Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Electric vehicles charging using photovoltaic: Status

and technological review
Abdul Rauf Bhatti a,d, Zainal Salam a,c,n, Mohd Junaidi Bin Abdul Aziz b, Kong Pui Yee b,
Ratil H. Ashique a
a
Centre of Electrical Energy Systems (CEES), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
b
Power Electronics and Drives Research Group, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
c
Insitute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
d
Department of Electrical Engineering, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The integration of solar photovoltaic (PV) into the electric vehicle (EV) charging system has been on the
Received 27 February 2014 rise due to several factors, namely continuous reduction in the price of PV modules, rapid growth in EV
Received in revised form and concerns over the effects of greenhouse gases. Despite the numerous review articles published on EV
16 July 2015
charging using the utility (grid) electrical supply, so far, none has given sufficient emphasis on the PV
Accepted 22 September 2015
charger. With the growing interest in this subject, this review paper summarizes and update all the
related aspects on PV–EV charging, which include the power converter topologies, charging mechanisms
Keywords: and control for both PV–grid and PV-standalone/hybrid systems. In addition, the future outlook and the
Photovoltaic (PV) system challenges that face this technology are highlighted. It is envisaged that the information gathered in this
Electric vehicle (EV) charging system
paper will be a valuable one-stop source of information for researchers working in this topic.
State of charge (SOC)
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
MPPT dc–dc converter
Bi-directional Inverter
Bi-directional dc–dc charger
Control algorithm
EV charging algorithm
Prediction models
Optimization techniques

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2. Brief overview of EV and PV technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1. EV and battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2. PV system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3. PV–grid charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1. Review of the power converters for EV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.1. dc–dc converter with MPPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.2. Bidirectional charger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.3. Bidirectional inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2. Charging modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3. Practical PV–grid charging systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4. PV-standalone charging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1. With intermediate storage battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2. Hybrid systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

n
Corresponding author at: Centre of Electrical Energy Systems, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 7
5536187; fax: +60 7 5566272.
E-mail addresses: bhatti.abdulrauf@gmail.com (A.R. Bhatti), zainals@fke.utm.my (Z. Salam), junaidi@fke.utm.my (M.J.B.A. Aziz), k_puiyee@hotmail.com (K.P. Yee),
ratil.eee05@gmail.com (R.H. Ashique).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.091
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47 35

4.3. PV on EV body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5. Future outlook and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1. Modeling, optimization and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2. Prospects of V2G and V2V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.3. Issue on the integration with smart grid system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

1. Introduction
The concern over the environment due to the greenhouse gases
emitted by the conventional internal combustion engines (ICE) is
seen as a major factor that will accelerate and sustain the growth
of the electric vehicle (EV) usages. With the recent technological
advancement in the battery technology, power electronics con-
verters, control and microelectronics, EV is expected to make
serious inroads in the motor industry. Moreover, these prospects
have initiated the integration of electrical power and transporta-
tion systems in a way that has not been conceivable before [1]. The
main link between the two sectors is the charging of the batteries,
which is the source of power for the traction, control, lighting and
air-conditioning. However, charging by grid imposes an extra
burden on the electrical supply, particularly during the peak
demand duration [2]. One viable solution to reduce the negative
impact is to promote charging using alternative sources.
With the continuous downward trend on the price of photo-
voltaic (PV) modules, solar power is recognized as the competitive
source for this purpose [3]. Furthermore, PV system is almost
maintenance free, both in terms of fuel and labor [4]. The appli-
cation of PV is further enhanced by the advancement in conversion
technologies, battery management as well as the improved
installation practices [5]. During daytime, the EV is parked idly in
the parking area under the exposure of the full sun. If the car-park
is roofed by PV, the availability of PV power allows for an oppor-
tunity for “charging while parking” [6]. This is an economical and
convenient solution to charge EV at workplaces and parking areas
[4]. An example of a structural diagram of PV parking is shown in
Fig. 1 [7]. Structural-wise, the roofed parking provides free shelters
from sun and rain, which is a favorable feature in hot climate
countries [8]. Since the charging is done during the peak demand
(daytime), the savings from the electricity tariff is substantial [9].
Over the years, a number of charging methods using PV have
been proposed. The most prominent is the combination of PV and
the grid, which is referred in this paper as the PV–grid charging. It
uses the PV power whenever possible, but switches to the grid
when the PV power is insufficient or unavailable. Another
Fig. 1. An example of PV based parking lots for EV charging [7].
approach is to utilize the PV minus the grid, which is known as the
PV-standalone charger [10]. There are several variations for this
approach, with the inclusion of other power sources such fuel cell
and auxiliary storage. In addition, efforts have also been made to
integrate the PV modules/cells onto the body of the EV itself.
Numerous works have been published on EV charging using
grid, including several excellent review papers, for example
[11,12]. However, so far there is no effort has been done to compile
and update the works related to charging using solar energy
despite the growing interest in this topic. From the survey, it is
found that the number of papers on this issue has risen sig-
nificantly over the last decade, hence the impetus for this review.
The discussion begins with a brief summary of the electric vehi-
cles, batteries and the structure of charger that includes PV. This is
followed by the evaluation on the actual charging hardware which
comprises of MPPT dc–dc converter, bi-directional dc charger and
bi-directional inverter. Next, the charging modes for the PV–grid
approach is detailed out. In addition, a table on recent work is
provided to summarize the research conducted for the PV–grid
charging. In the subsequent section, the PV-standalone charging
that includes several hybrid configurations is described. Finally, a
discussion on the future outlook and the challenges—which focus
on the energy management system is given. To probe further, a list
of 117 related papers is provided in the reference.
2. Brief overview of EV and PV technologies
2.1. EV and battery
The EV is widely referred to an electrically powered vehicle
which uses one or more motors for its propulsion. The terminol-
ogy includes electric car, train, lorry/bus, motorcycles, scooters etc.
In this paper, the definition of EV is limited to the hybrid electric
(HEV), plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV) and purely battery electric
(BEV) vehicles. In charging context, the main difference between
the PHEV/pure EV is that it provides plugs that allow for external
charging, while the HEV does not. The HEV charges its battery
internally by the kinetics of its combustion engine. [13]. The evo-
lution of the EV propulsion battery begins with the lead-acid,
progressing to nickel and currently to lithium [14]. Modern EV is
no longer using the lead-acid due to its low specific energy, che-
mical leakage and poor temperature characteristics. They have
since by replaced by nickel and now, almost exclusively lithium
[15]. Lithium battery is the preferable choice due to its higher
energy efficiency, power density, compact and lighter weight [16].
Moreover, it provides fast charging capability, wide operating
temperature range, no memory effect, long cycle life and low self-
discharge rate. Currently, lithium-based battery includes a wide
diversity of chemical substances; for instance, the lithium ferro
phosphate (LiFePO4) provides ease in term of handling due to its
superior thermal stability in the fully charged condition. In addi-
tion it has a low risk of explosion when accidentally over charged
or short circuited. Lithium–titanate (LTO) is the latest type, which
36 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47

provides a wider operating temperature range, faster to recharge PV Array dc-dc Central
and accepts higher recharge rate [17–19]. converter Controller Bidirectional
with MPPT Inverter

ac grid
2.2. PV system

The most widely used PV modules are based on poly- or mono-

=
crystalline technology [20]. However, recently, thin film is getting
EV Battery
popular, especially for large installations [21]. For EV charging
applications, the modules are arranged in series strings to achieve
the required dc bus voltage. To increase the power, several strings
are connected in parallel to form an array. The behavior of a PV
=
Bidirectional dc
system under varying irradiance (G) and temperature (T) can be charger
understood by examining its current–voltage (I–V) and power–
Fig. 2. The overall PV–grid block diagram of EV charging system [29,30].
voltage (P–V) characteristics. At any time, there exists a unique
operating point at which the power is at peak, i.e. the maximum
power point (MPP). Naturally, the MPP is not fixed; it fluctuates PV Array
continuously as G or T varies. Due to these dynamics, the MPP
tracker (MPPT) is needed to ensure the maximum power is always dc-dc
extracted from the array. converter
Invariably, EV charging imposes an additional loading to the +
electrical utility system due to the large current it draws from the
Vdc,bus
grid [1,22]. Furthermore, if the charging takes place during peak
hours, the owner may have to pay a high premium for the tariff. To
offset this burden, PV charging system is a viable solution to
-
reduce the utility's spinning reserve and greater grid stability IPV
[23,24]. It is also expected be a major influence in the smart grid VPV
system, which is envisaged to dominate the future power system
topology. Currently, two charging approaches using PV, namely
the PV–grid and PV-standalone, are known. The PV–grid charging
has one major advantage: during insufficient irradiance, the EV
can be continuously charged by deriving the power from the grid
[25]. It is also more flexible because in the absence of EV (to be
charged) the PV power can be injected to the utility. On the other
hand, the PV-standalone is convenient in remote areas where
Fig. 3. Block diagram of dc–dc converter with MPPT.
utility supply is not available or too costly [26,27]. More recently,
the hybridization of standalone chargers with secondary power
adjusting operating voltage and current of the converter such that
sources such as fuel cell and auxiliary battery are introduced. It must
it always stays near the MPP. The MPPT works as follows: at a
be noted that using PV, the EV is charged with dc, which means it
particular sampling cycle, the current and voltage of the PV array
needs to bypass the Level 1 and Level 2 charging [12,28] 1.
are sensed by a current and voltage sensors, respectively [31].
These values are fed into an MPPT block that computes the MPP;
once found, it delivers the reference values for the current (IPV*)
3. PV–grid charging
and voltage (VPV*). These are converted to a power value that must
be matched by the converter. If there is a difference between the
A typical PV–grid EV charging system is shown in Fig. 2. It has
two, the duty cycle (d) of the converter is adjusted. When the
three main components, namely 1) a dc–dc power converter with
measured power equals the reference value, the maximum power
a built-in MPPT, 2) a bidirectional dc charger and 3) a bidirectional
from the array is extracted. The converter is usually based on the
dc–ac inverter. A dc common bus (200–500 Vdc) provides a con-
standard non-isolated, buck–boost or boost topology.
venient point for the integration of these components [29]. Cru-
The most crucial feature of the MPPT is its ability to track the
cially, a central controller (computer system of microcontroller) is
MPP as quickly and efficiently as possible. Various conventional
required to decide the power flow and activation of the converters.
MPPT techniques are used, for example perturb and observe [32],
The operation of the controller is based on intelligent decision-
incremental conductance [33] and hill climbing [34]. These can be
making algorithms. It is primarily governed by certain objective
configured using fixed or adaptive time step. The latter is prefer-
functions, for example minimum charging cost, maximum
able as it reduces steady state oscillation, resulting in improved
profit etc.
tracking efficiency. Recently, more advanced soft computing
methods such as artificial neural network, particle swarm opti-
3.1. Review of the power converters for EV mization, fuzzy logic control and evolutionary algorithm have
been proposed for MPPT [35]. These methods are more flexible in
3.1.1. dc–dc converter with MPPT handling abnormal conditions such as partial shading and module
The main function of this unidirectional converter, shown in mismatch [31]. Refs. [31,35] provide excellent summary and per-
Fig. 3, is to extract the maximum power from the PV and to sustain formance comparisons among the available MPPT techniques
the voltage at the common dc bus. This is achieved by the employed for PV systems.

1
Level 1 charging: 120 V ac charging is known as Level 1 charging.
Level 2 charging: 240 V ac charging is known as Level 2 charging. Level 2 char-
ging draws higher current from the grid.
3.1.2. Bidirectional charger
The dc charger is used to control the terminal voltage and
current, so that it suits the EV that is being charged. For the full
 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47 37

Fig. 4. Low component count bidirectional dc–dc converter [42].

Fig. 6. A high gain, non-isolated bi-directional converter with auxiliary resonant

circuit proposed in [37].

Fig. 5. Half-bridge bidirectional converter with interleaved technique [43].

Fig. 7. Bidirectional converter with auxiliary resonant circuit and interleaved

power control, it is desirable for it to be bidirectional. However, structure [38].
this capability is not necessary, if there is no requirement to
transfer the energy from the EV battery back to the grid (vehicle to
grid case). The charger can be thought of as a controlled current
source that injects a given amount of current into the battery—
depending on the deviation in the battery voltage from a set
reference value.
The most basic configuration of the bidirectional dc charger is
the two quadrant dc–dc converter [36]. It acts as a buck during
charging and boost when discharging, i.e. when the power flows
in the opposite direction. Apart from this, there is a large number
of dc–dc converters reported in the literature that can be suitably
used to charge the EV battery [37–53]. Several important topolo-
gies—divided into the non-isolated and isolated converters, are
selected and discussed below. To improve efficiency, new con-
verter design incorporates soft switching techniques such as zero
voltage (ZVS) and zero current (ZCS) switching.

3.1.2.1. Non-isolated chargers. In [42], a high efficiency, low cost

non-isolated bidirectional charger is proposed. The circuit, which
can be used either as a step up or step down converter, is shown in
Fig. 4. Despite the absence of ZVS and ZCS switching, its efficiency
is reported to be at 95% when operated at the rated power. The Fig. 8. Bidirectional converter with coupled inductors [39].
coupled inductor offers smoother control and eliminates the need
for extra filter circuit. In another work [43], the authors proposes a
half-bridge configuration, operated in the discontinuous current
mode. The circuit is shown in Fig. 5. Soft switching turn on is
achieved by using a gate signal complimentary control (switch is
turned off at negative voltage, instead of zero) to divert the current
through the anti-parallel diode of the non-active switch. To assist
soft switching turn off, snubber capacitors are used. Furthermore,
interleaved technique is adopted to reduce the inductor, as well as
the input ripple current.
A high gain converter, shown in Fig. 6, is proposed by [37]. It is
able to handle large power in buck (charging) and boost (dis-
charging) mode. The ZVS and ZCS are implement using auxiliary
resonant circuit, which consist of La and Ca. The shift from buck to
boost mode and versa is determined by observing the direction of Fig. 9. Bidirectional converter with couple inductor based resonant circuit [40].
inductor current (iLf). In [38], a high efficiency converter using an
auxiliary resonant circuit (shown inside the dotted lines of Fig. 7) power switches, the ZVS or ZCS is applied. In addition, interleave
is suggested. To minimize the voltage and current stresses on the technique is adopted to reduce the input current ripple.
38 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47

Another suitable converter for EV charger is shown in Fig. 8

[39]. The ZVS is realized using an extra inductor (L2), coupled with S1
the main inductor (L1), along with Sa1, Sa2, Da1 and Da2. Further-
D1
more, the circuit has the provision to select between the hard and L1 R1
soft switching modes. In [40], the authors proposes a high effi- C1
ciency, high gain converter, as shown in Fig. 9. The zero voltage +
transient (ZVT) switching in both boost and buck modes of
operations are applied to increase the efficiency. Furthermore, a V dc,bus
AC
coupled inductor based auxiliary resonant circuit (shown in dotted
_
box) is adopted to achieve fast dynamic response. In a separate
work [41], the authors concentrated on designing a high efficiency
circuit with wide voltage range (Fig. 10). The ZVS mode is applied
in both boost and buck modes of operation. However the circuit is S2
not capable of ZCS turning off of the power switches. The coupled D2 C2
inductors in the circuit increase the gain of the circuit significantly.

3.1.2.2. Isolated chargers. Isolated converter is preferred over the

Fig. 12. Single-phase half-bridge bidirectional inverter.
non-isolated types for high gain and galvanic isolation. From the
family of isolated bidirectional converters, the dual active bridge
(DAB) are the most suitable topology to be the interface between
the dc bus and the EV battery. A large number of variations for DAB
is reported in the literature [44–53]. The conventional DAB with S1 S2
lossless snubbers is shown in Fig. 11 [44]. Soft switching condi-
D1 D2
tions are implemented in [44–51] and in [53]. In [44], the authors
L1 R1
proposes a ZVS DAB by using snubber capacitors across the
switches. However ZVS condition by using snubbers can be
+
achievable for specific conditions only. The ZCS mode of switching
is not implemented, which leads to high turn off losses particularly C1 V
at higher switching frequencies. In [45,46], DAB with high voltage
AC dc,bus

and high current conversion ratio is proposed. Voltage clamping is _

applied to reduce voltage stress on the switches. Furthermore, a
ZVS–ZCS bidirectional DAB is proposed in [48]. A LC network uti-
lizing the transformer leakage inductance and one capacitor are S3 S4
used to achieve ZVS and ZCS switching conditions. Input current D3 D4
ripple and output voltage ripple are minimized using LC filter

Fig. 13. Single-phase full-bridge bidirectional inverter.

networks at the cost of increased complexity of the control system.

In [49–51], the authors propose series resonant DAB converters,
implementing ZVS or ZCS for most of the power switches for wide
variations in the load. One or multiple number of LC resonant
networks are used to execute ZVS or ZCS. However, the conduction
loss of the circuit is high and decreases the efficiency of the circuit
significantly.

3.1.3. Bidirectional inverter

Fig. 10. Bi-directional converter with high voltage conversion ratio [41].
Fig. 11. The dual active bridge (DAB) isolated converter configuration [44].
The bidirectional inverter for EV charging has dual function: if
the power on the dc bus is to be fed back to the grid, it operates as
a dc–ac converter (i.e. in inversion mode). On the other hand, if
power needs to be drawn from grid to charge the dc bus, it has to
be configured as an ac–dc converter (rectification mode). Thus it
must be capable of operating in all four quadrants of the voltage/
current regime [54]. Furthermore, it is desirable to operate the
inversion mode at a controllable power factor [55,56].
The most basic topology is the single-phase half-bridge, shown
in Fig. 12. It employs two switches to achieve double boost con-
version at the dc bus. During the rectification mode, i.e. when
power flows from the grid (ac source) to the dc bus, the current
flow through D1 and D2 for positive and negative half ac cycles,
respectively. The voltage at the dc bus is approximately equal to
the peak-to-peak voltage of the ac source. For inversion, S1 and S2
are turned on and off by pulse-width modulation (PWM) switch-
ing. The PWM modulated voltage is low-pass filtered by L1 and R1
 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47
Fig. 14. An improved full-bridge bidirectional inverter with leakage current
reduction.
Fig. 15. Three-phase full-bridge bidirectional inverter.
[57] to produce a sinusoidal waveform. Furthermore, ZVS can be
utilized to improve the efficiency of converter [58].
Despite its simplicity, the half-bridge exhibits several draw-
backs—most importantly, the switches experience high voltage
stress. Furthermore, it produces harmonic currents, while the dc
bus contains harmonics at twice of the grid frequency [59]. To
overcome these problems, the full bridge topology, shown in
Fig. 13 [57,60] is used. Operational-wise, it is similar to the half-
bridge: D1, D2, D3, D4 act as rectifiers and produce dc common bus
voltage during rectification. Alternatively, active rectification can
be achieved by PWM switching. The circuit can be made to operate
in the inversion mode, in the way similar to the half-bridge [61].
For an improved performance, a modified full-bridge inverter is
proposed in [62]. The circuit is shown in Fig. 14. The input voltage
is split-phase (120 Vrms/240 Vrms) single-phase grid, which is
normally used in North America. This circuit minimizes the dc-
side leakage current, as well as reduces the common-mode elec-
tromagnetic interference in the ac-side. For high power charging
application, the three-phase full-bridge, shown in Fig. 15 is used.
The function and operation of the three-phase inverter is exactly
like a three separate single-phase circuits, connected to the same
capacitor and dc bus link. The output of half-bridge topology is
7Vdc/2 whereas full-bridge topology produce output voltage of
7Vdc. This suggests that for the same power level, the full-bridge
three-phase exhibits lower switch stress and losses compared to
the half-bridge topology.
3.1.3.1. Multilevel topology. Another class of type of bidirectional
inverter that can be suitably used for EV charging is the multilevel
topology. These converters benefits from the lower voltage stres-
ses on the switches and lower switching losses due to the reduced
switching frequency. In addition, it exhibits reduced harmonics
and electromagnetic interference. Despite these capabilities,
multilevel inverter is physically more complex, especially when
the voltage level is high. Extensive literature on multilevel
39
S2
S1
L1 R1
C2
Cf +
AC Vdc,bus
_
S3
C3
S4
Fig. 16. Capacitor clamped three-level PWM converter.
Fig. 17. Bidirectional isolated ac–dc converter.
converter which comprises of the flying capacitor, diode clamped
and cascaded multilevel converter are reported in [62–66]. As an
example, a single-phase, three level flying capacitor multilevel
inverter shown in Fig. 16 [67]. It has the voltage stress in all four
switches is clamped to half of the dc bus voltage.
3.1.3.2. Isolated inverter. Isolated inverter is less efficient compared
to non-isolated type. However, it is useful as it provides galvanic
isolation between the converter and the grid. The most common
two-stage topology consists of a rectifier with power factor cor-
rection, followed by a high frequency isolated dc–dc converter
[68,69]. Single-stage isolated inverter is proposed to reduce total
part count, size and weight of two-stage isolated topology [70].
One example of such circuit, shown in Fig. 17, is the single-stage
inverter that employ a half-bridge and a full-bridge on ac side and
dc side, respectively. For the switching, the authors in [68] uses
combination of control scheme which are phase-shift and fre-
quency modulation to obtain ZVS. To achieve power factor cor-
rection, the inherently integrated LC input filter permit a reduction
of harmonic disturbance on the ac side. In [70], the authors pro-
pose an isolated bidirectional converter that comprises of two
active bridges connected through a series resonant tank with a
high frequency transformer which provide isolation and voltage
conversion. The presence of resonant tank results in soft switch-
ing, reduce switching losses, increase efficiency while the high
40 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47

PV Array dc-dc PV Array dc-dc

converter Bidirectional converter Bidirectional
with MPPT Inverter with MPPT Inverter

ac grid

ac grid
EV Battery EV Battery

Bidirectional dc
Bidirectional dc
charger
charger

PV Array dc-dc PV Array dc-dc

converter Bidirectional converter Bidirectional
with MPPT Inverter with MPPT Inverter
ac grid

ac grid
EV Battery EV Battery

Bidirectional dc Bidirectional dc
charger
charger

PV Array dc-dc
converter Bidirectional
with MPPT Inverter

=
ac grid

=
EV Battery

Bidirectional dc
charger
Fig. 18. The possible operating modes for the PV–grid charging system.

frequency ac link increase power density. In [71], the authors
present a three-phase isolated bidirectional inverter and a mod-
ified space vector PWM algorithm to keep transformer in the volt–
second balance. The converter is able to achieve buck–boost ac–dc
bidirectional conversion with sinusoidal ac current. Single-stage
isolated inverter is proposed to reduce total part count, size and
weight of two-stage isolated topology [70].
3.2. Charging modes
When the EV is first plugged in, its battery's state of charge
(SOC) is normally less than 100%. The central controller commands
the charging processes based on the condition of the EV battery,
the availability of PV power and the price of the grid electricity. In
general, the charger operates in one of these five modes:
Mode 1 (Charging by PV only)
If the PV energy is sufficient to charge the EV, the charging is
entirely done by the PV. It is carried out via the dc–dc converter
with MPPT and dc charger, as shown in Fig. 18(a). In this case, the
charging system is electrically disconnected from the grid. The dc
charger is used to regulate the dc voltage to suit the charging
profile of a particular EV.
Mode 2 (Charging by grid only: inverter in rectification)
On the other extreme, if the PV is totally incapable of supplying
any power (in the case of zero or extremely low irradiance), the EV
will be charged directly from the grid. The ac power is first con-
verted to dc using the bi-directional inverter, operated in the
rectification mode. The dc voltage is further conditioned by the dc
charger to suit the EV voltage. This situation is shown in Fig. 18(b).
Mode 3 (Charging by PV and grid: inverter in rectification)
 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47
In cases where the PV is able to deliver certain portion of
energy (but not sufficient for full independent charging), then both
the PV and grid contribute to the charging, as shown in Fig. 18(c).
Typically, the amount of energy derived from the grid depends on
how much energy the PV can deliver. The deficit will be fulfilled by
the grid. Obviously, since the irradiance conditions is very
dynamic, the controller has to continuously monitor the power
delivered by the PV and accordingly adjust the intake from the
grid to ensure that the required power to the EV is sustained.
Mode 4 (No charging: inverter in inversion)
When no EV is available for charging and the PV is generating
power, all the energy is sold to the grid via two step conversion
processes, i.e. by the MPPT dc–dc converter and the bi-directional
inverter in inversion mode. This operation is shown in Fig. 18(d). In
certain situation, it may be more economical to operate in this
mode, even if the EV is available for charging. This is when the
feed-in-tariff rate is much higher that made such proposition
viable.
Mode 5 (Vehicle to grid: inverter in inversion)
In this mode, the idea of transferring the power from vehicle to
grid (V2G) is introduced [2,70,72–85]. In certain hours of the day,
the tariff is very high; thus if there is surplus energy from the EV
that is standing idly in parking lot, then energy can be fed from the
EV to the grid. This can be done through the bi-directional dc–dc
charger and the inverter as shown in Fig. 18(e). Although attrac-
tive, this process can shorten the battery life. Thus it is not very
common, unless the economic gain can be justified.
3.3. Practical PV–grid charging systems
Majority of PV–grid charging schemes are implemented in the
lab scale, pilot and demonstration projects. For ease of referencing,
their schemes are summarized in Table 1. It is clear that with the
passage of time, the PV–grid charging is becoming more complex
—with numerous functions embedded into the system. With these
new features, the overall system becomes more flexible [86].
Furthermore, with the expected proliferation of the smart grid2
topologies [87], the charger must be adaptable and can be inte-
grated into the utility systems readily. There are also efforts to
promote the vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
concepts, as mentioned in [84,85]. The V2G idea is attractive,
particularly if the payback during peak hours is considerable.
Whilst it may be convenient for immediate or emergency char-
ging, the V2V (as well as V2G) have to be exercised with caution
due to the possible shortened battery life. Adding a battery storage
unit in the system [25,27] is also beneficial to reduce grid burden,
but at the expense of initial investment and maintenance.
4. PV-standalone charging
4.1. With intermediate storage battery
The PV-standalone refers to the charging of the EV solely using
PV, i.e. with the absence of the grid connectivity [101]. Due to the
intermittency of the solar irradiance, this approach is not as
popular compared to the PV–grid charging methods. In a typical
set-up, the charging is achieved by connecting the PV to EV via
intermediate storage battery bank, as shown in Fig. 19. A direct
PV–EV connection (without storage) is also possible, but is
impractical because the charging has to be compromised when the
2
Smart grid refers to the electricity delivery system, which transports, con-
verts and distributes the power efficiently (from producers to consumers), inte-
grated with communications and information technology.
41
PV power is insufficient. On the other hand, the system with
intermediate storage battery bank enables the excess energy to be
stored and to be utilized when the PV power is unavailable [27].
Another function of the storage battery is to smoothen the abrupt
changes in the PV output power [102]. The main component is the
charge controller, which is basically a dc–dc converter with MPPT
capability. Since there is no connection to the grid, unidirectional
converter is adequate.
4.2. Hybrid systems
Authors in [103] proposed a PV-standalone charger in con-
junction with a fuel cell system. The conceptual diagram is shown
in Fig. 20. The PV power is deployed into two separate tracks: 1) to
charge a valve-regulated traction battery for the EV and 2) to
charge a fuel cell vehicle. In the first track, the PV is used to charge
the energy storage element (which is a lead acid battery) and to
maintain it at the state of full charge. If the EV charging is required,
the energy from the lead acid is transferred to the EV battery via a
dc–dc converter. On the other (separate) track, PV is utilized to
produce hydrogen through the electrolysis of water. The hydrogen
is then used as the fuel to replenish the fuel cell. Using this
arrangement, the system has the ability to charge the EV during
the daytime as well as at night.
In a separate work, authors in [104] proposed a hybrid power
system to supply energy to EV without interruption as shown in
Fig. 21. The hybrid system consists of a PV generator and a proton
exchange membrane fuel cell as sources and a battery bank for
energy storage. These energy sources are used to run the EV
induction motor. After providing mathematical models of each
component in the system, the different parts of the proposed
system are simulated using MATLAB/Simulink. Then the power
management control is applied in prioritize the sources for
charging.
4.3. PV on EV body
Authors in [105] propose another elegant solution: charging
using PV cells embedded on the EV body. This concept is known as
the vehicle-integrated PV (VIPV). Thin film cells are mounted on
the roof of the EV and an on-board dc–dc converter is fitted to
charge the batteries [4]. The work in [106] propose a VIPV using
the brushless permanent magnetic DC motor. However, the
authors conclude that these types of vehicles are not practical due
to the limited surface area; thus the power from the PV is insuf-
ficient for the propulsion system. Despite this fact, the VIPV con-
cept can be deployed in a normal EV to improve its efficiency up to
about 10–20% [105]. It can also be used to run the air-conditioners
to cool the car during parking [107]. At the very least, the VIPV
system is suitable for racing cars, recreational vehicles or to
operate auxiliary devices such as fan, audio players, igniters, etc.
[108–110]. In a more revolutionized work, the silicon crystal with
fixed quantum points are mixed with special paintings, and
painted on the car body [4]. Despite the low efficiency (less than
2%), the future of this technology is exciting.
5. Future outlook and challenges
5.1. Modeling, optimization and control
Despite the numerous works on PV–grid charging strategies, it
must be acknowledged that PV is an intermittent source. Due to
the volatility of the solar irradiance, the consistency of the char-
ging is unpredictable. Therefore, incorporating an optimized
energy management function into the system is extremely crucial.
 42
Table 1
Summary of work related to practical PV–grid charging systems.

Ref. Author Scheme Features Remarks

[8], 2003 Abella et al. Portable PV charging system A portable system for demonstration purpose. Provides two user interfaces, called Islanding detection techniques are available in [88].
the charging towers to manage the system energy flow, user control and monitor
the EV charging. Besides providing power to grid (when surplus PV power
available), the grid-connected inverters provide islanding* protection as well.
[29,89], 2013, Traube et al. ZVS–QSW Charger Zero voltage switching quasi square-wave (ZVS–QSW) operation is performed by Avoiding curtailment means reducing power wastage.
2012 bi-directional dc–dc charger to reduce switching losses. Instead of using the
curtailment**approach [30], high pass filters are used to control the inverter
output power. Furthermore, EV batteries are used as energy storage devices.
[90,91], 1994, Lamb and Vaidya Automatic charging source shifting A dc–dc charger transfers the charging of EV from PV to grid during the last 20– Non-extendable system for future demand.
1996 30% of the charging phase to avoid the battery from experiencing unexpected PV
output variations. Provides data acquisition system (PVDAS) to analyse dc–dc
charging performance, effectiveness of grid interconnection and the carport sys-

A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47
tem operation.
[7], 2010 Gamboa et al. Multiple charging ports with differ- An extendable system having multiple charging ports with different levels (vari- Efficiency of system is increased by reducing energy conver-
ent output levels able) of voltage output. Therefore, it can accommodate different types of EVs. The sion stages using control algorithm.
power control is done using dc–dc converter and algorithm unlike [91], which
uses solid state relays for the same purpose. Grid tied dc–ac inverter and ac–dc
rectifier are used instead of using bi-directional inverter.
[30], 2012 Traube et al. Bi-directional charger with 3 modes Uses bi-directional dc–dc charger capable of operating in three modes. (1) mode Used single bi-directional inverter unlike using two con-
of operation 1: to charge EV battery only, (2) mode 2: to charge battery and support grid to verters in [7].
control any variation in inverter's output and (3) mode 3: when battery is fully
charged, the charger provides a support to grid to stable inverter output.
[25,92], 2012, Goli and Preetham ESU based charging setup with The system operates in a smart-grid environment. It has an additional energy Using ESU reduces grid burden during peak load hours. ESU
2014 4 modes operation controlled by BMS storage unit (ESU), which is used for emergency charging during grid peak load charging through grid during off-peak time is controlled by
conditions. The operational modes are about similar to Section 3.2, but it has no BMS.
V2G capability. Furthermore, BMS is used to keep EV battery safe from over-
charging and to control the rate of charge. BMS is also responsible for switching
between grid and ESU to charge EV battery when the situation demands.
[93], 2010 Hamilton et al. Equal power sharing charging system An extendable charging system with smart energy conversion interface among PV Equal power sharing is required because there is no ESU liked
system, grid and EV. The control algorithm works on the principle that an equal provided by [25,92].
amount of power would be shared among all connected EVs, i.e. if grid is already
overloaded and PV produces insufficient energy to charge EVs fully.
[27], 2010 Mesentea et al. Two separate smart charging Proposed two different approaches; (1) charging without batteries and (2) char- System mainly designed for electric scooter charging.
techniques ging with batteries. In (1), the operation is like a normal PV–grid charging system.
In (2), the system utilizes additional batteries for energy storage and charging
purpose. Unlike [25], the additional batteries are charged through PV instead of
grid. During low PV power, EV is charged through additional batteries, hence
reducing grid dependency.
[87], 2010 Locment et al. Grid and battery emulators based This is an experimental system: it utilizes actual PV arrays but for the grid and The bill generating mechanism is not included in [27].
charging scheme battery, emulators are used. Energy management system having a smart meter for
measuring energy and generating bills is incorporated. The smart meter is also
used to sell the excess PV energy to the utility whenever the price of grid elec-
tricity is high. Since the system is emulator-based, the demonstration unit is
portable, wherever PV arrays are already available.
[94], 2011 Tulpule DC micro-grid charging system with A dc micro grid (MG) with a supervisory control algorithm to decide 1) when to No vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to grid (V2G)
optimized power flow begin charging and 2) which combination of sources would be more feasible for capability.
low EV charging rates. It also includes a mechanism to purchase electricity from
the grid when needed and selling to the utility at the time when surplus solar
energy is available.
[84,85], 2014, Ma and Fuzzy logic based smart charging An intelligent fuzzy logic smart charging system for parking lots. It manages Due to high nonlinearity of system, a fuzzy logic controller is a
2012 Mohammed energy in real time using forecasting models for PV output and EV power good solution. The V2V and V2G services are also introduced.
requirement. For accurate prediction, hourly data, which have been collected over
15 years, are used. The system sets the charging priorities and the rate of charging.
The priorities depend upon charging requirements of the EV like SOC and time of
 stay etc. The rates are predicted using PV output power, EV power demand and
grid energy price.
[95], 2014 Fattori et al. EVLSA based EV charging analysis An EV Learning Static model (EVLSA) is built to check feasibility of EV charging EVLSA is a linear optimization model used to detect the effects
with different charging modes through grid connected PV system. This analysis is carried out under uncontrolled of EVs on an energy system.
charging, smart charging and V2G scenarios. Authors concluded under uncon-
trolled charging, PV can cover only the small portion of EV demand as opposed to
smart charging scheme. Additionally V2G helps grid to cope with peak load in
better way.
[96], 2014 Honarmand et al. MG based EV charging under IPL An energy management system for a micro grid (MG) to charge EVs. The MG Besides MG, the main grid has also been involved to perform
consists of an intelligent parking lot (IPL), PV system, wind turbine, micro-turbine G2V or V2G operation during the time of need.
and fuel cell. The IPL plays a role to prevent unexpected power mismatch in the
power system. And also it acts as an aggregator to facilitate interaction between
EVs owners and micro-grid operator. Here EV batteries works as energy storage
units when these are idle and their owners get incentive by allowing V2G
operation when needed.
[97], 2014 Liu et al. MG based EV charging Micro grid charging strategy to maximize the utilization of PV power. The work is Unlike previous studies, this work is based on the real-time
divided into three parts: the model of EV feasible charging region (FCR), the data acquisition without forecasting of PV output or EV

A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47
mechanism of dynamical event triggering (DET) and the algorithm of real time charging demand.
power allocation (RTPA) for EVs. Here the FCR model ensures that when EV leaves
its battery SOC should be maximum. The DET mechanism can cut down the cal-
culation frequency to avoid unnecessary calculation, while the RTPA is used to
allocate the power to each EV.
[98], 2014 Zhang et al. Day-time EV charging using PSO A day-time charging strategies for EVs using PV and main grid with absence of Proposed method fails to manage the wastage of PV energy
battery bank as energy storage device. The main objective to maximize PV utili- when it is more than the need of EVs and grid.
zation and reduction of EVs charging and operator electricity cost. This is achieved
using particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm.
[99], 2015 Honarmand et al. Stochastic type EV charging model An intelligent parking lot (IPL) for EV which also acts as an aggregator between PV System uses two energy storage units: micro-turbine and EVs.
under IPL and distributed generators. A stochastic charging and discharging scheduling
model is proposed using spinning reserves (micro-turbine and EVs) in order to
eliminate generation and consumption mismatch. Moreover, EV owners could
earn profit by discharging their vehicles as well as having desired SOC in the
departure time.
[100], 2015 Liu et al. MG based EV charging using multi- A micro-grid (MG) for charging EVs using multi-objective economic dispatch Work concludes that coordinated charging and discharging
objectives economic dispatch approach. The MG contains wind turbines, PV, diesel engines, fuel cells and bat- mode has better operational economics than the autonomous
approach tery. The multi-objectives in the model are the lowest operating cost, the least charging mode.
carbon dioxide emissions, and the lowest pollutant treatment cost. The economic
dispatch of the MG system in the presence of V2G operation is analyzed with an
improved PSO algorithm under different charging modes.

*
Islanding is the disconnection of system from the main grid without stopping the energy generation from the other sources like PV etc [88].
**
Curtailment is the process of operating away the PV from MPP, this causes wastage of [30]

43
44 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47
Fig. 19. PV-standalone charging system.
Fig. 20. PV docking alternate track system for EV charging [103].
Fuel cell
dc-dc
converter
PV Array
dc-dc dc-ac
converter Inverter EV motor
Energy storage
Fig. 21. Hybrid PV system for EV.
One area of interest is to produce an accurate prediction model for
the PV power output. This can be synchronized with a precise
model of grid electricity pricing (based on dynamic tariff struc-
tures), to ensure that maximum return is obtained by the charging
station owner. The increasing interest in the energy management
systems are demonstrated by the following works.
The work in [111] attempts to schedule the charging by com-
promising the charging station owner's revenue and the EV
owner's (customers) demands and costs. It considers two charging
scenarios, i.e. static and dynamic. For static charging, the EV
charging demand is provided to the station owner in advance. In
dynamic charging scenario—which is more realistic, an EV may
come and leave at any time, without the prior knowledge of the
station owner. To achieve this, optimal schemes based on linear
programming and heuristic algorithms are applied for the static
and dynamic problems, respectively. Although the dynamic sce-
nario is more realistic, the solutions to the static problems can be
used as a benchmark for performance evaluation. In [83], a real-
time energy management for a PV–grid charging, based on fuzzy
logic controller is proposed. The algorithm also allows for V2G and
V2V functionalities and aims at minimizing the charging rates. The
authors use statistical and forecasting models to cope with
uncertainties related to EV battery demand and to predict the
availability of PV power. In a separate work, authors in [112]
proposes an energy management method for an hybrid power
source system within the EV charging system. The hybrid system
comprises of a fuel cell as the main source, and two auxiliary
storage, i.e. super-capacitors and batteries. To manage the energy
among these source and storage components, the flatness control
and fuzzy logic control are used. The former controls the energy
flow between the main and the auxiliary sources, while the latter
is for the power flow in the storage system i.e. between the super-
capacitor and the battery.
The optimization of EV charging offers many opportunities for
the application soft computing methods. In [113], the authors use
genetic algorithm for an optimal integration of EV in micro-grid
power system, which comprises of PV, fuel call and micro-turbine.
They utilize the prediction models to deal with uncertainties of PV
power generation and the variation in the tariff. The objective
functions are based on two modes. In the first mode, the grid is
treated as a unidirectional generator that supplies the power to
micro-grid to fulfill the charging demand, but not vice versa. In the
second mode, the grid is treated as a bidirectional generator unit
and the micro-grid can exchange power with the main grid. The
objective of work is to charge the customers with lowest price by
utilizing the energy management system. It uses the availability of
EV to store low-price energy during light-load periods and then
deliver it to the grid during peak-load.
The authors in [98] use linear programming algorithm and
particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to maximize PV
power utilization and to reduce the charging price. In addition, it
attempts to minimize the operator electricity cost. For this, an
ideal charging load curve is built using the linear programming
algorithm. This (optimal) ideal curve is used as the objective curve
to realize the maximum PV power and minimum electricity cost.
Then PSO regulates the charging price and adjusts charging load to
best fit the objective curve. Another optimal micro-grid energy
scheduling is proposed in [114]. Although not used directly for EV
charging, the idea can be applied effectively. The proposed algo-
rithm determines the day-ahead micro-grid scheduling and builds
a fuzzy expert system to control the power output of the storage
system. To perform such tasks, two genetic algorithms are
employed. One of them generates the micro-grid scheduling and
determines the fuzzy rules of the expert system, whereas the other
is used to tune the membership functions of fuzzy rules. In this
way, it is possible to optimize the expert system according to PV
power availability and electricity prices to fulfill EV demand for
cheaper charging. In [115] authors proposed a market price
oriented energy management scheme for EV charging in smart
grid. The authors try to alleviate the peaks caused by the mass
adoption of EV by improving the utilization of renewable energy
resources. The proposed scheme utilizes the grid's operating
characteristics model and considers the maximization of the profit
expectation of each market player (micro-grid operator and EV
owner). The Signaling Game Theory is used to model the strategic
uncertainties among the players on the basis of stochastic gen-
eration/demand in the deregulated electricity market.
Despite their effectiveness, it must be noted that optimizing the
PV charging system using the soft computing methods has several
drawbacks. For example, the fuzzy logic controller is only suitable
for system with a few sources and limited number of EV to be
charged. If number of power sources and EV are large, its rule table
becomes more complicated and the algorithm needs large
execution time. In addition, an accurate tuning of the fuzzy vari-
ables is very difficult, even if assisted by techniques like genetic
algorithm. Similarly, even though the good results are obtained
 A.R. Bhatti et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 34–47
from genetic algorithm and PSO, they exhibit high computational
cost, poor constraint handling abilities, problem-specific para-
meter tuning and limited problem size [116].
5.2. Prospects of V2G and V2V
The idea of V2G is to charge the EV during low tariff and to
export the energy back to the grid when the tariff is much higher.
Furthermore, V2V operation allows for the transfer of energy from
one EV battery to another directly, without the intermediary of
other source. The V2G and V2V operations are envisaged to be a
solution to reduce the grid electricity price during peak load
demand. Authors in [74] present V2G as a capacity enhancement
as a possible method for the distribution system as well. Despite
these claims, in practice, V2G and V2V might not be feasible due to
excessive battery degradation. Also, installing smart communica-
tion system between an EV and a grid incurs additional cost.
However, a comprehensive economic argument in favor of smart
chargers, V2G and V2V operations have yet emerged; this topic is
worthy of future research.
5.3. Issue on the integration with smart grid system
Smart grid technologies—in which the renewables and EV are
the integral part, have been identified as the future trend in power
systems. For example, the power contributed by PV can reduce the
burden of the grid, particularly at peak hours. On the other hand,
high penetration of renewable sources has become a growing
concern for utilities as due to possible side-effects, namely system
reliability, power quality, protection and grid synchronization
functions [117]. These issues are closely related to the intermittent
nature of PV. Handling these uncertainties in PV–EV charging is
considered a significant challenge for the smart grid system and
provides exciting further investigations [115].
6. Conclusions
This paper reviews the PV–grid and PV-standalone EV charging
methods proposed in various papers. It is noted, among the two
structures, the PV–grid is more popular due to its flexibility and its
interruption-less operation. Also in this paper, the main hardware
components, i.e. the dc–dc converter with MPPT, bi-directional
inverter and bi-directional dc charger are evaluated. Due to the
rapid development, it is not possible to cover all aspects related to
the EV charging infrastructure in a single work. Other topics—for
example, the economic and environmental impacts of PV and grid
powered EV charging are addressed elsewhere [9,86]. Further-
more, issues such as the stability, reliability and PV–EV interac-
tions require detailed analysis that may not be feasible for inclu-
sion. For the energy management systems, researchers are highly
relaying optimization algorithms and soft computing. However, it
seems that the heuristic rule based charging strategies is a good
solution for quick and accurate energy management as already
been adopted by [92]. But, there is still a need to devise more
accurate techniques for better utilization of available PV energy.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
and the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia for providing the
facilities and financial support (Research University Grant No.
2409.03G11) to conduct this research.
45
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