Accepted Manuscript

Title: Comparative study of physycal and sensory properties of pre-treated potato slices during vacuum
and atmospheric frying

Authors: E. Troncoso, F. Pedreschi, R.N. Zúñiga

PII: S0023-6438(08)00132-1
DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2008.05.013
Reference: YFSTL 2007

To appear in: LWT - Food Science and Technology

Received Date: 5 December 2007

Revised Date: 12 May 2008
Accepted Date: 15 May 2008

Please cite this article as: Troncoso, E., Pedreschi, F., Zúñiga, R.N. Comparative study of physycal and sensory properties of
pre-treated potato slices during vacuum and atmospheric frying, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2008), doi:
10.1016/j.lwt.2008.05.013

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS

1 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PHYSYCAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF

2 PRE-TREATED POTATO SLICES DURING VACUUM AND ATMOSPHERIC

3 FRYING

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5 E. Troncoso 1*, F. Pedreschi 2 & R. N. Zúñiga3

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6

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1
7 Chemical Engineering Deparment, Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH)

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8 P.O. Box 10233, Santiago, Chile

9 Fax: (56-2) 681 7135

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10 Phone: (56-2) 718 1803

11 E-mail: edtronco@uc.cl

12
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2
13 Department of Food Science and Technology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile
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14 (USACH).
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15 P.O. Box 10233, Santiago, Chile

16
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3
17 Chemical & Bioprocess Engineering Department, Pontificia Universidad Católica de

18 Chile.
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19 P.O. Box 306, 6904411, Santiago, Chile

20
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21 Submitted for publication in LWT- FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

22 Short title: Physical and sensory properties of pre-treated potato slices during vacuum

23 and atmospheric frying

24 December 2007

*
Corresponding author
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25 Abstract

26 The objective of this research was to study the effect of different processing conditions

27 on physical and sensory properties of potato chips. Potato slices of Desirée and Panda

28 varieties (diameter: 30 mm; thickness: 3 mm) were pre-treated in the following ways: (i)

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29 control or unblanched slices without pre-drying; (ii) blanched slices in hot water at 85ºC

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30 for 3.5 min and air-dried at 60ºC until a final moisture content of ~0.6 kg water/kg dry

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31 solid; (iii) control slices soaked in a 3.5 kg/m3 sodium metabisulphite solution at 20ºC

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32 for 3 min and pH adjusted to 3. Pre-treated slices were fried at 120 and 140°C under

33 vacuum conditions (5.37 kPa, absolute pressure) and under atmospheric pressure until

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34 they reached a final moisture content of ~1.8 kg water/100 kg (wet basis). An

35 experimental design (3x23) was used to analyze the effect of pre-treatment, potato

36
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variety, type of frying and frying temperature over the following responses: oil content,

37 instrumental color and texture and sensory evaluation. Vacuum frying increased
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38 significantly (p<0.05) oil content and decreased instrumental color and textural
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39 parameters. Sensory attributes, flavor quality and overall quality, were significantly

40 improved using vacuum frying. The higher frying temperature (140ºC) increased ∆E,
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41 maximum breaking force, hardness and crispness and decreased L* and b* values. On

42 the other hand, Panda potato variety improved the color of the product. A great
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43 improvement on color parameters was obtained using sulphited potato slices instead of

44 the other pre-treatments. Although, the better flavor was obtained for control potato
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45 chips, no significant differences were found for overall quality between control and

46 sulphited potato chips. Significant correlations (p<0.01) between sensory and

47 instrumental responses were found.

48 Keywords: vacuum frying; physical properties; sensory properties; potato variety; pre-

49 treatment.
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50 1. Introduction

51 Deep-fat frying is one of the oldest processes of food preparation and consists basically

52 in the immersion of food pieces in hot oil. The high temperature causes an evaporation

53 of the water, which moves away from the food and through the surrounding oil. Oil is

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54 absorbed by food, replacing some of lost water. The aim of deep-fat frying is to seal the

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55 food by immersing it in the hot oil so that all flavors and the juices are retained by the

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56 crisp crust (Moreira, Palau & Sin, 1995).

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57 During the frying process, the physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics of foods

58 are modified. Texture, color and oil content are the main quality parameters of fried

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59 potatoes (Aguilera, 1997; Moreira, Castell-Perez & Barrufet, 1999). Texture is a

60 sensory attribute of uppermost importance for potato preference (Thygesen, Thybo &

61
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Engelsen, 2001), and it is a critical parameter for fried potato quality (Ross & Scalon,

62 2004). The texture of potato was found to be directly related to specific gravity, total
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63 solids, starch content, cell size, and surface area and pectin (Moyano, Troncoso &
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64 Pedreschi, 2007). Textural changes during frying are the result of many physical,

65 chemical, and structural changes produced in this complex process unit operation,
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66 which includes heat and mass transfer together with chemical reactions. Good-quality

67 French fries must have a crispy crust of about 1 to 2 mm where most of the oil is
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68 located, and a wet, soft center, like a cooked potato. For potato chips, a very crispy

69 texture is expected all way through since crispness is an indicator of freshness and high
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70 quality (Moreira et al., 1999; Rosen & Hellenäs, 2002; Troncoso & Pedreschi, 2007a).

71 Color development only begins when sufficient amount of drying has occurred in potato

72 slices and depends also on the drying rate and the heat transfer coefficient during the

73 different stages of frying. Color is visually considered one of the most important

74 parameters in the definition of quality of fried potatoes (Scanlon, Roller, Mazza &
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75 Pritchard, 1994) and is the result of the Maillard reaction that depends on the content of

76 reducing sugars and amino acids or proteins at the surface, and the temperature and time

77 of frying (Marquez & Añón, 1986). It is almost impossible for the food industry to

78 make light colored chips acceptable to the market without some treatment of the sliced

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79 potatoes in the chip plant. A number of procedures have been found to have some merit

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80 in producing lighter color chips. Many chemical methods, such as the use of sulphites,

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81 have been used as antibrowning agents in foods (Hardisson, Rubio, Frías, Rodríguez &

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82 Reguera, 2002; Suh, Cho, Chung & Kim, 2007; Tavares, Lira, Ribeiro, de Araújo &

83 Coelho, 2005). Although the safety of sulphiting agents has been questioned because

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84 sulphite produces health damage when it is consumed above permissible limit (Singla,

85 Singh, Walia, Singla & Mahapatra, 2006), in the United States, the FDA has placed

86
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sulphur dioxide and several sulphite salts into the category of “generally accepted as

87 safe” (GRAS; FDA/CFSAN, 1992).

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88 Many approaches to reduce oil absorption in fried products have been reported in the
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89 literature. For instance, soaking of potato strips in NaCl solutions reduced oil uptake in

90 French fries (Bunger, Moyano & Ríoseco, 2003). Besides, the blanching step previous
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91 to frying in potato chip processing improves the color and texture, and reduces, in some

92 cases, the oil uptake by gelatinization of the surface starch (Califano & Calvelo, 1987).
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93 Drying of potatoes, before frying, using microwave, hot-air treatment and baking has

94 resulted in a significant reduction in oil content of different products (Krokida,

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95 Oreopoulou, Maroulis & Marinos-Kouris, 2001a; Moyano, Ríoseco & González, 2002).

96 Recently, much attention has been given to the use of vacuum frying which may be an

97 option to produce fried potatoes with low oil content and desired texture and flavor

98 characteristics (Garayo & Moreira, 2002).

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99 Atmospheric deep-fat frying necessarily occurs at high temperatures under atmospheric

100 pressure. Surface darkening and many adverse reactions take place due to the high

101 temperature treatment before the food is fully cooked or dried (Fan, Zhang &

102 Mujumdar, 2005a). Vacuum frying is a viable option to produce high quality dried fruit

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103 and vegetable in a far shorter processing time than conventional frying. The sample is

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104 heated under a negative pressure that lowers the boiling point of the frying oil and the

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105 water in the sample. Moreover, the absence of air during frying may inhibit oxidation

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106 reactions, including lipid oxidation, and enzymatic browning of samples can be largely

107 preserved (Fan, Zhang, Xiao, Sun & Tao, 2005b; Shyu, Hau & Hwang, 2005). Hence,

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108 dehydrated foods produced by vacuum frying can have crispy texture, good color and

109 flavor and good retention of nutrients (Fan et al., 2005b; Shyu & Hwang, 2001).

110
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Most of the research found in literature is related to atmospheric deep-fat frying of

111 foods and there are very few studies on the effect of the vacuum frying on the oil
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112 content, color, texture and sensory quality. Besides, only few researchers have
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113 investigated the effect of pre-treatments in vacuum frying of potatoes in comparison

114 with other vegetables. For these reasons the main objective of this research was to study
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115 the effect of different factors (potato variety, pre-treatments, frying temperature and

116 type of frying) on the physical and sensory properties of potato chips.
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117

118 2. Materials and methods

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119 2.1 Materials

120 Potatoes (varieties Desirée and Panda) and vegetable oil (Chef®, Coprona, Chile) were

121 the raw materials. Potato tubers were stored in dark room at 8ºC and 95% relative

122 humidity, prior to the experimental runs. Slices (thickness of 3 mm) were cut from the

123 pith of the parenchymatous region of potato tubers using an electric slicing machine
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124 (Berkel, model EAS65, UK). A circular cutting mold was used to provide chips with a

125 diameter of 30 mm. Dry solid and reducing sugar contents of Desirée and Panda

126 varieties were 21.79 ± 0.58 and ∼0.3 (kg/100 kg, wet basis) and 22.54 ± 0.42 and ∼0.03

127 (kg/100 kg, wet basis), respectively.

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128

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129 2.2 Sample preparation

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130 Potato slices were rinsed immediately after cutting for 1 min in distilled water to

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131 eliminate some starch material adhering to the surface prior to frying. The following

132 pre-treatments were used: (i) control or unblanched slices without pre-drying; (ii)

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133 blanched slices in hot water at 85ºC for 3.5 min were placed on a wire tray, arranged in

134

135
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one layer of 28 samples, in a laboratory convection dryer, with an average tray load of

1.75 kg/m2. Then the samples were air-dried at 60ºC at an air velocity of 1.8 ± 0.1 m/s.
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136 Weight loss was monitored periodically until the slices reached a final moisture content

137 of ~0.6 kg water/kg dry solid, (iii) raw potato slices were soaked in a 3.5 kg/m3 sodium
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138 metabisulphite solution at 20ºC for 3 min and pH adjusted to 3. The concentration of the

139 metabisulphite solution and the time of immersion were chosen to obtain fried potato
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140 slices with a sulphite level below 5×10-5 kg/kg, according to the permissible limit set in

141 the draft General Standard for Food Additives (GSFA) for snacks products developed
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142 by the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (CODEX STAN 192-

143 1995, 1995). After immersion, the samples were rinsed and blotted with tissue paper
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144 before frying.

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146 2.3 Frying

147 The equipment used for both atmospheric and vacuum frying (Figure 1) was composed

148 basically of a 0.012 m3 stainless steel (type 316L) vessel electrically heated and a
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149 temperature control system (PID, Veto, Chile) to maintain the set frying temperature

150 ±3°C. The fryer was filled with 0.0035 m3 of oil, which was pre-heated for 1 h prior to

151 frying and discarded after 6 h of use. Slices were fried at different times according to

152 the type of frying, potato variety, oil temperature and pre-treatment, until reaching a

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153 final moisture content of ∼1.8 kg/100 kg (wet basis).

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154

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155 2.3.1 Vacuum deep-fat frying

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156 In vacuum frying experiments the frying vessel was covered with a stainless steel lid

157 (type 316L), tightly screwed. The vessel was connected to a vacuum pump (JB

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158 Industries Inc., model DV-85N-250, USA) which allow a maximum vacuum level of

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160
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5.37 kPa (absolute pressure) and at this pressure the boiling point of water is 34°C. A

condensation system, composed of three liquid nitrogen traps, was placed between the
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161 frying vessel and the vacuum pump. The objective of the condensation system was to

162 prevent the mix of the water vapor coming from the product with the pump’s oil, thus
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163 avoiding the damage of the pump. Once the oil temperature reached the target value

164 (120°C or 140°C), the pre-treated slices were placed inside the fryer basket (Figure 1)
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165 and covered with a grid. The lid was screwed and the vessel was depressurized. When

166 the absolute pressure in the vessel achieved 5.4 kPa, the basket was lowered and
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167 immersed in the oil. Finalized the frying time, the basket was raised and the vessel was

168 pressurized. Then, the samples were removed from the fryer, blotted with tissue paper
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169 and allowed to cool to room temperature before analyses.

170

171 2.3.2 Atmospheric deep-fat frying

172 Pre-treated potato slices were placed in the fryer basket and once the oil temperature

173 reached the target value (120°C or 140°C), the basket was immersed in the oil.
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174 Finalized the frying time, the basket was raised and the samples were removed from the

175 fryer, blotted with tissue paper and allowed to cool to room temperature before

176 analyses.

177

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178 2.4 Experimental design and statistical analysis

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179 A statistical multifactorial experimental design (Box et al., 2005) was used to analyze

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180 simultaneously the effect of four factors that affect the frying process through the

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181 following responses: oil content, instrumental color, instrumental texture and sensory

182 evaluation of the fried potato slices. This procedure considered four factors: pre-

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183 treatment of the slices at three levels (c: control; bd: blanched and dried; s: sulphited),

184 potato variety at two levels (d: Desirée; p: Panda), type of frying at two levels (a:

185
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atmospheric; v: vacuum) and frying temperature at two levels (120ºC; 140ºC). This

186 yielded a 3×23 type design with 24 experimental runs (Table 1). The randomization of
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187 the experiments as well as the statistical analysis of the experimental data was done
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188 with the software Statgraphics Plus (version 5.1). The statistical significance of the

189 effects of the the factors, and their interactions, was analyzed simultaneously by means
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190 of Pareto charts and ANOVA tests (p<0.05).

191
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192 2.5 Design responses

193 2.5.1 Oil content

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194 Oil content was determined by a simple and rapid method of total lipid extraction and

195 purification (Bligh & Dyer, 1959). This method consists of an initial extraction with a

196 mixture of 1:2:0.8 (v/v/v) in chloroform, methanol, and water. Then, this mixture was

197 adjusted to 2:2:1.8 (v/v/v) to continue the extraction. In this way, the chloroform layer

198 contains the purified oil. The oil content was expressed as kg oil/kg dry solid.
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199 2.5.2 Instrumental color by computer vision

200 A computer vision system (CVS), previously implemented (Pedreschi, Mery, Mendoza

201 & Aguilera, 2004b), was used to measure representatively and accurately the color of

202 the potato chips, using fifteen samples for each analysis. The general methodology to

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203 convert RGB images into L*a*b* units was described in detail by León, Mery,

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204 Pedreschi & León (2006). Total color difference (ΔE) between raw (L0*, a0*, b0*) and

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205 fried potato slices (L*, a*, b*) was defined as:

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206

ΔE = (L
*
0 − L* ) + (a
2 *
0 − a* ) + (b
2 *
0 − b* )
2
(1)

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207

208 2.5.3 Instrumental texture AN

209 Texture measurements of the chips were done at room temperature (20ºC) by a puncture
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210 test with a speed test of 10 mm/s using a punch with a diameter of 2 mm (probe model

211 P/2) performed in a Texture Analyzer TA.XT2i (Stable Micro System, Surrey, UK).
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212 The samples were mounted over a support specially design by the equipment supplier

213 for snack texture analyses. The peak or maximum force, defined as the force at which
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214 the punch penetrates the outer layer of the surface of the fried potato slices, was

215 obtained using the software Texture Expert (version 1.16) of the Texture Analyzer.
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216 Each analysis was conducted using ten samples.

217
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218 2.5.4 Sensory evaluation

219 Thirteen assessors (8 male and 5 female), aged between 20 and 30, were recruited and

220 selected to participate in this study. This panel was trained during twelve two-hour

221 sessions for quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) and quality analysis of potato

222 chips. The response variables were obtained by means of a QDA on a 10 cm non-
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223 structured linear scale (Meilgaard, Civille & Carr, 1991), and a quality rating test (QRT)

224 (Muñoz, Civille & Carr, 1992) on a 7 point numerical scale (1 = very bad, 7 = very

225 good). The following QDA descriptors and their respective anchor words were selected

226 by panel consensus during the training period: color intensity (pale yellow, dark

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227 yellow), hardness (soft, hard), crispness (none crispy, very crispy) and oiliness (very

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228 low, very high). The measured attributes of the QRT were color, flavor, texture and

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229 overall quality. Samples were randomly evaluated in 12 sessions (2 samples per

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230 session). Each assessor was provided with tea to cleanse the palate between tasting.

231

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232 2.6 Other analyses

233

234
2.6.1 Moisture Content
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Moisture content of potato chips was measured by drying the samples in a vacuum

235 convection oven (SHEL LAB, model 1410-2E, USA) at 30 kPa (vacuum pressure) and
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236 70ºC per 24 h until reaching constant weight (AOAC, 1984).
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237

238 2.6.2 Sulphite Content

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239 The determination of sulphite content was performed according to the optimized

240 Monier-Williams Method (AOAC, 1995). The total concentration of sulphite was
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241 determined by a titrimetric method in which sulphite is converted into sulphur dioxide

242 and further oxidized to sulphuric acid using hydrogen peroxide and subsequently
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243 titrating against alkali. The analysis of all samples was performed in triplicate.

244
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245 3. Results and discussion

246 The mean values of the responses of the multifactorial experimental design are shown in

247 Table 2. The effects statistically significant (p<0.05) and the magnitude of the change

248 on the responses of the design are shown in Table 3. The positive or negative sign

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249 indicates that when passing from the low to the high level of the factor the response

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250 increase or decrease, respectively. The magnitude of this change represents the units of

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251 variation in the response. For example, for the factor type of frying (factor C), Table 3

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252 indicates that vacuum fried potato chips (high level for this factor) increase their oil

253 content in 0.13 units, in comparison to the potato chips fried at atmospheric pressure,

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254 independently of the others factors.

255 For a better understanding, the results obtained in this research were analyzed

256
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individually for each factor investigated.

257
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258 3.1 Type of frying
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259 The type of frying (factor C) presented the higher number of significant responses for

260 the experimental design studied (Table 3). Vacuum frying increased significantly oil
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261 content of potato chips, results in agreement with those obtained by Tan & Mittal

262 (2006) and Troncoso & Pedreschi (2007b), who studied the oil uptake during vacuum
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263 frying of donuts and pre-treated potato chips, respectively. However, Shyu et al. (2005)

264 found that vacuum frying at moderate temperatures (90-100°C) produced carrot chips
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265 with low oil contents. Besides, Garayo & Moreira (2002) reported that potato chips

266 fried under vacuum absorbed less oil than chips processed under atmospheric

267 conditions.

268 The higher oil contents obtained in this research for vacuum frying suggest a better

269 understanding of this process, which may be characterized by two stages: frying and
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270 pressurization. The first stage is similar to the behavior reported for atmospheric frying,

271 where the high temperatures produce a partial evaporation of the water in the food,

272 which moves from the inside of the product, being partially replaced by oil. However, in

273 vacuum frying the heat and mass transfer rates are higher due to the decrease in the

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274 boiling point of water at vacuum pressure (in this research Pvacuum = 5.37 kPa, absolute

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275 pressure, and at this pressure the boiling point of water is 34°C). The second stage of

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276 pressurization, which proceeds after the product has been withdrawn from the oil and

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277 remains inside the vessel at the frying pressure and temperature, increases quickly the

278 pressure at the pores, causing that the oil adhered at the chip surface penetrate in the

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279 food (generating a “sponge effect”), until the pressure at the pores equals the

280 atmospheric pressure.

281
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Vacuum frying was a significant effect over the instrumental (L*, a*, b* and ΔE) and
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282 sensory parameters of color (Table 3). Potato slices fried under vacuum had L* values

283 significantly higher than the values corresponding to the slices fried under atmospheric
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284 conditions. A higher L* values indicates a lighter color, which is desirable in these

285 products. The a* values were significantly higher for potato slices fried at atmospheric
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286 pressure than those for fried at the vacuum conditions, indicating that more Maillard

287 reaction occurred at the atmospheric frying conditions. The b* values were also
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288 significantly higher for potato slices fried at atmospheric pressure than for potato slices

289 fried under vacuum. Sensory evaluation confirmed the results obtained with the CVS,
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290 the color of the potato slices fried at atmospheric conditions was evaluated as “darker”

291 and “worst” for QDA and QRT, respectively, than the potato slices fried at vacuum

292 conditions. Figure 3 shows an image gallery of pre-treated potato chips fried at 120ºC

293 under vacuum and atmospheric conditions. All chips fried under vacuum presented a
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294 lower extent of browning and a more golden-yellow color in comparison with chips

295 fried at atmospheric conditions.

296 Textural quality is an important attribute for the acceptability of fries and it is

297 influenced by both raw material and process conditions. Frying of foods can change the

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298 products’ porous structure by the phenomenon of shrinkage (Krokida, Oreopoulou,

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299 Maroulis & Marinos-Kouris, 2001b). Thus, the crispy structure of potato chips is the

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300 result of changes at the cellular and sub-cellular levels in the outermost layers of the

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301 product (Taiwo & Bike, 2007). In the present work, instrumental and sensory (QDA)

302 textural parameters of chips, maximum breaking force, hardness and crispness, were

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303 significantly decreased by using vacuum frying (Table 3). Nevertheless, texture quality

304 (QRT) was significantly “better” for vacuum fried chips. Garayo & Moreira (2002)

305
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found that a higher level of vacuum produced a higher shrinkage of potato chips.

306 Probably, the structured formed in the chips during low vacuum pressure was less rigid
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307 than that formed under high pressures thus resulting in less resistance to volume change.
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308 Likewise, they reported that potato chips showed a higher degree of volume change

309 when fried under vacuum (at 3.115 kPa and 144°C) than when fried at atmospheric
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310 conditions (at 165°C). This is probably because the product becomes more rigid when

311 fried under atmospheric frying than when fried under vacuum frying. In addition,
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312 shrinkage affects the physical properties of materials, such as density and porosity

313 (Wang & Brennan, 1995). Vacuum frying produces a greater collapse of the structural
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314 tissues of the product, resulting in more shrinkage and a possible increase in porosity,

315 strongly affecting the textural parameters of foods. Thus, vacuum frying could enhance

316 the puffing effect, improving the texture quality of potato chips.

317 In general, food processors of frying products control food quality by means of

318 appearance and taste. These characteristics can be quantified by means of measurements
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319 related with some properties of the product (Moreira et al., 1999). In this research,

320 sensory attributes, flavor quality and overall quality, were significantly improved when

321 vacuum frying was used instead of atmospheric frying (Table 3). The overall quality is

322 linked to sensory perception of color, flavor and texture (during the mastication process)

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323 of foods. Color is one of the main factors which affect consumer acceptation of fried

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324 products and could be indicative of a high quality (when potato chips had a golden-

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325 yellow color) influencing the perception of taste (Moreira et al., 1999). Moreover, it is

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326 known that food structure influences the mastication process and is directly related with

327 the release of volatile compounds and the perception of flavor (Lucas, Prinz, Agrawal &

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328 Bruce, 2002; Small & Prescott, 2005; Taylor, 2002). All the sensory attributes

329 mentioned are strongly dependent on the physicochemical properties of the product. In

330
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this sense, vacuum frying can be a viable option to improve or enhance the sensory

331 properties of foods processed by this technology, since improve the color (Garayo &
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332 Moreira, 2002) and the structural collapse of the tissues is able to enhance the
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333 perception and integration of flavors.

334
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335 3.2 Frying temperature

336 Frying temperature (factor D) affected significantly instrumental and sensory (QDA)
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337 parameters of color and texture (Table 3). The high level of frying temperature (140ºC)

338 decreased L* and b* and increased ∆E values. QDA for color showed that potato chips
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339 fried at 140ºC were “darker” than those fried at 120ºC. It is known that Maillard

340 reaction is strongly temperature dependent, changing from a zero- to first-order reaction

341 at temperatures up to 60ºC (Hutchings, 1994). Several studies has shown that during

342 frying, under atmospheric or vacuum conditions, higher temperatures increases the

343 extent of browning (Garayo & Moreira, 2002; Krokida et al., 2001a; Pedreschi,
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344 Moyano, Kaack & Granby, 2005; Shyu & Hwang, 2001; Shyu, et al., 2005), supporting

345 the results observed in this work.

346 The high level of frying temperature increased the maximum force required to break the

347 chips, as well as their hardness and crispness (Table 3). These results are in agreement

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348 with those reported by others researchers for vacuum frying (Garayo & Moreira, 2002;

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349 Tan & Mittal, 2006). However, the opposite trend (Pedreschi & Moyano, 2005a) or no

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350 significant effect (Pedreschi & Moyano, 2005b) over the final texture of the fried potato

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351 slices was found during atmospheric frying. Pedreschi, Segnini & Dejmek (2004a)

352 showed that there was no clear effect of the frying temperature over final texture when

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353 slices with the same final moisture content were compared. Crust formation in fried

354 potatoes is the result of changes in the original structure in the potato tissue, namely,

355
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softening of the middle lamella between cells, starch gelatinization and dehydration,

356 being the gelatinization of starch during heating the major influence over the texture of
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357 potato chips. Nevertheless, interactions between perceived texture and physical
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358 structure are very complex and more research is needed in this area.

359
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360 3.3 Potato variety

361 Potato variety (factor B) used for frying affected significantly the instrumental (a* and
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362 b*) and sensory (QDA) parameters of color (Table 3). The a* values were significantly

363 lower for Panda chips than for Desirée chips, whereas the b* values were significantly
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364 higher for Panda than those for Desirée potato chips. Moreover, Panda chips were

365 evaluated as “paler” than Desirée chips. The color of fried potato has been related to the

366 reducing sugar content of potatoes (Márquez & Añon, 1986). Low reducing sugars

367 contents are required to minimize color development during frying (Mottur, 1989). In

368 this study, the reducing sugars content of Desirée and Panda varieties were ~0.3 and
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369 ~0.03 (kg/100 kg, wet basis), respectively, which explain the significant difference for

370 color between the two varieties detected by both the CVS and the sensory panel.

371 To quantify the effect produced by the potato variety, temperature and type of frying on

372 the instrumental and sensory parameters, the percent change in the responses was

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373 calculated (Table 4). This percent change represents the variation in the responses when

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374 one of the factors passes from low to high level and their value (positive or negative)

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375 indicates if the magnitude of the responses increases or decreases. Clearly, vacuum

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376 frying improved color and sensory quality of chips, but increased the final oil content.

377 Frying at 140ºC increased instrumental and sensory texture; however damaged the color

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378 of fried slices. Finally, Panda potato variety produced a huge improvement in the color

379 of the product (Figure 3), which was reflected by the great percent change for the a*

380
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color parameter (Table 4), where the negative sign indicates a reduction in the extent of

381 browning of potato chips.

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382
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383 3.4 Pre-treatment

384 The pre-treatment affected significantly the instrumental parameters of color (L*, a*
PT

385 and ΔE), flavor and overall quality of potato chips (Table 3). Because the pre-treatment

386 (factor A) was studied in three levels, to each one of the design responses that were
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387 affected significantly for this factor, it was applied a one-way ANOVA test and a

388 Tukey’s multiple range test to determine which pre-treatments were statistically
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389 different (Figure 2). In general, sulphited potato slices improved significantly color

390 parameters in comparison with control and blanched and dried pre-treatments (Figure

391 2). It is known that sulphite is an excellent antibrowning agent (Suh et al., 2007) which

392 was confirmed by the results of this research. To compare in a better way the effect of
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393 the pre-treatments on visual color of potato chips, images of products obtained under

394 different processing conditions are shown in Figure 3.

395 To quantify the effect produced by the pre-treatment on the instrumental (L*, a* and

396 ∆E) and sensory (flavor and overall quality) parameters the percent change in the

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397 responses was calculated (Table 5). A great improvement on color parameters was

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398 obtained using sulphited potato slices instead of the other pre-treatments. Although, the

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399 better flavor was obtained for control potato chips, no significant differences were

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400 found for overall quality between control and sulphited potato chips.

401

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402 3.5 Correlations between instrumental and sensory responses

403 Significant correlations (p<0.01) between sensory and instrumental responses were

404
AN
found (Table 6) indicating that both sensory and instrumental methods are suitable for

405 the measurement of color and texture parameters. Negative values of the correlation
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406 coefficients imply an inverse variation between instrumental and sensory responses (for
ED

407 example, an increase in L* values of potato chips was perceived by the sensory panel as

408 worst and darker).

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409

410 4. Conclusions
CE

411 Vacuum frying increased significantly oil content of potato chips and had a significant

412 effect on the instrumental and sensory parameters of color. Potato slices fried under
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413 vacuum had L* values significantly higher than the values corresponding to the slices

414 fried under atmospheric conditions. The a*, b* and ∆E values were significantly higher

415 for potato slices fried at atmospheric pressure than those for fried at the vacuum

416 conditions. Sensory evaluation confirmed these results, the color of the potato slices

417 fried at atmospheric conditions was evaluated as “darker” and “worst” than the potato
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418 slices fried at vacuum conditions. Instrumental and sensory textural parameters of chips,

419 maximum breaking force, hardness and crispness, were significantly decreased by using

420 vacuum frying. Nevertheless, texture quality was significantly “better” for vacuum fried

421 chips and flavor quality and overall quality were improved when vacuum frying was

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422 used instead of atmospheric frying. Frying temperature affected significantly

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423 instrumental and sensory parameters of color and texture. The high level of frying

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424 temperature (140ºC) decreased L* and b* and increased ∆E, maximum breaking force

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425 hardness and crispness. Panda potato variety improved the color of the product and the

426 pre-treatment affected significantly the instrumental parameters of color, flavor and

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427 overall quality of potato chips. In general, sulphited potato slices improved significantly

428 color parameters in comparison with control and blanched and dried pre-treatments. The

429
AN
better flavor was obtained for control potato chips, but no significant differences were

430 found for overall quality between control and sulphited potato chips. Significant
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431 correlations (p<0.01) between sensory and instrumental responses were found
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432 indicating that both methods are suitable for the measurement of color and texture

433 parameters.
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434

435 Acknowledgments
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436 Authors acknowledgment financial support from FONDECYT Project No. 1050160.

437 Discussions with Professor Pedro Moyano are highly appreciated.

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438
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439 References

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448 Box, G.P., Hunter, J.S., & Hunter, W.G. (2005). Statistics for Experimenters: Design,

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497 Pedreschi, F., Segnini, S., & Dejmek, P. (2004a). Evaluation of the texture of fried

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504 potato slices. Journal of Food Engineering, 70, 557-563.

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506 acrylamide formation in fried potato slices. Food Research International, 38, 1–9.

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515 vacuum fried apple chips. Food Research International, 34, 133-142.

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516 Shyu, S., Hau, L., & Hwang, L. (2005). Effects of processing conditions on the quality

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517 of vacuum fried carrot chips. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 85,

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518 1903-1908.

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520 optoelectronic instrument for the determination of sulphite in beverages. Food

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524 Suh, H., Cho, Y., Chung, M., & Kim, B. (2007). Preliminary data on sulphite intake
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525 from the Korean diet. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 20, 212-219.

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531 Taylor, A.J. (2002). Release and transport In Vivo: physicochemical, physiological, and

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538 quality of boiled potatoes from low-field HNMR of raw potatoes. Lebensmittel-

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539 Wissenschaft und Technologie, 34, 469–477.

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540 Troncoso, E., & Pedreschi, F. (2007a). Modeling of textural changes during drying of

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541 potato slices. Journal of Food Engineering, 82, 577-584.

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543 vacuum frying of pretreated potato slices. Journal of Food Engineering (sent).

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during dehydration. Journal of Food Engineering, 24, 61–76.

546
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547 FIGURE CAPTIONS

548 Figure 1. Schematic of the frying system

549 Figure 2. Effect of pre-treatment on the statistically significant quality parameters of

550 fried potato slices. Bars with different letters indicate significant differences

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551 (p<0.05). ( control; blanched and dried; sulphited).

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552 Figure 3. Image gallery of pre-treated potato chips (Desirée and Panda varieties) fried at

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553 120°C under vacuum and atmospheric frying

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554

555 LIST OF TABLES

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556 Table 1. Standard matrix of the multifactorial experimental design (3×23)

557

558
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Table 2. Response values of the multifactorial experimental design (3×23)

Table 3. Effects of the multifactorial experimental design (3×23)

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559 Table 4. Percent change in the response by switching from low to high level of the

560 factors
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561 Table 5. Percent change in the response by switching from low to high level of the pre-

562 treatment
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563 Table 6. Significant correlations (p<0.01) between sensory and instrumental responses

564
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565

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566

567 Figure 1. Schematic of the frying system

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568

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569

80
b
70
a
a
Magnitude of the response 60

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50

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40
a
a,b
30

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b
20

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10 a a b b a b a,b
a
b
0

-10

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L* a* ∆E Flavor quality Overall
quality
570

571
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Figure 2. Effect of pre-treatment on the statistically significant quality parameters of

572 fried potato slices. Bars with different letters indicate significant differences (p<0.05). (
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573 control; blanched and dried; sulphited).
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574

575
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576
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Pre-treatment
Potato Type of
variety frying Control Blanched and dried Sulphited

Desirée Atmospheric

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Vacuum

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Panda Atmospheric

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AN
Vacuum
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577

578 Figure 3. Image gallery of pre-treated potato chips (Desirée and Panda varieties) fried at
PT

579 120°C under vacuum and atmospheric frying

580
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581 Table 1. Standard matrix of the multifactorial experimental design (3×23)

Run Pre-treatment 1 Potato variety 2 Type of frying 3 Temperature (°C)

1 c d a 120
2 c d a 140
3 c d v 120
4 c d v 140
5 c p a 120

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6 c p a 140
7 c p v 120

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8 c p v 140
9 bd d a 120
10 bd d a 140

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11 bd d v 120
12 bd d v 140
13 bd p a 120

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14 bd p a 140
15 bd p v 120
16 bd p v 140
17 s d a 120

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18 s d a 140
19 s d v 120
20 s d v 140
21
22
23
s
s
s
AN p
p
p
a
a
v
120
140
120
24 s p v 140
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1
c: control; bd: blanched and dried; s: sulphited
2
d: Desirée; p: Panda
3
582 a: atmospheric; v: vacuum
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583 Table 2. Response values of the multifactorial experimental design (3×23)

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Instrumental responses Sensory Responses

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Run
Oil Color Texture Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA)1 Quality Rating Test (QRT)2
Oil Content Fmáx Color Flavor Texture Overall
L* a* b* ∆E* Color Hardness Crispness Oiliness
(kg/kg dry solid) (N) quality quality quality quality
3
1 0.526 ± 2E-02 57.181 ± 1.50 7.413 ± 1.38 39.153 ± 1.18 32.631 ± 1.71 4.798 ± 0.34 6.62 ± 0.78 5.55 ± 1.15 6.55 ± 0.71 6.03 ± 1.15 4.00 ± 0.71 4.56 ± 0.73 4.94 ± 0.88 4.44 ± 0.53

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2 0.628 ± 2E-02 43.007 ± 1.42 15.150 ± 0.87 31.260 ± 1.18 45.501 ± 1.36 6.448 ± 0.71 6.31 ± 0.94 6.13 ± 0.86 7.21 ± 0.96 7.25 ± 0.58 4.58 ± 0.79 4.25 ± 0.97 4.42 ± 0.90 4.58 ± 1.00
3 0.881 ± 5E-02 61.094 ± 1.41 6.547 ± 0.95 37.234 ± 1.06 28.649 ± 1.20 3.235 ± 0.35 3.82 ± 0.39 5.34 ± 0.45 6.35 ± 0.49 6.48 ± 0.65 5.31 ± 0.63 5.15 ± 0.55 5.46 ± 0.78 5.46 ± 0.66
4 0.781 ± 2E-02 66.921 ± 0.92 -5.856 ± 0.75 30.741 ± 1.47 15.159 ± 0.87 3.203 ± 0.23 4.15 ± 0.34 4.61 ± 0.32 5.97 ± 0.25 7.03 ± 0.70 5.92 ± 0.79 5.00 ± 0.95 5.58 ± 1.00 5.75 ± 0.87

SC
5 0.412 ± 5E-03 74.472 ± 1.94 0.452 ± 1.95 47.871 ± 1.96 26.920 ± 1.94 3.720 ± 0.82 4.44 ± 0.39 5.38 ± 0.68 6.46 ± 0.50 6.23 ± 0.51 5.40 ± 0.52 4.95 ± 0.60 4.60 ± 0.52 4.90 ± 0.30
6 0.778 ± 2E-02 49.207 ± 1.51 11.195 ± 1.64 40.339 ± 1.27 40.942 ± 1.58 4.630 ± 0.79 6.38 ± 0.97 6.79 ± 1.22 6.81 ± 0.81 7.62 ± 1.16 3.70 ± 0.48 4.00 ± 0.82 3.60 ± 0.70 3.85 ± 0.75
7 0.798 ± 1E-02 68.144 ± 2.15 -6.191 ± 1.07 40.871 ± 0.92 20.825 ± 1.29 3.099 ± 0.69 1.97 ± 0.44 4.41 ± 0.45 6.06 ± 0.78 6.64 ± 1.16 5.50 ± 0.85 5.40 ± 0.97 5.90 ± 0.70 5.40 ± 0.97
8 0.846 ± 3E-02 65.855 ± 1.20 -2.729 ± 1.07 41.625 ± 0.78 23.660 ± 1.02 2.916 ± 0.54 2.91 ± 0.76 4.85 ± 0.57 6.00 ± 0.52 6.68 ± 0.42 5.20 ± 0.79 4.70 ± 0.79 5.15 ± 0.70 5.36 ± 0.48
9 0.411 ± 1E-02 61.346 ± 3.17 10.580 ± 1.39 42.836 ± 1.55 33.985 ± 1.94 5.517 ± 0.92 7.31 ± 1.07 7.07 ± 1.29 7.26 ± 1.06 6.64 ± 1.36 3.33 ± 0.50 3.67 ± 0.87 3.11 ± 0.78 3.44 ± 0.73
10 0.756 ± 1E-02 49.975 ± 1.59 13.688 ± 1.79 35.065 ± 1.33 40.089 ± 1.45 8.487 ± 0.95 7.52 ± 0.67 8.40 ± 0.79 8.19 ± 1.02 7.20 ± 0.99 3.00 ± 0.85 3.75 ± 0.87 3.00 ± 0.95 3.25 ± 1.06

U
11 0.597 ± 1E-02 63.113 ± 1.54 -1.800 ± 0.85 36.944 ± 0.80 22.741 ± 1.39 3.410 ± 0.57 5.43 ± 0.75 5.53 ± 0.84 6.46 ± 0.60 7.50 ± 0.76 4.89 ± 0.78 4.22 ± 0.83 4.89 ± 0.60 4.78 ± 0.67
12 0.765 ± 6E-03 62.496 ± 1.32 -1.944 ± 0.66 35.721 ± 1.62 22.509 ± 1.33 4.898 ± 0.60 4.93 ± 0.78 6.22 ± 0.95 6.76 ± 0.93 7.56 ± 0.85 4.00 ± 0.87 3.67 ± 0.87 4.22 ± 0.83 3.67 ± 0.87
13 0.400 ± 7E-03 60.937 ± 3.05 8.503 ± 3.28 45.474 ± 1.46 34.513 ± 3.09 5.117 ± 1.27 4.70 ± 0.59 6.56 ± 0.72 7.35 ± 0.38 7.25 ± 1.14 4.80 ± 0.42 4.30 ± 0.82 3.70 ± 1.10 4.50 ± 0.71

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14 0.324 ± 3E-03 45.593 ± 1.59 12.286 ± 2.31 35.152 ± 1.96 42.681 ± 1.87 8.198 ± 1.82 7.39 ± 0.92 8.18 ± 0.72 8.47 ± 0.55 7.56 ± 1.03 4.00 ± 0.00 3.70 ± 0.48 2.90 ± 0.70 3.25 ± 0.72
15 0.757 ± 1E-02 63.028 ± 1.39 -1.808 ± 0.76 42.208 ± 0.83 26.108 ± 1.00 3.534 ± 1.05 2.23 ± 0.65 5.42 ± 0.51 6.76 ± 0.41 6.54 ± 1.00 5.00 ± 0.67 4.90 ± 0.99 4.80 ± 0.80 4.95 ± 1.01
16 0.495 ± 2E-02 56.372 ± 1.17 -0.814 ± 1.50 39.219 ± 2.70 29.491 ± 2.10 4.971 ± 0.82 3.13 ± 0.91 6.86 ± 1.14 7.50 ± 0.95 6.06 ± 1.05 3.50 ± 0.85 3.90 ± 0.74 4.20 ± 0.90 4.40 ± 0.70
17 0.852 ± 2E-02 75.585 ± 1.54 0.815 ± 1.77 42.491 ± 0.74 22.249 ± 1.24 3.243 ± 0.49 4.97 ± 0.26 5.12 ± 0.43 6.29 ± 0.48 7.25 ± 0.80 4.75 ± 0.87 3.92 ± 0.90 4.75 ± 0.75 4.17 ± 0.94
18 0.676 ± 8E-03 56.403 ± 1.04 14.211 ± 1.65 43.651 ± 1.21 39.414 ± 1.34 3.871 ± 0.57 6.42 ± 0.67 7.34 ± 0.87 6.81 ± 0.60 6.47 ± 1.21 3.15 ± 0.80 2.54 ± 0.97 3.77 ± 0.83 3.00 ± 1.00
19 0.771 ± 1E-02 77.615 ± 1.38 -7.220 ± 0.63 29.403 ± 0.79 6.898 ± 0.72 1.892 ± 0.38 4.08 ± 0.46 4.45 ± 0.78 3.53 ± 0.75 6.30 ± 0.71 4.85 ± 0.80 3.92 ± 0.86 2.54 ± 0.88 4.00 ± 0.82

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20 0.591 ± 2E-02 79.555 ± 1.01 -8.168 ± 0.57 31.374 ± 1.19 7.829 ± 1.04 3.903 ± 0.53 3.81 ± 0.63 5.08 ± 0.41 6.10 ± 0.48 6.32 ± 0.67 5.00 ± 0.91 5.15 ± 0.80 5.62 ± 0.87 5.08 ± 0.76
21 0.481 ± 5E-02 73.883 ± 2.35 -6.373 ± 1.21 43.415 ± 1.40 20.684 ± 1.47 3.809 ± 0.81 2.17 ± 0.43 4.93 ± 0.28 5.73 ± 0.86 6.22 ± 0.70 4.90 ± 1.37 4.80 ± 1.14 5.00 ± 0.90 5.21 ± 1.22
22 0.633 ± 1E-02 63.423 ± 1.97 0.394 ± 1.67 44.454 ± 0.96 28.357 ± 1.23 4.722 ± 1.37 4.79 ± 0.44 6.00 ± 0.87 6.61 ± 1.09 7.34 ± 1.21 4.95 ± 0.76 3.70 ± 0.80 4.10 ± 0.88 4.30 ± 0.80
23 0.606 ± 5E-02 71.954 ± 1.50 -8.677 ± 0.59 41.557 ± 1.42 19.094 ± 1.45 3.013 ± 0.74 1.68 ± 0.42 4.04 ± 0.95 3.93 ± 1.03 6.95 ± 0.93 5.30 ± 0.95 3.70 ± 0.82 3.30 ± 0.90 4.00 ± 0.82
24 0.594 ± 2E-01 65.874 ± 1.41 -7.696 ± 0.95 39.755 ± 1.40 20.978 ± 1.25 3.287 ± 0.79 3.11 ± 0.81 4.72 ± 0.94 6.13 ± 0.79 7.00 ± 0.71 4.35 ± 1.42 4.30 ± 0.90 5.00 ± 0.67 4.50 ± 0.80

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1
Values based on a descriptive scale of 10 cm length.
2
Values based on a sensory 7-point quality scale.
584 3
Mean value ± standard deviation.
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588

589
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590 Table 3. Effects of the multifactorial experimental design (3×23) 1

T
Effects2

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Response Average A B C D AB AC AD BC BD CD sd3
Oil 4
Oil content 0.64 -0.06 -0.09 0.13 0.03 -0.07 -0.13 -0.08 0.04 0.00 -0.09 0.03
Instrumental Color

R
L* 63.04 9.80 0.37 7.58 -8.64 -5.44 -1.56 0.26 -3.63 -2.38 0.33 1.25
a* 1.75 -6.09 -3.74 -11.22 3.12 -0.18 0.20 1.33 2.16 1.33 -4.47 0.94

SC
b* 39.08 0.88 5.51 -3.71 -3.43 -1.26 -2.97 2.94 1.80 -0.05 1.79 0.62
∆E 27.16 -8.60 1.38 -13.67 5.11 2.79 0.22 1.43 4.68 1.22 -5.98 1.19
Instrumental Texture Maximum force5 4.33 -0.59 -0.16 -1.77 1.26 0.66 0.45 0.19 0.20 -0.18 -0.43 0.28
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA)6 Color 4.59 -0.70 -1.71 -2.31 0.95 -0.29 0.65 0.29 -0.16 0.80 -0.48 0.17

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Hardness 5.79 -0.17 -0.23 -1.33 0.95 -0.26 -0.06 0.36 0.07 0.16 -0.42 0.21
Crispness 6.47 -0.79 0.03 -1.02 0.82 0.05 -0.39 0.70 0.17 0.05 0.08 0.19

AN
Oiliness 6.84 -0.01 0.01 -0.17 0.34 0.10 -0.05 -0.35 -0.23 0.07 -0.30 0.11
Quality Rating Test (QRT)7 Color quality 4.56 -0.30 0.32 0.69 -0.56 0.22 -0.31 -0.19 -0.51 -0.31 0.08 0.14
Flavor quality 4.26 -0.75 0.21 0.50 -0.40 0.11 -0.05 0.18 -0.25 -0.22 0.31 0.11
Texture quality 4.36 -0.70 0.00 0.73 -0.12 0.23 -0.71 0.63 0.01 -0.27 0.60 0.17

M
Overall quality 4.43 -0.69 0.25 0.71 -0.36 0.31 -0.41 0.02 -0.27 -0.20 0.38 0.12
1
Numbers in bold type indicate significant effects (p < 0.05)
2
A: pre-treatment; B: variety; C: type of frying; D: temperature

ED
3
Standard deviation of mean value
4
Oil content, kg oil/kg dry solid
5
Maximum force, N
PT
6
Values based on a descriptive scale of 10 cm length.
7
591 Values based on a sensory 7-point quality scale.
CE

592
AC
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593 Table 4. Percent change in the response by switching from low to high level of the

594 factors

Effects1
Response B C D
Oil Oil content2 +23

T
Instrumental Color L* +13 -13
a* -3081 -152

IP
b* +13 -9 -8
∆E -40 +21
Instrumental Texture Maximum force3 -34 +34

R
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA)4 Color -46 -40 +23
Hardness -20 +18

SC
Crispness -14 +14
Quality Rating Test (QRT)5 Color quality +16
Flavor quality +12

U
Texture quality +18
Overall quality +17
1

3
Oil content, kg oil/kg dry solid
Maximum force, N
AN
B: variety; C: type of frying; D: temperature

4
Values based on a descriptive scale of 10 cm length.
M
5
595 Values based on a sensory 7-point quality scale.

596
ED
PT
CE
AC
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597 Table 5. Percent change in the response by switching from low to high level of the pre-

598 treatment

Pre-treatments1
Response c → bd c→s bd → s
Instrumental Color L* +16 +22
a* -187 -159

T
∆E -34
Quality Rating Test (QRT)2 Flavor quality -16 -16

IP
Overall quality -19
1
c: control; bd: blanched and dried; s: sulphited

R
2
599 Values based on a sensory 7-point quality scale

600

U SC
AN
M
ED
PT
CE
AC
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601 Table 6. Significant correlations (p<0.01) between sensory and instrumental responses

Instrumental Sensory Correlation

Variable
Response Response Coefficient
Color L* Color -0.634
L* Color quality -0.591
a* Color 0.829
a* Color quality -0.640

T
a* Overall quality -0.554

IP
∆E Color -0.669
∆E Color quality -0.607
Texture Maximum force Hardness 0.860

R
Maximum force Crispness 0.811
602 Maximum force Overall quality -0.545

SC
603

U
AN
M
ED
PT
CE
AC