Unit I

STEADY UN-ACCELERATED
FLIGHT
• Introduction - Four forces of flight
• The general equation of motion
• Power available and power required curves
• Thrust available and thrust required curves
• The fundamental Parameters: Thrust – to – weight ratio, Wing loading,
Drag polar and lift-to – drag ratio
• Minimum velocity
• Aerodynamic relations associated with lift-to-drag ratio
 Introduction

During its normal operation an airplane takes –off, climbs to the cruising altitude,
cruises at almost constant altitude, descends and lands. It may also fly along curved
paths like turns, loops etc. The flights along curved paths are also called
manoeuvres.

Subdivisions of performance analysis

1. Unaccelerated flights
2. Accelerated flights
1. Unaccelerated flights:
• In a steady level flight an airplane moves with constant velocity at a constant altitude. This
analysis would give information on the maximum level speed and minimum level speed at
different altitudes.
• In a steady climb an airplane climbs at constant velocity. This analysis would provide
information on the maximum rate of climb, maximum angle of climb and maximum attainable
altitude (ceiling).
•In a steady descent an airplane descends with constant velocity. A glide is a descent with zero
thrust. This analysis would give the minimum rate of sink and time to descend from an altitude.
• Range is the horizontal distance covered, with respect to a given point on the ground, with a
given amount of fuel. Endurance is the time for which an airplane can remain in air with a
given amount of fuel.
2. Accelerated flights
• In an accelerated level flight an airplane moves along a straight line at constant
altitude and undergoes change in flight speed. This analysis provides information
about the time required and distance covered during acceleration over a specified
velocity range.
• In an accelerated climb, an airplane climbs along a straight line accompanied by
a change in flight speed. This analysis gives information about the change in the
rate of climb in an accelerated flight as compared to that in a steady climb.
•Loop is a flight along a curved path in a vertical plane whereas a turn is a flight
along a curved path in a horizontal plane. This analysis would give information about
the maximum rate of turn and minimum radius of turn. These items indicate the
maneuverability of an airplane.
• During a take-off flight an airplane starts from rest and attains a specified height
above the ground. This analysis would give information about the take-off distance
required.
•During a landing operation the airplane descends from a specified height above the
airport, lands and comes to rest. This analysis would provide information about the
distance required for landing.
 Four forces of flight
Thrust—the forward force produced by the power plant/propeller or rotor. It opposes
or overcomes the force of drag. As a general rule, it acts parallel to the longitudinal
axis. However, this is not always the case, as explained later.

Drag—a rearward, retarding force caused by disruption of airflow by the wing,

rotor, fuselage, and other protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust and acts rearward
parallel to the relative wind.
Weight—the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or
baggage. Weight pulls the aircraft downward because of the force of gravity. It
opposes lift and acts vertically downward through the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG).

Lift—opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by the dynamic effect of the
air acting on the airfoil, and acts perpendicular to the flight path through the center of
lift.
• Our major concern is with the movement of a given airplane through the atmosphere,
insofar as it is responding to the four forces of flight.
• This movement is governed by a set of equations called the equations of motion.
• The four forces of flight-lift, drag, weight, and thrust, denoted by L, D, W, and T,
respectively for an airplane in level flight.
• The free-stream velocity Vα is always in the direction of the local flight of the airplane the
flight path is horizontal, and hence Vα is also along the horizontal.
• The airplane is moving from left to right, hence Vα is drawn pointing toward the left
since it is a flow velocity relative to the airplane.
• The airplane lift and drag are perpendicular and parallel, respectively, to Vα.
• Lift and drag are aerodynamic forces; L and D represent the lift and drag, respectively, of
the complete airplane, including the wing, tail, fuselage, etc.
• The weight always acts toward the center of the earth; for the level-flight case , W is
perpendicular to Vα.
• The thrust is produced by whatever flight propulsion device is powering the airplane.
• In general, T is not necessarily in the free-stream direction; where T is drawn
at an angle Є relative to the flight path.
• For the level-flight case, all four forces are in the same plane, namely, the
plane of the paper.
• This is also the longitudinal plane of symmetry for the airplane;the plane of
symmetry splits the airplane into two symmetric halves.
• Consider next the case of the airplane climbing ( or descending) along a
flight path that is angled to the horizontal.
• In general, the flight path is curved.
• At any given instant as the airplane moves along this path, the local,
instantaneous angle of the flight path, relative to the horizontal, is ϴ.
• Hence Vα is inclined at angle ϴ , which is called the local climb angle of
the airplane.
• As before, Land Dare perpendicular and parallel to Vα .
• Weight W, acts toward the center of the earth, and hence is perpendicular
to the earth's surface.
• For the airplane in climbing flight, the direction of W is inclined at the
angle ϴ relative to the lift.
• The vertical plane is still the plane of symmetry for the airplane.
Equations of motion
Thrust – to – weight ratio
Wing loading
Drag polar
lift-to – drag ratio
 Thrust available and thrust required curves

• Thrust available
Thrust required curves
Power available and power required curves