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TOPICS OUTCOMES
At the end of topics, student should be have

1. Ability to identify and illustrate types of structural elements (C3,P2,

A3)

2. Ability to determine functions of the elements (C4, P2,A3)

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND Siti Kamariah Md Sa’at

School of Bioprocess 3. Ability to determine and calculate the permanent load and
LOADING Engineering
UniMAP
imposed load on the structural elements

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BUILDING
STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
Beams
Columns Superstructures –above
ground
Trusses
Substructures – below
Frames ground

Floors/Slab
Foundations

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GREENHOUSE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS GREENHOUSE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

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GREENHOUSE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS GREENHOUSE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

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GREENHOUSE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS GREENHOUSE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

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OTHER STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS FUNCTIONS

Foundation: Made of reinforced concrete that supports all the weight.
Columns: They transmit the building's weight to the foundations
Beams: arranged to support the floor/slab
Trusses: Support the roof/cladding
Slab/Floor: Support weight of human/equipment/facilities/ machinery
Lintels: Windows/doors frame support

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FRAMES ARCHES

Combination of beam and column

Important to improve the aesthetic value of the structures
Usually construct under the bridge and for large span like at the mosques.
structures like a warehouses and factories.

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ACTIONS
Action is terminology for loads and imposed deformations.
Action, F is force or load applied to the structure.

LOADS/ACTION

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TYPES OF LOADS TYPES OF LOADS

Actions shall be classified by their variations in time as follows: G: permanent action such as dead loads due to self-weight
Permanent actions (G), e.g. Self-weight of structures, weight of finishes, ceiling Characteristic value of a permanent action = Gk
and services, fixed equipment and road surfacing, and indirect actions caused by
shrinkage and uneven settlements; Design value of a permanent action = Gd

Q: variable actions such as imposed, wind or snow loads

Variable actions (Q), e.g. Imposed loads on building floors, beams and roofs, Characteristic value of a variable action = Qk
cause by people, furniture, equipments, etc., wind actions or snow loads;
Design value of a variable action = Qd

Accidental action (A), e.g. Explosion, or impact from vehicles.

A: accidental actions such as explosions, fire or vehicle impact.

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IMPOSED LOAD ON FLOORS IN

WEIGHT OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS BUILDINGS
Category Qk, kN/m3
A A1: All usage within self-contained 1.5
Area for domestic and dwelling unit
Materials Density (kN/m3) residential activities A2: Bedroom and dormitories 1.5
Lightweight concrete 9.0-20.0
A3: Bedroom in hotels, hospital 2.0
Normal weight concrete 24.0-25.0
B B1: General use 2.5
Cement mortar 19.0-23.0 Office area B2: At or below ground floor level 3.0
Wood 3.5-10.8
C C1: Areas with tables- dining room 2.0
Plywood 4.5-7.0 Areas where people may C2: Areas with tables- classroom 3.0
Steel 77.0-78.5 congregate
C3: Area with fixed seat- Assembly areas 4.0
Water 10
D D1: Areas in general retail shop 4.0
Shopping areas

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LOAD CASES COMBINATION OF ACTION

Combination of actions is specifically used for the definition of the
magnitude of actions to be used when a limit state is under the influence of
different actions.
Load cases is concerned with the arrangement of the variable actions to give
the most unfavourable conditions.
To determine the value of actions used for analysis:
1. Identify the design situation
2. Identify all realistic actions
3. Determine the partial factor for each applicable combination of actions
4. Arrange the actions to produce the most critical conditions
For each variable actions there are four representative values:
1.Characteristic value, (Qk) –an upper value with an intended probability of not
being exceeded or a lower value with an intended probability of being
achieved, during some specific reference period
2.Combination value, (ψoQk) –value intended to take account of a reduced
probability of the simultaneous occurrence of two or more variable actions.
3.Frequent value, (ψ1Qk) –value such that it should be exceeded only for a short
period of time and is used primarily for the serviceability limit states and also
accidental limit state.
4.Quasi-permanent value, (ψ2Qk) –value may be exceeded for a considerable
period of time; alternatively it may be considered as an average loading over time.
I is used for a long term affects at the serviceability limit state(SLS) and also
accidental and seismic ultimate limit state (ULS).

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RECOMMENDED VALUES OF Ψ
FACTORS FOR BUILDINGS

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LOAD COMBINATION

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DESIGN ACTION VALUE PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR FOR MATERIAL

Design loading (Fd) = partial safety factor (γF) × characteristic value (Fk)
e.g. Gd = γGGk
where:
 γG is the partial safety factor for permanent actions,
 Gk is the characteristic value of the permanent action

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MASS OF BUILDING MATERIALS LOADING OF LIVESTOCK

(SELFWEIGHT)

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EXAMPLE 1
MASS OF FARM PRODUCT

1) Reinforced concrete beam

Cross sectional area = 0.2 x 0.4 = 0.08 m2
Unit weight of concrete = 24 kN/m3
Weight per unit length = 0.08 x 24 = 1.92 kN/m
Total weight of beam = 1.92 x 3 = 5.76 kN
Design load of the beam = 1.35Gk = 7.776 kN

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CONT’ EXAMPLE 2
1) Steel beam Determine the ultimate design load
Cross sectional area = 494cm2 = 0.0494m2
From section properties table

Unit weight of steel (mild steel)

= 78.5 kN/m3
Weight per unit length = 0.0494 x 78.5 = 3.88 kN/m
Total weight of beam = 3.88 x 6 = 23.287 kN
Design load of the beam = 1.35Gk = 31.437 kN
Characteristic permanent load include self weight (gk) = 5.0 kN/m
Characteristic imposed load (qk) = 30.0 kN/m
Design load = 1.35gk+1.5qk = 51.75 kN/m

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EXAMPLE 3 ATTENDANCE

Solution
(a) Design action on the beam, FE,d= 1.35Gk + 1.5 Qk =
ME,d = FE,d L/8 =
(b) Design action on the beam =

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EXAMPLE: ONE WAY SLAB

Actions from one-way slab (Ly/Lx > 2)
Actions from two-way slab (Ly/Lx ≤ 2)

Ly
Ly

Lx Lx

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE: TWO-WAY SLAB

Beam AB: Total load = floor area supported x distributed load
= (2.5 x 8.0) x 5.0 = 100 kN
Beam CD: = (4.0x 8.0) x 5.0 = 160 kN
Beam EF: = (1.5 x 8.0) x 5.0 = 60 kN
Total load on slab = 8 x 8 x 5.0 = 320 kN

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SOLUTION

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