, symbols or schemes, they are often much easier
to understand. Symbols, graphs and diagrams can also indicate rela-
tionships and connections in respect of size, situation, time, fre-
quency and value. Using symbols and other signs makes it possible
for learners to identify even abstract relationships and connections.
e Read section 6.1 (the introduction) to chapter 6 in the prescribed

book.
6.2 DEFINING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
e Read section 6.2 ``Defining instructional media'' in the prescribed

book.
6.3 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND LEARNING

In order to understand how necessary it is to understand the use of
media in the classroom, we must take another look at the learning
(communication) process.
During the communication process, the sensory register of the
memory serves as a filter. When stimuli are received, the sensory
register separates the meaningful items of information from the
routine or less important ones. Within seconds, the information
considered the most important is sent to the short term memory where
it is temporarily stored and processed for possible storage in the long
term memory. This complex process is enhanced by the use of suitable
108
teaching media which casts more light on the main points or concepts
of a specific bundle of information.
The functions of the short term memory are limited by both time and
capacity. It is therefore essential that the information should be
arranged in manageable chunks for effective encoding, repetition or
intake. The effectiveness of teaching media is most important for this
process. Well chosen charts, pictures and other well organised visual
media are examples of items which help learners to understand and
retain important information.
Clearly, therefore, teaching media must be designed to cover key ideas
and concepts. The coverage should be factual and simple, so that it
will be easy for learners to remember and recall information.
Kachelhoffer (1992:82) points out that the use of media is important
because it stimulates both the left brain and the right brain, thus
enhancing the learning effect:
When the teacher makes use of media during his teaching, he
employs images, structures, music and colour which stimulate the
right and left hemispheres simultaneously because the images,
replicas of verbal conceptions, are stored in the right hemisphere.
Through interaction of the left and right hemispheres ... retention
is enhanced, attention remains captured and the learning effect is
improved (Kachelhoffer 1993:P81).
Kachelhoffer (1993:82) also points out that research has proved that
people remember about 10% of what they hear, 20% of what they see,
and 65% of what they see and hear simultaneously.
e Read section 6.3 `Ìnstructional media and learning'' in The

6.4 USING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND EVERYDAY RESOURCES TO

OVERCOME BARRIERS TO LEARNING
e Read the corresponding section (sect 6.4) in the prescribed book.

Take note of the ways media can be used to support learners with
barriers.
6.5 SELECTING MEDIA

There will never be just one perfect answer when we are deciding
which media to use for a particular lesson presentation. The choice of
media is determined by factors like:
109 EDMHOD-R/1
6.5.1 Outcomes and assessment standards

The outcomes which are to be achieved are almost the most important
consideration when choosing media. As educators we must always ask
ourselves what we want to achieve with our teaching, and what the
learning is that we want to take place. A short film or slide show can
help us achieve our outcomes in a shorter time. Some topics lend
themselves to the use of media better than others.
Educators must bear in mind that the mere fact that no manufactured
media are obtainable is no excuse for not using media. Homemade
media like posters, transparencies, real objects, tape recordings,
newspaper reports, advertisements and other everyday sources or
objects can help to make lessons lively and interesting. Educators
must decide in advance which media can be effectively included in
order to emphasise a point or show something clearly.
6.5.2 Group size

It is unrealistic to use a chalkboard or a flip board if the group is so
large that the ones at the back cannot read what is written.
6.5.3 Educators' preferences

Educators often tend to use a medium over and over again because
they feel comfortable with it. Tried and tested media which serve their
purpose should certainly be used, but educators must be careful not to
rely too much on one specific kind.
e Also study ``Reasons for using media to ensure effective mediation

of learning'' in the prescribed book.
6.6 KINDS OF TEACHING MEDIA

Kachelhoffer (1992:83) has the following classification of the whole
spectrum of teaching media:
110
Figure 6.1
Spectrum of education media
Educational media
!
! !
Printed media Audio-visual media
!
! !
Programmes Apparatus
! ! !
Books Visual Presentation

Reference section Transparencies Overhead projector
Subject literature Slides Slide and sound
Fiction Animated films projector
Pictures Cassette recorder
Computer programmes Record player
16mm Film projector
Magazines Audible Video and monitor
Ordinary Tape-recorder Micro computer
Subject Records Animated film projector
Newspapers Audio-visual Production

Pamphlets Slides and sound Transparency printer
Brochures Animation + sound Camera
Pictures Films and video Photocopy machine
e A wide variety of media is discussed in The educator as mediator

of learning. You have to study each of them thoroughly and think
of ways in which you will be able to use them in teaching your
subject.
6.7 USING EVERYDAY MATERIALS

Our most important task as educators is to prepare learners for their
future lives in society, so just about all the materials which we
encounter in our daily lives can be used in the classroom. Newspapers,
magazines, advertisements, videos, TV programmes, reports, memo-
randums, posters and even organisations should be used as resources
in schools. Newspapers and magazines, in particular, are relevant, up
to date and contain interesting articles which will arouse learners'
interest.
111 EDMHOD-R/1
We can make use of the wealth of resources outside the school by

arranging expeditions. When plays are being studied in the language
classroom, a trip to a local theatre can be arranged or the class can
attend a production. When money and currencies form the topic,
learners can visit the Mint, or the local bank manager can be invited to
come and talk to them. Historical buildings, farms or tourist
attractions in the vicinity must be used to the full. Anybody in the
community who is a specialist in a particular field should be invited to
come and talk to the learners or to take part in a panel discussion. A
medical doctor and a traditional healer could be invited to appear
together.
e Study the corresponding section on the use of everyday materials

b Journal entry 6b
In the coming week, read the newspaper every day or buy one or
two magazines. Identify a few articles which you would be able to
use in your learning area to mediate learning on a particular topic.
(1) Paste the article or report into your journal book.
(2) Indicate which subject or learning area you will use the article
or report in.
(3) Explain how you will use the article or report.
(4) Make a list of all the other everyday resources which you can
use in your subject or learning area to make learning easier.
(5) Identify one person in your neighbourhood that you could
invite to your classroom in order to do an activity with the
learners. Explain who the person is, why you would invite him
or her, what the person will have to do, and the topic from your
subject or learning area which he or she will have to deal with.
G . In this study unit we saw that it is essential to use media while

mediating learning because it can bring the real world into the
classroom, support learners with inadequate language skills,
and improve and simplify learning.
. We also saw what kinds of media there are and how they can be
put to use in the classroom.
Now turn back to the beginning of this study unit and look again at
what we said there. If you can answer the following questions, you
have achieved those outcomes. If you find that you have to turn back
112
frequently in order to answer them, we suggest that you work through

the study unit again.
b Journal entry 6c
(1) Why is it necessary for an educator to use media while
mediating learning?
(2) What factors will you keep in mind when selecting media?
(3) Find an article from a newspaper or magazine, or any other
popular source, which you will be able to use in your subject
area. Explain how you will use it.
6.9 TEACHING TIPS
b Journal entry 6d
Now that you have reached the end of this study unit, you must
have plenty of teaching tips that you would like to write down. Do
this now in your journal book. Remember to mark them clearly:
TEACHING TIPS, so that they stand out.
Reread what you wrote as journal entry 6a. Has this study unit met
your expectations? Have you learnt what you hoped to learn?
113 EDMHOD-R/1
STUDY UNIT 7
Creating a learning environment that is

conducive for effective mediation of
learning
g OUTCOMES
. explain how the classroom atmosphere can influence the
mediation process
. create a learner friendly classroom atmosphere and a suitable
learning environment
. understand how the relationship between educators and learners
contributes to successful learning mediation in the classroom
. understand the role of motivation in the mediation process
. use techniques to raise the learners' motivation levels
. encourage responsible behaviour and discipline in the classroom
. compile effective class rules to maintain discipline
. discuss the role of class rules and procedures in the mediation
process between educators and learners
. encourage critical and creative thinking in the classroom
. get learners to think critically about language, gender, ethnic
and cultural stereotypes
b Journal entry 7a
Read the table of contents and the outcomes for this study unit
again, and then answer the following questions:
(3) Do you think that studying this topic can help you to become a
better learning mediator? Explain your answer.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
All educators must create an atmosphere which encourages learning.
By means of careful planning, they can organise their classrooms in
such a way that they contribute positively to learning, motivate the
learners and thereby also eliminate inappropriate behaviour.
114
7.2 A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
e Read section 7.2 `À positive learning environment'' in The

7.3 CLASSROOM CLIMATE

Read the following case studies, and then answer the questions under
journal entry 7b.
b Mr Phillips is a very disciplined, well organised educator. He likes

his classroom to be neat and tidy at all times. The tables stand in
orderly rows. His chalkboard is always clean, and everything in
the room is arranged in rows or groups. He expects his learners to
sit still, and never to run or speak loudly. They have to obey all the
classroom rules. If rules are broken, the learners are punished and
have to sit in front for the rest of the day. You can look into his
room at any time of day, and you will always find a well organised,
calm atmosphere. His learners are serious and cooperative.
Next door is Mr Smith's classroom. Most of the time his classes
are a bit noisy. Learners are often talking in groups, discussing a
topic with their friends. The chalkboard is always covered with
writing, and the pin boards are full of learners' work. The
atmosphere is one of fun and excitement. Mr Smith is constantly
busy talking to groups of learners at their tables or helping them.
Which classroom communicates the best learning atmosphere?

Clearly, they differ greatly. It is important to note, however, that
certain qualities contribute to optimal learning and the promotion of
b
learner enthusiasm.
Journal entry 7b
(1) If you had to compare your own class with either of the two
above, which one would it be?
(2) Which features of your class correspond with the one you
chose? Write them down.
(3) What changes could you make to your class so as to make the
atmosphere more conducive to learning?
Classroom atmosphere means the psychological and social atmosphere

which exists in every classroom. It should preferably be one of
support, friendliness and a relaxed approach. The opposite would be
one which is threatening, competitive and tense. The atmosphere
should therefore preferably be one which communicates positive
morale on the part of both educator and learners.
115 EDMHOD-R/1
The following are indicative of a positive classroom atmosphere:

. Sociability Ð the learners know, help and are friendly towards each
other.
. Diversity Ð different interests are encouraged.
. Formality Ð behaviour is guided by formal rules.
. Cooperation Ð the emphasis is on learners working together.
. Satisfaction Ð learners enjoy the work.
. Caring Ð educators are sensitive to the social and emotional needs
of the learners.
. Democracy Ð learners share in decision making.
The following are indicative of a negative classroom atmosphere:

. Favouritism Ð the educator treats some learners better than others.
. Level of difficulty Ð class work is at an unsuitable level of difficulty
for the learners.
. Friction Ð tension and fighting feature regularly.
. Competition Ð emphasis is on learners competing against each
other.
. Social control Ð the educators state their expectations autocrati-
cally and exercise control without considering learner needs.
As far as possible, the classroom should have a less formal

appearance.
e Read section 7.2 `À positive learning environment'' and section

7.3 ``Classroom climate'' in The educator as mediator of learning.
b Journal entry 7c
(1) Make a list of the personal and interpersonal characteristics
that you think make you a good facilitator (educator).
(2) What do you think the role of classroom management is?
(3) Who makes the rules in your class Ð you yourself, or the
learners? If you are not teaching at the moment, think back to
your own schooldays. Who made the rules then?
(4) What are the advantages and disadvantages if the educator
makes the rules?
7.4 DISCIPLINE AS PRECONDITION FOR AN EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM

ATMOSPHERE
A positive classroom atmosphere is created by satisfying learners'
needs, thorough planning, and the implementation of effective
classroom rules. Learners must also be taught how to behave in a
civilised fashion in various situations. Positive attention must be given
to the learners, and productive dialogues held with those who disrupt
116
the class. Effective educators will communicate clearly and unam-

biguously to the learners what behaviour they expect. They must also
make it clear how they will get the behaviour they want. Appropriate,
positive actions must follow these words, or they will be ineffective.
Educators must give learners positive feedback when they keep to the
rules. When learners do not do so, they must learn that certain
negative consequences will follow. These consequences must not be
physically or mentally harmful to the learners.
e Study section 7.4 ``Discipline as a precondition for an effective

classroom environment'' in The educator as mediator of learning.
b Journal entry 7d
After reading the section on discipline, you probably have a good
idea of what discipline entails and how discipline can contribute to
an effective learning climate.
Now read the following case study and answer the question that
follow:
Mr Green is the educator in charge of grade 8G. The learners say
that his classroom is the messiest in the school. There is always
paper lying around, and the room is never clean. His books and
files are not organised at all and he always has to search for what
he wants. He is often late after break, and the class let
themselves into the room. When he does arrive, he always
battles to get the learners' attention. He likes to sit at the desk
while he teaches, so he does not have much control over the
learners at the back. They do a lot of carving and drawing on
their tables. There is never a calm atmosphere in his classroom.
Learners are always busy with other things: some shoot rubber
bands at each other, and others sleep on their tables. Mr Green
always has to shout before the learners keep quiet. Even then,
they are only quiet for a moment, and then they carry on laughing
and chatting.
The educator next door sometimes comes in and makes the
class keep quiet if her own class cannot hear what she is saying.
The only time there is ever order in Mr Green's classroom is
when his neighbour imposes it for him.
Questions
(1) Do you think that effective learning can take place in this
room?
(2) How would you change the class, if you could?
Also read the following newspaper cuttings, and answer the

questions that follow.
117 EDMHOD-R/1
It's hell, says teacher of township school

Beeld, 21 June 2004, p 4 `Ì always got and jeer at teachers who try
Alet Rademeyer to follow them.
positive results by ``You can try sending
`Ì can't go on! I shake and
throw up when I think of talking nicely and them home to fetch their
going back to that school!'' giving punish- parents. They just don't
These are the words of a ment. But it come back, or they bring
teacher from Vryheid in someone their own age and
doesn't work any claim it's their guardian.''
KwaZulu-Natal, in a letter
about the chaos and lack of more!'' At the teacher's school,
discipline in the township there are up to 47 learners
that someone is going to in a class. One third of the
school where she works.
A doctor has confirmed pull out a knife and attack learners in her grade 10
that she is stressed and that you at any moment. class are 20 years old or
he is treating her for it. `Òne learner recently cut more.
The woman writes in her off another one's ear just She has a masters degree
letter about the hell which outside the school gate. in school music, and also
she and her colleagues go During a sports meeting, a teaches English. After 22
child who was stealing years she is still on post
through, and the lack of
wanted to use a javelin to level 1. She has applied for
respect among the learners.
attack a parent who caught many promotion posts, but
Recently, some of the
him in the act.'' has only had one interview.
ringleaders made rude re- `Ì am passionate about
Some of the most frus-
marks during assembly. my work and the children. I
trating things, as a teacher
``They insisted on a mo- have never hit a child. I
at the Comprehensive High
ment of silence for their always used to get positive
School in the town con-
comrade who died in results by talking nicely to
firms, are that children
Amanzimtoti.'' them and punishing them.
smoke and drink in the
This teacher says that But it doesn't work any
`àlternative'' disciplinary school grounds and run
more!''
measures do not work. away when the teachers
A spokesman in the of-
``The people who thought talk to them. fice of Ms Ina CronjeÂ, MEC
them up are in schools ``They are arrogant, and for education in the pro-
where the community sup- they know quite well we can vince, said they were aware
ports them. Without this do nothing to them.'' of the letter and the matter
support, the whole day is They apparently also was being attended to.
full of frustration and fear make holes in the fences, arademey@beeld.com
Drastic suggestions for

restoring discipline
Shouting doesn't help. children whose parents with these children. If you
They don't bother about lived through the struggle. try to talk nicely to them,
writing lines. And deten- But now the parents are they screech, swear and
tion has become a joke. sitting pretty in top posi- insult you.''
She shudders to think that tions, and couldn't care less A team of academics
uncontrollable learners will about politeness, values from the Potchefstroom
one day be employed in and responsibility, she says. campus of North-West
offices, hospitals and po- ``They have got the University have been ob-
lice stations, says a teacher power to do what they serving the decline in
at a prestige school on the like, and this is the exam- school discipline since
West Rand. ple they set their children.'' 2002.
Her theory is that Bester says that she is ``Many of the existing
schools have become the drained by the end of the punishments do not work
dumping ground for an- school day. at all any more, and alter-
other lost generation of ``You can do nothing natives must be found, says
118
Prof Izak Oosthuizen of ``The vast majority of to bring the offenders to

the university's Education the parent community are their senses, make them
faculty, confirming the tea- important partners in the realise what they have
chers' claims. education system, and they done, and the conse-
`Ìt is time they listened.'' must not be alienated. But quences of their actions.
Oosthuizen believes that in it is time that all parents The hope is that this will
order to understand the and learners realised that prevent further minor of-
position of discipline in their actions have conse- fences and keep the child
schools, factors like politi- quences.'' out of court.
cal and socioeconomic The proposals were de- The next step could be
changes and the scrapping bated this week with un- mediation between the of-
of corporal punishment ions such as SATU, which fender and the victim, dur-
must be taken into ac- supported them. ing which the offender
count. He identifies var- Mr Pieter Martins, ex- apologises in writing.
ious reasons for the lack ecutive head of SATU, said A written agreement can
of discipline. that the lack of discipline be drawn up as well, in
`Òn the one hand there was one of the issues that which the learner under-
is a lack of discipline in caused the most problems takes to carry out certain
parental homes, where ten-
for teachers. ``Children ``punishments''. This could
sion, insecurity and in
don't listen any more, and be cleaning up the school
some cases even poverty
they do whatever they like grounds for two months,
have followed the loss of
in the classroom. If the new working in the school gar-
political power on the part
proposals are going to den, washing teachers' cars
of the formerly empow-
make teachers' lives easier, after school, or even to be
ered.
``Healthy family lives we welcome them.'' placed under house arrest.
and the children's beha- Oosthuizen explains the The community service
viour patterns are affected proposals in this way: must take place under
by this. On the other hand, . Once a school has ob- correctional supervision.
in certain of the previously tained the approval of Oosthuizen explains that
disadvantaged sectors of the governing body for the case can be withdrawn
society there are still the criminal procedures, for if the offender apologises in
remainders of a culture of instance if a teacher has writing and completes the
resistance to authority and been sworn at, it can punishment in the form of
of political violence which arrange a meeting with community service.
is now taking the form of the senior public prose- Children themselves
gang violence, contempt cutor at the local magis- have to pay.
for authority and other trates court and a proba- If the learner does not
antisocial behaviours.'' tion officer (social work- reconsider, the case is re-
It has become essential er). ferred to the police. This
that teachers should be means that the offenders
empowered by means of A charge of crimen injuria could have a criminal re-
new suggestions for ac- can then be made to an cord for the rest of their
tion, says Oosthuizen. He identified investigative offi- lives.
has set up a framework in cer (a member of the police And nobody wants that,
terms of which teachers force). It is important to because it is not in the
will in future be able to remember that if the offen- interests of the parents,
charge learners under crim- der is under the age of 18, teachers or learners.
inal law, or summons them the charge must be referred . The alternative is to
to appear before the Small to the probation officer lay a charge in the Small
Claims Court. within 24 hours. Claims Court.
He emphasised that the The probation officer
(Report shortened)
objective of this was not to will then work with the
create enmity between offender in a youth offen- Beeld, Friday 2 July 2004,
schools and parents. der programme. The aim is p6
119 EDMHOD-R/1
Discipline
South African teachers who teach in thugs with no respect for themselves or
countries like Britain often have horror other people.
stories about the lack of discipline in the A worrying aspect of the trends
schools there. Some of them have been described by teachers is the deeply
relieved to come back to disciplined rooted rejection of authority and any
schools in South Africa. rules. A measure of rebelliousness is a
Unfortunately this is changing. natural part of being a teenager. But
On Friday, Beeld reported on the fundamental rejection of order points to
increasing numbers of teachers with a sickness in society which will have to be
alarming stories of learners' insolent dealt with in a far broader context than
attitudes. just the teaching profession.
Learners who apparently get no There is apparently a need for
moral education at home, or who join heavier, alternative punishments for
gangs only to throw overboard all moral learners. But this is not the final
restraint, are making life unbearable for solution. Like firearms and electric
teachers and fellow learners alike. fences to combat violent crime, it only
Certainly, teenagers can be difficult deals with a symptom of the sickness of
people. moral decay.
Everyone who has been through that This sickness is probably costing the
stage themselves or has family members country more money and killing more
of that age knows that, understands and people than any other.
sympathises. But there is a difference www.beeld.com
between difficult teenagers and criminal Beeld, 5 July 2004
Questions (continued)
(3) Do you agree with the causes of poor discipline mentioned in
the articles?
(4) The plan of action proposed in Beeld on 2 July is a drastic one.
Do you think it will work? Explain your answer.
(5) What solutions can you propose for dealing with undisciplined
learners?
7.5 THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION IN THE LEARNING PROCESS

Learners must be helped to identify their objectives and taught to
remain motivated to achieve them. The educators' role in motivating
learners is just as important as their parents'. Without motivation,
learners cannot succeed.
c Read the following two case studies carefully:

Case study 1
Susan is in grade 2 in a big urban school. She was very excited last
year when she went to school for the first time, but she had
gradually lost her enthusiasm. Some learners in her class could
read already when they started school, and by the end of the year
they were in advanced reading groups. Susan and a few others
were not even in one of the average reading groups. They had
120
serious reading problems. In grade 2 Susan fell further behind. She

hates being in the weakest reading group. She feels very stupid
when she has to read and the other learners laugh at her. Her
educator is getting unsympathetic and impatient. The result is that
Susan is starting to withdraw, and is not prepared to try to read in
class any more. Susan's educator has contacted her mother, but
she is a single parent with four other children and she cannot
afford to pay for individual remedial reading classes for Susan.
Susan's educator does not know what to do now. She does know
however that Susan will be able to learn to read well and achieve
well if she gets the right help and motivation.
Case study 2
Paul is in grade 6 in a primary school in a small town. He has
attended the school since grade1, but he is absent a great deal. All
the educators are very frustrated with Paul because he only stays
away if he has to hand work in or write a test. His scholastic
achievement, of course, is low and he is in danger of having to
repeat the year. Although he occasionally does well if there is
enough pressure on him, his poor attendance is an obstacle to
further progress. His behaviour leaves a lot to be desired as
well, and he regularly spends Friday afternoons in detention.
He hasn't got any real friends. He is fascinated by motorcycles,
however, and can talk endlessly about the bikes and motorcycle
races. He lives in a house with his mother and his elder brother.
He mostly ignores his mother's authority and does not bother if
she punishes him. His educators think that he has the ability to
do well, but they are very frustrated at his poor attendance and
behavioural problems.
Although Paul and Susan have different circumstances, they share the
same problem. They have developed negative perceptions of
themselves and their schools, and so they have also lost the
motivation to learn.
In recent years our education system has changed so much that the
traditional view that educators are responsible for ensuring that
learning takes place no longer exists. The present education system
expects the learners to take responsibility for their own learning. We
expect them to be self-directed and motivated learners. Because
learners differ in their willingness and their ability to take
responsibility, the mediating educator has acquired the important
role of increasing the learners' natural motivation to learn.
There are two important methods of increasing learner motivation.
Firstly we can help the learners to understand their own thinking
processes. This includes helping them to understand the way in which
they attribute meaning (sometimes wrongly) to various events as a
result of their frames of reference and negative feelings which arise
121 EDMHOD-R/1
from differing emotional states. Secondly, we can provide an

environment for mature caring and interest in which the educator
respects the learners and provides them with opportunities to build
positive relationships. The approach for this is to build on the
assumption that bad moods or feelings of insecurity are triggered off if
the learners feel that their self-image is under attack. Once the trigger
is pulled, the negative feelings are confirmed and prejudiced
information is processed by the brain, so that the learners feel
increasingly insecure and threatened. The only solution is to have a
strategy that will free the learners from their vicious cycle of negative
feelings and to motivate them to function as they used to do.
c Reread section 1.6.11 in study unit 1. Now read the conversation

below, and answer the questions which follow.
Tseletsi: I'm trying to learn all Beethoven's sonatas.
Selogadi: How about that? What will you get when you can play
them all?
Tseletsi: It's just a challenge for me to learn them all Ð I won't
get anything.
Selogadi: Nothing at all? What's the point of doing something if you
don't get rewarded for it?
(1) Which of these two girls is intrinsically motivated?
(2) Which girl is extrinsically motivated?
(3) What kind of motivation do you prefer?
(4) What would you do to change Selogadi's way of thinking?
(5) What can educators do to motivate unmotivated learners?
Selogadi wants to be motivated by external rewards, while the

intrinsic value and the satisfaction of completing a task successfully is
enough to motivate Tseletsi Ð of course, this is the ideal! Have you
found it difficult to think of ways to motivate learners? Unfortunately
it is not easy. A few possibilities, in addition to what we have
suggested, are:
. Try to build up the learner's sense of self-esteem.
. Help the learner to set meaningful targets.
. Create a pleasant classroom atmosphere.
. Find out what the learners' ideals are, and help individual learners
to see how the learning contents they have to learn will help them to
achieve those ideals.
. Be a good example of motivation yourself.
. Remember that success breeds success. Give every learner the
chance to complete a task successfully, and show them that you
notice and appreciate their successes.
122
b Journal entry 7e
Read the following two case studies and answer the questions
below.
Case study 1
Mrs Venter is a very well organised, disciplined educator. She likes
her classroom to be extremely neat and tidy every day. The tables
must be in straight rows, and everything must be in its place. The
learners have to be very quiet and obedient; they must not walk
around or talk loudly. When any of the classroom rules is broken,
the learners get a break detention. Then they have to sit in a special
class and lose their break. You can walk into her classroom at any
time of day, and the learners will be well disciplined, quiet and
busy with their work.
Case study 2
Next door to Mrs Venter is Mr Wells's classroom. His classes
are usually noisy. Children are constantly talking in small groups
about the work they are doing or the topic for the day. The room is
full of learners' projects, and some kind of practical activity is
always on the go. The atmosphere in the class is one of expectation
and excitement. If you go into the classroom, you will always find
Mr Wells helping an individual learner or talking to a group about
the day's topic. He walks round the room a lot while the learners
are busy, and is always on the lookout for good work, because he
loves to praise his learners when they work well.
The two classrooms are obviously very different.
Answer the following questions:
(1) Which classroom do you think has a better learning
atmosphere? Explain your answer.
(2) In what ways can you improve the learning in your classroom
so that learners are motivated to learn?
7.6 CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING ABOUT SOCIAL CONCERNS

All educators are responsible for helping their learners to solve
problems responsibly, critically and creatively. We must encourage
them, therefore, to think critically and creatively about everything,
especially social concerns. Creativity refers to the ability to think up
and connect important new ideas (Du Randt 1993:12). Educators can
help to provide a creative thinking environment for learners through
the ways in which they mediate learning in their classrooms and by
keeping the following in mind:
. Read books. Select and read books which are suited to the children's
developmental level as often as possible.
. Encourage curiosity. Do not discourage curiosity and the need to
discover.
123 EDMHOD-R/1
. Focus on real problems. Creative learning can take place if lessons

are problem-solving opportunities in which real problems which are
meaningful to the learners are considered, or where they receive
explanations about why the problems are meaningful.
Creative thinking does not require a wide variety of resources.

Individual educators with a clear vision and a passion for creativity
can make it happen.
All educators have social responsibilities. For that reason you should
deal with a wide variety of topics in your classroom, such as the
following:
. HIV/Aids
. the legality of abortion but not of euthanasia
. the death penalty
. crime
. free love
. teenage pregnancies
. sexism and racism
. the right to land, and land reform
. freedom of the press
. censorship
. consumer pressure
. gay rights
. human rights
. morality
. attitudes towards people with physical and intellectual disabilities
. animal rights
. environmental issues
This means that you must help your learners to think critically about
these issues. One of the most important aspects of critical thinking,
according to Pienaar (1998:34) is:
... the ability to evaluate statements or arguments put forward by
others, or to present one's own point of view in a convincing and
logical manner. A good argument consists of statements of reason
that support a final conclusive statement.
e Study section 7.6 ``Creating a learning environment conducive to

critical and creative thinking'' in The educator as mediator of
learning.
Now that you understand what critical thinking entails, it should be

clear that learners must be able to provide arguments for and against
each of the social issues listed above. Then, every argument must be
analysed and debated, and cognitive errors and assumptions (''ideas
we take for granted'') must be pointed out. Arguments and points of
view should always be supported by evidence. In particular, learners
should be advised about the reliability of the sources they consulted or
124
quoted in order to support their arguments, assumptions or positions.

The source, or the reputation of the person who commented on a social
issue and was quoted or used to support an argument, should be
checked for honesty and sincerity. The person's background (do they
have expert knowledge of the area they are commenting on?) and the
extent to which other experts agree with them must be investigated
before learners can decide to agree with an expert, or use an expert to
support their own positions. We should always consider whether an
expert might not have taken up a particular position in order to benefit
from it like being paid to endorse a product.
You should make a particular point of reminding learners that they
must always be able to support their opinions and positions. The
reasons they put forward must be valid ones; they must be able to
provide evidence; and they must not just make sweeping statements.
Remember that your example of sober, objective thinking when you
talk to your learners about social concerns is what they will follow.
Learners must realise that there are always two sides to a problem and
that people must be willing to listen to the other side. A very good way
of forcing learners to consider the other side of a problem is to make
them support it in a debate. If some learners feel strongly that
euthanasia should be legalised, for instance, make them join the group
which will be explaining the disadvantages of euthanasia in a debate,
and help them to formulate their arguments. In this way they are made
to see things from the other person's point of view. Similarly, boys can
speak in favour of women's rights and the girls can oppose them.
b Journal entry 7f
Educators often say that it is easy to deal with social issues in
subjects like languages, History, Geography and learning areas like
Social Sciences, Life Orientation and Art and Culture, but that they
offer Economic and Management Sciences, or Technology, or
Natural Science, and that it is impossible for them to deal with
social issues. I hope you do not agree.
(1) Write down in your journal book the name or names of the
subjects or learning areas which you teach or intend to teach.
(2) Explain what social issues can be addressed in your subjects or
learning areas.
(3) How will you set about making learners aware of these issues?
(4) For the next month, read every newspaper or magazine that
you possibly can, and listen to as many current affairs
programmes on the radio as possible. Cut out all the articles
or reports dealing with social issues, and paste them into your
journal book. Write notes on the radio programmes in which
social issues were discussed.
(5) Explain how you can use the reports and articles that you cut
out, or the radio programmes that you listened to, in your
classroom in order to draw learners' attention to a social issue
or problem.
125 EDMHOD-R/1
7.7 CREATING A LEARNING ATMOSPHERE IN WHICH STEREOTYPING IS

EXAMINED AND QUERIED
e Study section 7.7 ``Creating a learning environment in which

stereotyping is examined and queried'' in The educator as
mediator of learning. Ask yourself whether you are guilty of
stereotyped thinking.
b Journal entry 7g
(1) Study the following statements, and see if you can identify the
stereotypes.
a The man is the family breadwinner.
b Women are generally regarded as the weaker sex.
c Girls wear pink and play with dolls.
d A tomboy is a girl who likes boys' games.
e Boys who cry are sissies.
f Afrikaners are all racists.
g Men who like cooking are homosexual.
h People who drive black cars are aggressive.
i Coloured people drink too much.
j Women can't drive heavy vehicles.
k Only women become nurses.
l All Moslems are terrorists.
m All coloured boys belong to gangs.
n Blondes are stupid.
o Church ministers are honest, so we can trust them.
p Boys are better than girls at Science and Maths.
q Girls can draw better than boys.
r People with red hair have very short tempers.
(2) Stereotypes can be negative or positive. Draw two columns in

your journal book. Write the numbers of the negative
stereotypes in the list above in the first column, and the
positive ones in the second column.
(3) Write down two examples of your own of positive and of
negative stereotypes.
(4) Have you ever been the victim of stereotyping? If so, write
about it.
(5) What subject or learning area do you or will you teach? Write it
in your journal book, and explain how you can address
stereotyping in your subject area.
126
G (1) In this study unit we have seen that the right classroom
atmosphere can make a positive contribution to learning and
encourage it. The relationship between the educator and the
learner is very important, and can contribute to the learner's
motivation to achieve.
(2) We have also established that learners must be encouraged to
think critically about classroom events.
(3) We also saw that educators must take into account the needs of
all the learners in their classrooms, that learners must be able
to trust them, and that there should be a good, relaxed
relationship between educators and learners. This does not
mean that no discipline should be enforced, but that the
discipline which is enforced must make a positive contribution
to a challenging atmosphere for learning. Ways must be found
to mediate conflicts effectively so that no party is a loser.
(4) A very important fact which we learnt in this study unit is that
modern educators must point out stereotypical thinking to
their learners, and encourage them to think critically about
stereotypes on language, gender, ethnicity and culture.
Now turn back to the beginning of this study guide and look again at
the outcomes which we stated there. If you can answer the following
questions, you have achieved those outcomes. If on the other hand you
have to turn back frequently in order to answer them, we suggest that
you work through this study unit again.
c (1) Explain how the atmosphere in a classroom can affect the

mediation process.
(2) You have just taken up a new appointment at a school. You are
disappointed to find the classroom in a very neglected state.
The furniture is broken and the room is really dirty. The
learners are not interested in coming to class, and would rather
sit outside under a tree. In addition they do what they like and
see no reason to listen to you. How will you establish a learning
friendly classroom which will serve as a suitable learning envi-
ronment for your learners?
(3) What will you use as motivation for these learners? State
techniques which you can use in the motivation process.
(4) You realise that it is vital to restore discipline in the classroom.
In order to do that, you must draw up class rules. Explain how
you will set about convincing the learners that rules are
necessary, and how you will draw up effective rules which will
satisfy both you and the learners.
(5) From any learning area you are familiar with, provide three
examples of activities which you can use to encourage critical,
creative thinking in your classroom.
127 EDMHOD-R/1
(6) How will you explain to somebody what a stereotype is? Use
any example with which you are familiar.
(7) How will you set about addressing stereotyping and social
issues in your classroom?
(8) What is the cardinal rule that you must adhere to in order to
avoid stereotyping?
7.9 TEACHING TIPS
b Journal entry 7h
We have now come to the end of this chapter, and it is time to write
down a few teaching tips. Do so now in your journal book.
Remember to mark them clearly: TEACHING TIPS so that they
stand out.
c Reread what you wrote as journal entry 7a. Has this study unit
lived up to your expectations? Have you learnt what you hoped you
would learn? Will you be able to put into practice the information
you have obtained here?
7.10 IN CONCLUSION
We hope that you have enjoyed working through this module and
doing all the activities. Remember that you must bring everything you
have learnt into the context of practical teaching wherever possible.
Ask yourself how you will use all your new knowledge in the
classroom to make your teaching and your mediation of learning
more effective.
Enjoy your career! Remember that if you do not enjoy your work, the
learners will soon notice Ð and then there is no hope that they will
enjoy theirs. The best advice we can give you is:
Do what you enjoy, and enjoy what you do!
TEACHING IS A JOURNEY Ð ENJOY THE RIDE!

128
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Study unit Page

1.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM 11

1.7 REVIEW OF THE STUDY UNIT 20

2 THE ROLE OF THE LANGUAGE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Study unit Page

2.6 SUPPORTING LEARNING IN AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE 34

2.7 SUPPORTING STUDY SKILLS 38

3 STRATEGIES FOR WORKING WITH LEARNERS WHO EXPERIENCE

3.5 ADAPTING TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR USE IN THE INCLUSIVE

4 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING, LEARNING STYLES AND LEARNER

Study unit Page

4.6 THE EFFECT ON LEARNING AND THE MEDIATION OF LEARNING OF

4.7 LEARNER DIFFERENCES 88

4.8 REVIEW OF THE STUDY UNIT 89

5 THE USE AND ADAPTATION OF TEACHING STRATEGIES 91

5.3 CHOOSING TEACHING STRATEGIES 101

Study unit Page

6.6 KINDS OF TEACHING MEDIA 109

7 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT THAT IS CONDUCIVE FOR

. identifying and solving problems and taking decisions by using

There are also a number of developmental outcomes which envisage

The educator as mediator of learning

various aspects of learning mediation. Let us start by looking at what

e Read the ``Introduction'' in chapter 1 of The educator as mediator

1.2 SKILLS WHICH LEARNING MEDIATORS MUST HAVE IN TERMS OF

e Study section 1.2 ``Competences required of educators by national

The three forms of competence can be illustrated as follows:

If we consider the practical, foundational and reflexive competences

Headings under which competences can be placed could therefore

b Journal entry 1b (continued)

An educator who reveals all these competences can therefore be termed

1.3 THE TASK OF A MEDIATOR

e Read section 1.3 ``The task of a mediator'' in The educator as

1.4 FROM TEACHER TO LEARNING MEDIATOR Ð THE ROLE OF

e Study section 1.4 ``From teacher to educator as mediator of

struct meaning themselves, rather than have the educator spoon-

(1) Learners understand better if they have solved a problem

Now add more reasons (in your journal):

1.5 MEDIATION OF LEARNING

e Study section 1.5 ``Mediation of learning'' in The educator as

1.5.1 Feuerstein's parameters of mediated learning experience (MLE)

c Which function of a mediator, as listed above, do you think is the

than another. Similarly, one role of an educator (mediator, assessor or

Five or more characteristics Five or more characteristics of

Ability to listen Firmness

. Dedication. Good mediators will dedicate themselves completely to

Ideal learning mediators encourage the learners to investigate, discover

c Now read the following case study.

How is your profile as a learning mediator? The following exercise is

b Read the following statements, and mark each one in the

Add up your marks.

1.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM

e The following sections should be studied conjointly with section 1.6

1.6.1 A learning mediator acts as both an intermediary and a link

e Study section 1.6.1 ``The mediator as intervener'' in The educator

What it is basically saying is:

1.6.2 Mediators of learning can communicate effectively

You probably didn't have much difficulty in identifying the comments

e Now read section 1.6.2 ``Communication'' in The educator as

1.6.3 Learning mediators are sensitive to learners' differences and needs