Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 1
Subject: Dactyloscopy
REVIEW NOTES ON
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION (DACTYLOSCOPY)
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Fingerprint – An impression of the friction ridges
of all or any part of the finger. A friction ridge is a
raised portion of the epidermis on the palmar
(palm and fingers) or plantar (sole and toes) skin,
consisting of one or more connected ridge units
of friction ridge skin. These ridges are sometimes
known as "dermal ridges" or "dermal papillae".
2. Dactyloscopy – is the practical application of
fingerprints or the process of identification by
fingerprint comparison and the classification of
fingerprints.
3. Dactylography – is the scientific study of
fingerprints as a means of identification.
4. Poroscopy – the scientific study of pores or
science of identification by means of the pores.
5. Podoscopy - the science of identification through
friction ridge characteristics existing on the sole
of the human foot.
6. Chiroscopy – the science of identification
through friction ridge characteristics existing on
palms.
7. Ridgeology –the study of poroscopy,
edgeoscopy, and ridge characteristics for the
purpose of the positive identification of
fingerprints.
8. Edgeoscopy – the study of the characteristics
formed by the sides or edges of papillary ridges
as a means of identification.
Dogmatic Principle of Fingerprint
1. Principle of Individuality – no two fingerprints
are exactly alike
2. Principle of Permanency – configuration and
details of individual ridges remain constant and
unchanging.
3. Principle of Infallibility – fingerprint is the most
reliable means of identification.
Fingerprints in other species
The Koala is one of the few mammals (other
than primates) that have fingerprints. In fact, koala
fingerprints are remarkably similar to human
fingerprints; even with an electron microscope, it can
be quite difficult to distinguish between the two.
History and Development
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A. Primitive Knowledge
1. Egypt – The earliest evidence of ridge detail on
the hands and feet of humans was seen in the
4,000 year old mummies of ancient Egypt. The
hands and feet of mummies have been examined
on numerous occasions and they confirmed the
presence of ridge detail on the mummies’
digits.
2. China – It was a common practice for the
Chinese to use ink fingerprints on official
documents, land scales, contracts, loans and
acknowledgements of debt. Finger seals for
sealing documents to prove its authenticity.
Early in the 12th century, in the novel, “The Story
of the River Bank,” fingerprint found itself already
in the criminal procedure of China; and in the
16th century, a custom prevailed in connection
with the sale of children. Palm and sole
impressions were stamped of sale to prevent
impersonation.
3. Japan – A Japanese Historian, Kamagusu
Minakata furthere commented about blood
stamping. Apparently, contracts were
accompanied by a written oath confirmed with a
blood stamp. The blood stamp was a print of the
ring finger in blood drawn from that digit.
4. France – The most famous ancient stone
carvings is found in the L’lle de Gavrinis of the
coast of France. Here a burial chamber, or
dolman, was discovered dating back to Neolithis
times. Its inner walls are covered with incised
designs- systems of horse-shoe form, more or
less circular concentric figures, spiral,
arching lines sinuous and straight lines and
other markings occurring in various
combinations. Many anthropologists interpret
these lines as representing finger or palm print
patterns.
5. Nova Scotia – An outline of a hand was
scratched into slate rock beside Kejiomkujil Lake
by an aboriginal Indian. The carving is an outline
of a hand and fingers. Within the outline the
flexion creases of the palm and fingers are
depicted. This carving has considerable
historical significance. Although it does not
demonstrate knowledge of the individuality of
friction ridges or palmar flexion creases, it
clearly illustrates an early awareness of the
presence of those formations.
6. Babylonia - References by ancient historians
have been found describing how finger seals
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 2
were used on legal contracts from 1855-1913
B.C. This practice identified the author and
protected against forgery.
7. Palestine – William Frederick Bade, Director of
the Palestine Institute of Archeology, conducted
excavations at various sites in Palestine and at
one place found finger imprints on many
pieces of broken pottery. These “identifications”
permitted the confuse debris to dated accurately
to the fourth century A.D. Commenting on his
case, Fingerprint magazine (1973) stated that
“these impression were obviously intentional and
no doubt, represented the workman’s individual
trade mark.”
8. Holland and Ancient China – Identification of
individuals was by means of branding,
tattooing, mutilation and also manifested by
wearing of cloths of different designs.
B. PERSONALITIES
1. Constantinople - In treaty ratification, the
sultan soaked hi hand in a sheep’s blood and
impressed in on the document as his seal.
2. Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) – A British author,
naturalist and engraver became England’s finest
engraver who made fingerprint stamps. He
made wooden engravings of fingerprints and
published their images in his books where he
used an engraving of his fingerprints as a
signature. The engravings demonstrate familiarity
with the construction of skin ridge. In two of
the books he added “Thomas Bewick, his mark”
under the impressions.
3. Sir William J. Herschel – Credited as being the
first European to recognize the value of friction
ridge points and to actually use them for
identification purposes.
4. Dr. J.C.A. Mayer (1788) of Germany – He
published the following statements in his
anatomical atlas; although the arrangement of
skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons,
nevertheless the similarities are closer among
some individuals. In others the differences are
marked, yet in spite of their peculiarities of
arrangement all have a certain likeness.” This
deduction was published 100 years before the
Konai contract.
5. Dr. Henry Faulds (1843-1930) – In 1875 Faulds
had opened a missionary hospital and a year
later started a medical school in Japan where he
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Subject: Dactyloscopy
may have been exposed to fingerprints. He wrote
a letter to Charles Darwin telling him of his
studies and requesting assistance. He
mentioned that fingerprints can be classified
easily and that ridge detail is unique. He
pointed out the value of fingerprints of being
in “medico legal studies” and commented
that photographs of people change over the
years but rugae (friction ridges) never
change.
6. Thomas Taylor (1877) - A microscopist of the
Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC who
also suggested that fingerprints could be
used to solve crime.
7. Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) – He devised
the first truly scientific method of criminal
identification in Paris France called
anthropometry or Bertillonage. He conceived
the idea of using anatomical measurements to
distinguish one criminal from another. He decided
to use various body measurements such as head
length, head breadth, length of left middle finger,
length of the left cubit (forearm)/ length of left
foot, body height, face breadth, face height and
other descriptions including features such as
scars and hair and eye color to distinguish
criminals.
8. Dr. Henry P. De Forrest - He utilized the first
official municipal use of fingerprints for non-
criminal registration on December 19, 1902 in
the Municipal Civil Service Commission in the
City of New York. He required civil service
applicants to be fingerprinted to prevent them
from having better qualified persons take test for
them and put the system into practice.
9. Capt. James I. Parke – He advocated the first
state and penal use of fingerprint which was
officially adopted in Sing-sing prison on June 5,
1903 and later at Auburn, Napanoch and Clinton
Penitentiaries.
10. Sgt. Kenneth Perrier – An Englishman and first
fingerprint instructor at the St. Luis Police
Department, Missouri. He was one of the pupils
of Sir. Edward Richard Henry and through
personal contact during the Worlds Fair
Exposition held in St. Luis, a fingerprint bureau
was established on April 12, 1904.
11. Mary K. Holland – She was the first American
Instructor in Dactyloscopy.
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 3
12. Harry Mayers II – In 1925, he installed the first
official foot and fingerprint system for infants
at the Jewish Maternity Hospital, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA, and the first system in the
state.
13. Juan (Ivan) Vucetich (1855-1925) – The fast
face of the advancement of fingerprinting in
England was due to the ingenuity of Juan
Vucetich, who was employed as a statistician
with the Central Police Department at La Planta,
Argentina. In July 1891, the Chief of Police
assigned Vucetich to set up a bureau of
Anthropometric Identification.
14. Sir Edward Henry (1850-1931) – At the same
time that Vucetich was experimenting with
fingerprinting in Argentina, another classification
system was being developed in India. This
system was called “The Henry Classification
System.”
FINGERPRINTING IN NORTH AMERICA (1877-
1900)
15. Isaiah West Taber (1880) – In 1880, a
photographer in San Francisco who suggested
that fingerprinting be adopted for the registration
of Chinese immigrant laborers.
16. Gilbert Thompson (1882) – He used his
thumbprint to ensure that the amounts were not
changed or altered on payroll cheques. When
issuing a payroll cheque, he would put an inked
thumbprint over the amount. This is to prevent
fraudulent cheque alterations.
17. Mark Twain (1894) – An America author and
lecture, Twain enhanced the position of
fingerprints when he included their use in the plot
of a novel entitled Pudd’n Head Wilson. In the
novel, a bloody fingerprint is found in the
murder weapon and Pudd’n Head, the
defense attorney, has the whole town
fingerprinted. He lectured the court and jury
on the basics of fingerprinting, how
fingerprints are immutable, and that two
fingerprints will never be found to be the
same. He also commented on how identical
twins can be indistinguishable in appearance,
at times even by their parents, but their
fingerprints will always be different.
Fingerprinting in Canada (1904-1920)
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
18. Edward Foster (1863-1956) – Foster, Canadian
constable of the Dominion Police attended the
world’s Fair to guard a display of gold. He
attended Ferrier’s presentation at the convention
and intrigued by the possibilities that
fingerprinting had to offer, he felt that a bureau
would be effective than an anthropometry
bureau. He also felt that a national organization
in Canada, similar to the International Association
of Chief’s of Police, would encourage cooperation
among Canadian police departments and be an
ideal body to promote a national interest in
fingerprinting.
Scientific Researchers
19. Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) – Grew, English
botanist, physician and micropist. In 1684 he
published a paper in the philosophical
transactions of the Royal Society of London
describing his observations of the
“Innumerable little ridges of equal big ness
on the ends of the first joints of the fingers.”
He described sweat pores, epidermal ridges,
and their various arrangements. Included in his
paper was a drawing of the configurations of the
hand displaying the ridge flow on the fingers and
palms.
20. Govard Bidloo (1685) – Bidloo, anatomist in
Amsterdam, Holland, published a book on human
anatomy illustrating friction ridges and pore
structure on the underside of the fingers. His
comments were morphological in nature and he
did not refer to or mentioned the individuality of
friction ridges.
21. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) – A professor in
1685 at the University of Bologna, Italy,
published the results of his examination of
the friction skin with the newly invented
microscope. He has been credited with being
the first to use a microscope in medical
studies. His paper dealt mainly with the
function, form, and structure of the friction
skin as a tactile organ, and its use in the
enhancement of traction for walking and
grasping.
He was known as the ‘Grandfather of
Dactyloscopy” according to Dr. Edmond
Locard, the “Father of Poroscopy.” He
originated the terms “loops and spirals.”
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 4
22. JCA Mayer (1788) – A German doctor and
anatomist whose paper on fingerprint clearly
addressed the individuality of the friction ridges.
23. Johannes (Jean) Evangelista Purkinje (1787-
1869) – A professor at the University of Breslau,
Germany, published a thesis that contained his
studies on the eye, fingerprints and other skin
features entitled, “Commentatio de Examine
Phisiologico Organi Visus et Systematis.” He
classified nine principal configuration groups of
fingerprints and assigned each a name he was
known as the “Father of Dactyloscopy.”
24. Arthur Kollman (1883) – The first researcher to
address the formation of friction ridges in
embryos and the topographical physical stressors
that may have been part of their growth. He
identified the presence and locations of the
valor pads of the human hand and foot.
25. H. Klaatsch (1888) – From Germany who
examined the walking pads and eminences of
several pentadactylous of five fingered
mammals. He was credited being the first
researcher to examine the walking surface of
other mammals. He also referred to the
arrangement of the fundamental limits of the
friction ridges as the reason why all ridge
formation are different.
26. David Hepburn (1895) – He is connected with
the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, published
a paper on the similarity in appearance of the
eminences or walking surfaces of primates
entitled, “The Papilliary Ridges on the Hands
and feet of monkeys and men.” He was the first
to recognized that ridges assist gripping by
creating friction and that they had a function
other increasing tactile stimulus.
Historical Background – Philippine Setting
27. Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in
the Philippine Constabulary sometime in the year
1900. The Bureau of Prisons in the year 1918,
records show that the fingerprints already existed
in the “carpetas”
28. L. Asa N. Darby, under his management during
the re-occupation of the Philippines by the
American Forces, a modern and complete
Fingerprint File has been establishment in the
Philippine Commonwealth.
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
29. Mr. Genoroso Reyes was the first Filipino
Fingerprint Technician employed by the
Philippine Constabulary.
30. Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York City Police
Department and Mr. Flaviano G. Guerrero of the
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington,
gave the first examinations for fingerprint in 1937.
Plaridel Educational Institution (PEI), now the
Philippine College of Criminology (PCCr),
Manila is the first governmental recognized
school to teach the science of fingerprints and
other police sciences.
C. Legality of Fingerprints
1.People vs. Jennings [252 III. 534, 96 NE 1077
(1911)] pass upon the admissibility of
fingerprint evidence. Fingerprint evidence was
admitted as a means of identification. It was also
held that persons experienced in the matter of
fingerprint identification may give their opinions
as to whether the fingerprints found at the scene
of the crime correspond with those of the
accused. The court’s conclusion were based on a
comparison of the photographs of such prints
with the impressions made by the accused, there
being no questions as to the accuracy or
authenticity of the photographs. It was stated that
the weight to be given to the testimony of experts
in the fingerprint identification as a question for
the jury.
2.New Jersey State vs. Cerciello, in which
fingerprint evidence was permitted to be
introduced. The defendant argued that it was an
error to allow the testimony by experts explaining
the comparison of fingerprints obtained from the
defendant voluntarily with those fingerprints
found upon a hatchet near the body of the
deceased when the body was discovered. The
New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals held, “in
principle, its admission as legal evidence is
based upon the theory that the evolution in
practical affairs of fife, whereby the progressive
and scientific tenderness of the age are
manifested in every other department of human
endeavor, cannot be ignored in legal procedure.
But, that the law it its effort to enforce justice by
demonstrating a fact in issue, will allow evidence
of those scientific processes which are the work
of educated and skillful men in their various
departments, and apply them to the
demonstrations of fact, leaving the weight and
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 5
effect to be given to the effort and its results
entirely to the consideration of the jury”.
3. In the case of State Vs. Conners [87 N.T.L. 419,
94 Atl.812 (1915)] it was held competent to show
by a photograph the fingerprints upon the
balcony post of a house entered, without
producing that post in court, and to show by
expert testimony that the fingerprints found on
the post were similar to the fingerprints of the
defendant.
4. Lamble vs. State [Lamble v. State, 96 N.T.L.
231; 114 ATL. (N.J) 346 (1921)] which involved
the discovery of fingerprints on the door of an
automobile, the court was of the opinion that it
was not necessary to produce the door as
evidence. The court stated that a photograph of
the fingerprints noted on the door should be
sufficient along with the identification of the
fingerprints by an expert to show these of the
defendant. The court referred to the previous
decided case of States v. Conners.
5. Commonwealth v. Albright, [101 Pa. Sup.
C.L.317 (1931)] - a fingerprint expert testified
that the fingerprint on a piece of glass,
established to be from a pane in a door that had
been broken to effect entrance to the house was
the same as the impression of the defendant’s
left index finger and he explained in detail the
points of identity which led him to that judgment.
In the Albright case, the court stated, “it is well
settled that the papillary lines and marks on the
fingers of every man, woman and child posses an
individual character different from those of any
other person and that the chances that the
fingerprints of two different persons may be
identified are infinitesimally remote.
6. People v. Corral [224 cal. 2d 300 (1964)] - it is
completely settled law that fingerprints are the
strongest evidence of the identity of a person”.
This Doctrine was reasserted in another
California case, People v. Riser [47 cal. 2d. 566
(1956)] in which the court stated, “fingerprint
evidence is the strongest evidence of identity and
is ordinarily sufficient alone to identify the
defendant”.
7.Schmerber v California [Schmerber v.
California,384 us,757,767(1966)] - The
introduction into evidence of fingerprint
impressions taken without consent of the
defendant was not an infringement of the
constitutional privileged against self incrimination.
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
The high court held that it is constitutional to
obtain real or physical evidence even if the
suspect is compelled to give blood in a hospital
environment, submit to fingerprinting,
photographing or measurement, write or speak
for identification, appears in court, stand or walk,
assume a stance or make a particular gesture,
put on cloth that fits him, or exhibit his body as
evidence when it is material. The Schmerber
case points out the fact that the privilege against
self-incrimination is related primarily to
“TESTIMONIAL COMPULSION”.
In the Philippines:
8.In the BILANGAWA v. AMADOR case, (Court of
Appeals No.37320-b) a fingerprint expert and
constabulary sergeant testified and successfully
defended fingerprint evidence based on eight
identical ridge points.
9. People of the Philippines vs. Medina, 59, Phil.
330 of December 23, 1933 were the first
conviction based on fingerprint and led to the
judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence.
Types of Ridge Formation
1. Recurving ridge – Is the ridge that curves back
in the direction in which it started. It looks like a
hair pin.
2. Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming
an angle, a ridge whose closed end is angular
and serves as a point of convergent.
3. Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by
side and suddenly separating, one ridge going
one way and the other ridge in another way.
4. Bifurcating ridge – A single ridge which splits
into two forming a “Y” shape, formation or
structure. It is
Ridge Characteristics
1. Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye – It is a single ridge
which bifurcates where the bifurcating ridges
converge at a certain point to form again into a
single ridge.
2. Dot or Series of dots – They are fragmentary
ridges formed like a dot or dots.
3. Short or Series of Short Ridges – They are
fragmentary ridges formed by short or series of
short ridges.
4. Ridge-ending – It is a termination or ending of
ridge or ridges.
5. Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of
disconnected sequences of short ridges
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 6
embodied intensely. These ridges are considered
in the classification of fingerprints if they appear
as dark and as thick as the surrounded ridges
within the pattern area.
6. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form
two ridges which are shorter in length than the
main ridge.
7. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge
between two ridges.
8. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of
ridge which is madly formed, thin, short or broken
which appear or appears in the depressions
between two well formed ridges.
9. Sufficient recurve – The space between
shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and
abutting at right angle.
10. Appendage- a short ridge at the top or summit of
a recurve usually at right angle.
11. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing
one or more rods or bars.
12. Rod or bar – Is a single ending ridge at the
center of a recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
13. Uptrust – Is an ending ridge of any length rising
at a sufficient degree from a horizontal place.
14. Dissociated ridges – Are unusual ridge
structures having no well defined patterns; the
ridges are extremely short, appear like a series of
“patches” caused by a disturbance of
developmental process at early fetal life of the
individual.
15. Shoulder of a loop- It is that point at which the
recurving ridge definitely turns or curve.
16. Shoulder of a loop- It is that point at which the
recurving ridge definitely turns or curve.
17. Puckering- As growth ceases at several ends,
the ends curls slightly.
18. Creases- Are thin, usually straight narrow white
lines running transversely or formed side to side,
across the print, causing the puckering of the
ridges.
19. Staple- Single recurving ridge at the center of
the pattern area.
20. Spike- An ending ridge at the center of a pattern
which forms the upthrust.
21. Enclosure – a bifurcation which does not remain
open but which the legs of the bifurcation, after
running along side by side for a short distance,
come together again to form a single ridge once
more.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Subject: Dactyloscopy
Focal Points of Fingerprint Pattern
1. Core – Is a point on a ridge formation usually
located at the center or heart of a pattern.
2. Delta or Triradial Point – Is a point on the first
ridge formation directly at or in front or near the
center of the divergence of the type lines. It may
be: a) a bifurcation b) an abrupt ending ridge
c) a dot d) a short ridge e) a meeting of two
ridges f) a point on the first recurving ridge
located nearest to the center and in front of
the divergence of the type lines.
Type Lines and Pattern Area
 Type lines - basic boundaries of most
fingerprints formed by ridges which run
parallel, starting from the lower corner of the
pattern and flowing inward and upward the
edge of the pattern area, where they diverge
or separate, then surround or tend to
surround the pattern area.
 Pattern area- The part of the fingerprint
which lies within the area surrounded by the
type lines.
Rules in Core Location
1. The core is placed upon or within the
sufficient recurving ridge.
2. When the innermost sufficient recurve
contains uneven number of rods rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed
upon the end of the center rod whether it
touches the looping ridge or not.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve
contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high
as the shoulders of the loop, the core is
placed on the shoulder of the farther from the
delta.
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve
contains an even number of rods rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed
upon the end of the farther one of the two
center rods being treated as though they
were connected by a recurving ridge. The
shoulders of a loop are the points at which
the recurving ridge definitely turns inward or
curves.
Rules in Delta Location
1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation
which does not open towards the core.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation
and another type of delta equally close to the
point of divergence, the bifurcation is
selected.
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 7
3. When there is a series of bifurcations
opening towards the point of divergence of
the type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the
core is chosen as the delta.
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of
the ridge running between the type lines
toward the core but at the nearer end only.
The delta depends entirely on the point of
origin of the ridge.
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area from a
point below the divergence of the type lines,
the delta must be located at the end nearer
to the core.
What are ridge tracing, ridge counting and ridge
count?
 Ridge Tracing is the process of tracing the
ridge that originates from the left delta toward
the right delta to see where it flows in relation
to the right delta.
 Ridge Counting is the process of counting
the ridges that touch or cross an imaginary
line drawn between the core and delta of a
loop.
 Ridge Count is the number of ridges
intervening between the delta and the core.
Standard Fingerprint Patterns
1. Loops (60 % in appearance)
- ulnar
- radial
2. Arches (5 % in appearance)
- Tented
- plain
3. Whorl (35 % in appearance)
- Plain whorl
- Central pocket loop whorl
- Double loop whorl
- Accidental whorl
1. LOOPS - A type of fingerprint pattern in
which one or more of the ridges enters on
either side of the impression, recurve, touch
or pass an imaginary line drawn from the
delta to the core, and terminate or tend to
terminate on or toward the same side of the
impression from which such ridge or ridges
entered.
a. Ulnar Loop - Loops which flow in the
direction of the ulna bone or towards the
little finger.
b. Radial Loop – loops which flow or
recurve towards the radial side or thumb.
ESSENTIALS OF A LOOP
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
- It must have a core
- It must have a delta
- An imaginary line must pass between
the core and the delta.
- It must have a ridge count of a minimum
of at least one (1) across a looping
ridge.
2. ARCHES – The ridges go from one side of
the pattern to another, never turning back to
make a loop. (Solis, p 59)
a. Plain Arch - A pattern in which the
ridges enter on one side of the pattern,
then flow or tend to flow towards the
other side, with a rise or wave in the
center, with no angular ridge formation
and no upthrust. (Tubid)
b. Tented Arch - A pattern similar to a loop,
but lacking at least one of the essential
elements of a loop. This is a type of
fingerprint pattern where majority of the
ridges form an arch and one or more of
the ridges at the center form a tent in
outline, giving an angle of 90 degrees or
less; or one with un upward thrust having
an angle of 45 degrees or more; or a
pattern similar to a loop, but lacking at
least one of the essential elements of a
loop. (Tubid)
3. WHORLS – Patterns with two deltas and
patterns too irregular in form to classify:
a. Plain whorl (simple whorls Solis, p59),
defined: It is a fingerprint pattern which there
are two (2) deltas and in which at least one
(1) ridge makes a turn through one complete
circuit, an imaginary line drawn between the
two (2) deltas must touch or cross at least
one (1) of the circuiting whorl ridges within
the pattern area.
b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl, defined – It is
a fingerprint pattern which for the most part
of a loop, but which has a small whorl inside
the loop ridges, sometimes called a
composite pattern, which means that is made
up of two (2) pattern in one, a whorl inside a
loop .
c. Double Loop Whorl, defined – A Double
loop whorl is a pattern consisting of two (2)
separate and distinct loop formations. One of
the loops surrounds or overlaps the other,
also called COMPOSITE PATTERN, like the
central pocket loop whorl. It arises from the
fact that these patterns are a composite or
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 8
combination of two (2) patterns in one, with
two cores and two deltas.
d. Accidental Whorl, defined – It is a pattern
that is a combination of two or more different
types of patterns except in the PLAIN ARCH.
It can be a combination of a loop and a
whorl, a loop or a central pocket loop whorl,
or any combination of two or more different
loops and whorl type pattern. Like the central
pocket loop whorl and the double loop whorl,
some authorities or authors call accidental
whorl COMPOSITE.
Kinds of Impressions
1. Real Impressions – Impression of the finger
bulbs with the use of printing ink on the surface of
the paper. Other coloring materials may be used
but they are less visible and indelible
a. Plain method – The bulbs of the last
phalanges of the fingers and thumbs are
pressed on the surface of the paper after
pressing them on an ink pad or ink plate with
printing ink.
b. Rolled Method – The bulbs of the thumb
and other fingers are rolled on the surface of
the paper after being rolled in an ink pad or
ink plate with the printing ink.
2. Chance impression – Refers to fingerprints
which are imprinted or impressed by mere
chance or without any intention to produce it.
a. Visible/Patent prints – impression made by
chance and is visible without previous
treatment. Impression made by the fingers
smeared with some colored substance, like
black ink, vegetable juice, may be visible
immediately after impression.
b. Semi-visible/plastic/molded prints – dead body.
impressions made by chance by pressing the
finger tips on melted paraffin, putty, resin,
cellophane, plastic tape, butter, soap, etc.
These prints need not a development,
although photography is more applicable.
c. Invisible/Latent prints – prints which are not
visible after impression but made visible by
the addition of some substances.
Latent prints – Any chance or accidental impression
left by friction ridge skin on a surface, regardless of
whether it is visible or invisible at the time of
deposition.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Subject: Dactyloscopy
Patent prints –These are friction ridge impressions
of unknown origin which are obvious to the human
eye and are caused by a transfer of foreign material
on the finger, onto a surface. Because they are
already visible they need no enhancement, and are
photographed instead of being lifted.
Plastic prints/Molded prints - A friction ridge
impression from a finger or palm (or toe/foot)
deposited in a material that retains the shape of the
ridge detail. Commonly encountered examples are
melted candle wax; putty removed from the perimeter
of window panes and thick grease deposits on car
parts. Such prints are already visible and need no
enhancement, but investigators must not overlook the
potential that invisible latent prints deposited by
accomplices may also be on such surfaces.
How to Get Fingerprint Impressions on Dead
Bodies?
1.In cases of fresh dead bodies, the fingers
are unclenched and each one is inked
individually with the aid of a small rubber
roller. The paper where the print will be
impressed will be placed in a spoon-shaped
piece of wood and slowly and evenly rolled
over the pattern.
2.If the fist is too tightly clenched, a small
incision may be made at the base of the
fingers. The contraction may also be
overcome by dipping the hands in hot water.
3.If the so-called washerwoman’s skin is not
too marked on the fingerprints of dead
bodies recovered shortly from bodies of
water (floaters), the fingers may be dried off
with towel and glycerin is injected with a
syringe under the skin of the finger tips in
order to smoothen the surface. The
fingerprints are then taken like that of a fresh
4.If the “floater” has been in a body of water
for longer time and the friction ridges have
disappeared, the skin of the fingertips is cut
away. This area of skin from each finger is
placed in a small labeled test tubes containing
formaldehyde solution. If the papillary ridges
are still preserved on the outer surface, the
person taking the prints places a portion of the
skin on his right index finger protected by a
rubber glove and then takes the print after
inking the finger tip. The same procedure as
described may be applied to putrefied or
burned bodies according to circumstances.
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 9
Fingerprint Classification
 Classification - is the method of obtaining a
formula for a set of fingerprints whereby it may be
located in the filling cabinet.
 Classification Formula - is the numerical
description for a set of classified fingerprints
which is composed of figure and letters written
above the horizontal line like a fraction.
 Blocking - is the process of writing below each
finger-print pattern the corresponding symbols of
its name.
Six Divisions of Classifications in Order
According to their Importance
(Edward Henry “Henry System”)
1. Primary Classification
2. Secondary Classification
3. Sub-secondary classification
4. Major Division
5. Key
6. Final
Formation in classification line
Key Maj. Prim. Sec. Sub.Sec. Final
Div. Class. Class Class Class
1. Primary Classification – is the sum total of all
numerical values of whose found in fingerprint set
expressed as the numerator and the denominator
plus the pre- established fraction of one over 1
(1/1).
How to get the primary classification
a. By Pairing
b. By assigning numerical values to whorl
patterns only
Types of Fingerprint Patterns (Symbol)
Without numerical value: A, T, R, U
With numerical value: W, C, D, X
c. Knowing the numerators and denominators
in the pairs
Note: Even Number- Numerator
Odd Number- Denominator
d. Summing up the numerical values of whorls
assigned to the fingers plus the pre-
established fraction of 1/1
N= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
D= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Subject: Dactyloscopy
Number of Possible Combination in Primary
Classification
• There are 1,024 possible combination for
primary classification from 1/1 to 32/32.
• 1/1 – lowest primary classification
• 32/32 – highest primary classification
Note: Whorl type of pattern is the only
fingerprint patterns with numerical values and
an arbitrary count of one (1) is always added.
Purpose of Fixed Count of One:
The purpose is to avoid a classification of zero over
zero (0/0) in a set of prints in which this might be
mistaken for a letter “O” which has another specific
meaning in the classification.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND
FINGERS MISSING AT BIRTH
• If one finger is amputated, it is given a
classification identical with that of the
opposite finger, including pattern and ridge
count or tracing.
• If two or more finger are amputated they are
given classification identical with the opposite
fingers.
• If two amputated finger are opposite each
other, both are given the classification of
whorls with meeting tracing.
• When fingerprint card bearing notation of
fingers missing at birth is classified, the
missing fingers should be treated as
amputations in that they are given the
identical classification of the opposite fingers.
2. Secondary Classification – is the exhibition
of Capital Letter symbols of plain arch, tented
arch, radial loop, ulnar loop, plain whorl,
central-pocket loop, double loop whorl, and
accidental found in the index finger of both
hands.
- The pattern appearing on the right index
should be placed on the numerator and
the pattern appearing on the left index
should be placed on the denominator.
- There are twenty five (25) possible
combinations which may appear in the
index finger from A/A to W/W without C,
D, and X. (Collins) There are 64
combinations for filing from A/A to X/X.
Secondary Small Letter Classification - It
is the exhibition of small letter symbols of
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 10
arch, tented arch and radial loop found
before and after the index finger of both
hands.
3. Sub- Secondary Classification – is the
exhibition of the resultant symbol for the
ridge counting in loops as expressed by
symbol I and O and ridge tracing for whorl as
expressed by symbol IMO from the right
index to the left ring finger excluding the
thumbs and the little fingers of both hands.
- Fingers to be considered are: index
finger, middle finger, and ring finger of
both hands.
Loop Sub- Secondary by Ridge Counting
– It is the exhibition of the resultant symbol
for the ridge counting in loops as expressed
by symbol IO found from indexes, middles
and ring fingers of both hands, the ridges are
counted and compound to the pre-
established table to obtain the resultant
symbol IO. All loop sets of prints using the
Index, Middle, and Ring fingers of both hands
has sixty four (64) combinations.
Whorl Sub- Secondary by Ridge Tracing -
when the whorl is found on the index, middle
and ring fingers of both hands the ridges are
traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO.
There are seven hundred twenty nine (729)
possible Subsecondary combinations for
whorl type patterns in the Index, Middle, and
Ring fingers of both hands.
For whorl tracing:
 Meeting (M) – 0 to 2 ridges from left delta
to the right delta
 Outer (O) – 3 or more ridges below the
right delta
 Inner (I) – 3 or more ridges above the
right delta.
For Tented Arch and Plain Arch
If a Plain Arch or Tented arch are present on
the index, middle, and ring fingers of both
hands, just put a dash (-) for the sub-
secondary classification.
4. Major Division – is the exhibition of the ridge
counting in loops as expressed by symbol
SML and the ridge tracing for whorls as
expressed by symbols IMO found on the
thumbs of both hands.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Subject: Dactyloscopy
Three (3) Kinds of Major Division
1) Loop Major Division – When the loop is
found on the thumb of both hands, the
ridges are counted and compared to the
pre- established table of Whorl Major
Division.
Denominator Numerator
Left Hand Right Hand
1- 11= S 1-11= S
12- 16= M 12- 16= M
17 > = L
17 > = L 1 – 17 = S
18 – 22 = M
23 > = L
2) Whorl Major Division – When the whorl is
found on the thumbs of both hands, the ridges
are traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO.
3) Combination of Loop and Whorl Major
Division – When one of the thumbs is loop, the
resultant symbol SML is used and when the
other thumb is whorl, the resultant symbol IMO
is used. For T and A just put dash in the
classification line.
5. Final Classification – It is the ridge count of the
loops an whorls found on the little fingers of both
hands. Arches and tented arches are represented
by dashes in classification formula.
- For T and A just put dash in the classification
line.
- Final Classification is located or placed on the
extreme right of the classification line.
How to Ridge Count a Whorl:
- When a whorl is found on the right little finger,
ridges are counted from left delta to the core.
- When the whorl is found on the left little
finger, ridges are counted from right delta to
the core.
6. Key Classification - It is the ridge count of the
first loop from the right thumb to the left ring finger
excluding little fingers of both hands. In the
absence of loop, the ridge count of the first whorl
will be utilized as the key treated as ulnar loop.
- For T and A just put dash in the classification
line.
- The Key Classification is placed on the
extreme left of the classification line and is
always represented as numerator, no matter
where it is taken.