PA601: 09/13/16

ANATOMICAL SYSTEMS I
Learning Objectives:

- Anatomical Terminology:
- Proper Anatomical Position
- Become familiar with terms used to describe the relative position of structures in the body
-Learn the basics of the anatomical ‘systems’ that will be discussed throughout this course on regional anatomy. The systems
addressed today are:
- integumentary (skin & fascia)
- circulatory (blood & lymph)
- musculoskeletal (muscles, bones, joints)
- nervous (brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia)
- Name the layers of the skin. How do they differ? What are their functions?
- In which layer do the neurovasculature travel? Where are glands and arector pili mm. located?
- Name the three types of cartilage. How do they differ? Where are they located?
- Name the types of bone (compact/ cancellous)
- How are bones classified?
- Name the three types of joints in the anatomical classification/ in the functional classification
- How are the anatomical and functional classification of joints related to each other?
- How are synovial joints classified? (shape/ degrees of freedom)
- What is a ligament? What is its function? How do ligaments resist movement?
- Name the three types of muscle tissue. How do they differ?
- How are skeletal muscles classified?
- Explain the difference between: the origin and insertion of a muscle; the action and function of a muscle; the types
of contraction of muscles
- Circulatory System (blood & lymph)
- What vessels enter/ exit the capillary beds? What is an anastomosis? What are the types of vessels (both lymphatic
and vascular)? What are the anatomical & functional differences between arteries and veins and lymphatic
capillaries
- Where do each of these vessels begin? terminate?
- Name and identify the major vessels (artery and vein and lymphatic ducts) what regions do they supply? Drain?
- What are the three functions of the lymphatic system?
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 PROPER ANATOMICAL POSITION
Face forward
Inferior margin of
orbit is level with the
top of the external
auditory meatus (bony
portion of ear canal)

The anatomical position is the

standard (globally adopted) reference
position of the body used to describe
the location of structures. You must
always refer to the body as if it were
in proper anatomical position.
Arms and hands by sides
Palms face forward

Feet together
Toes forward
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 ANATOMICAL PLANES
CORONAL/ FRONTAL PLANES
- any plane that splits the body into
front (anterior) and back
(posterior) portions
TRANSVERSE/ HORIZONTAL
-any plane that splits the body
into upper and lower portions.
-Used for cross-sections and
radiographs.
SAGITTAL PLANES
-any plane that splits the body into
right and left portions. Sagittal
planes run parallel to the median
plane.
-the MIDSAGITTAL/ MEDIAN
PLANE splits the body into equal
halves
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 TERMS OF
RELATIONSHIP &
COMPARISON

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 INTRODUCTION TO THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system is responsible for the transportation of fluids throughout the body. It
consists of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM:
- Heart and blood vessels carry nutrients, oxygen and waste products to/ from cells
- Three types of blood vessels:

CAPILLARIES:
-thin-walled vessels that connect arterial
and venous sides of the circulation
-- interchange of oxygen, nutrients and
waste products (in capillary beds)

ARTERIES → ARTERIOLES:
VENULES → VEINS:
- carry blood away from the heart
- return blood (usually deoxygenated,
(usually, oxygenated and nutrient
rich) nutrient poor) to the heart
- thicker walls with more smooth - there are often many veins
muscle than veins (higher pressure) accompanying a single artery (called
- may ANASTOMOSE. An companion veins, or, venae comitantes).
Anastomosis is a communication -We will focus on veins that DO NOT
allowing for collateral circulation of have the same pathway as arteries
blood should the primary pathway - may have valves
become occluded. If the anastomosis is - anastomoses are common
incapable of sufficiently profusing the
area with blood/nutrients then the
organ or region is called, “ischemic”
which can lead to tissue death
(necrosis/infarction)

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 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymph is a clear-to-white fluid made up, primarily, of interstitial fluid, white blood cells (especially lymphocytes) and chyle.

Main functions of The Lymphatic System:

1. Drainage of tissue fluid: lymphatic capillaries collect surplus interstitial tissue fluid lost from vascular capillary beds
during nutrient exchange processes and deliver it back to the venous system. Lymphatic fluid often also contains pathogens,
foreign antigens, and cell debris.
2. Absorption and transport of fat (from the intestines, called CHYLE)
3. Defense mechanism for the body: Lymphatic channels are interrupted by lymph nodes which not only filter the lymph, but
also activate the immune system. Lymph nodes filter and trap infectious matter from the lymph. Lymph nodes that drain
infected/ pathological areas will become swollen. Cells that metastasize (migrate away from) primary tumors, and enter the
lymphatic system, may lodge and grow as secondary tumors in lymph nodes.

Lymphatic Trunks (9 in the body):

-Trunks are responsible for collecting lymph from major regions of the body and draining it to the lymphatic ducts (there are 2
ducts).
-The paired bronchomediastinal trunks are the main lymphatic vessels of the thorax
-Gut-derived structures inferior to the diaphragm drain to the unpaired Intestinal trunk
-All remaining structures inferior to the diaphragm drain to the right and left lumbar trunks
-Subclavian trunks drain the upper limb
-Jugular trunks drain structures from the head & neck

The Right Lymphatic Duct:

-receives lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the right upper limb and the right side of the thorax (and some
superficial abdominal lymph)
-usually drains directly into the right venous angle (junction of right subclavian and right internal jugular vv.)

The Thoracic duct:

lymph from the rest of the body drains to the thoracic duct
- begins in the abdomen (L2) at the Cisterna chyli (saccular dilation that receives lymph from the body below the diaphragm)
- enters thorax through aortic hiatus of the diaphragm (T12)
-ascends through the posterior & superior mediastinum
-terminates at the left venous angle (junction of left subclavian and left internal jugular vv.)
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 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Drains to right
lymphatic duct

Lymphatic CAPILLARY
(originates in capillary bed)

Lymphatic VESSEL

LYMPH NODE

Lymphatic VESSEL

Lymphatic TRUNK
(9 in body)

Collecting DUCT
(2 in body:
rt.lymphatic & thoracic)
Venous Drains to
angle(junction of IJVthoracic duct
Cardiovascular system
& subclavian veins
(VENOUS ANGLES:
To junction of IJV & subclavian v.)
lymphatic
trunk

TWO COLLECTING DUCTS

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THE BODY WALL

Body Wall definition: the external surface of

the body derived from ectoderm and mesoderm
(embryonic tissues) and enclosing the body cavities.

- Composed of skin (integumentary system), skeletal

muscles, bones, joints, ligaments (NOT ORGANS) as
well as their blood and nerve supply
- Consists of:
- The body wall surrounding the thoracic,
abdominal and pelvic body cavities
- The limbs
- The head (skull, skin, most musculature)
- The neck (vertebrae, skin, most musculature)

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INTRODUCTION TO THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- skin, fascia & appendages -
SKIN
Functions:
-Protection, containment, heat regulation, sensation, synthesis and storage of vitamin D

Two layers:
-epidermis: Superficial epithelial tissue layer (thicker on soles of feet & palms of hand).
-dermis: Deeper connective tissue layer
contains:
- hair follicles with arrector pili muscles (GVEs innervation)
- sebaceous & sweat glands (thermoregulation) (GVEs innervation)
- vasculature and lymphatics (GVEs innervation to smooth mm.)
- Sensory receptors (GSA innervation)

FASCIA (Deep to the skin)

Hypodermis = Superficial fascia/ subcutaneous tissue:
- lies immediately deep to the dermis
- composed of adipose tissue
- Cutaneous neurovascular structures travel here (send terminal branches (arterioles, nerve endings, venules, into
overlying layers).
-Separated from the underlying deep fascia by a layer of areolar tissue

Deep fascia:
- lies deep to subcutaneous tissue (superficial fascia)
- composed of dense irregular connective tissue devoid of fat
- continues deeper into the body to invest structures (e.g., every muscle is completely surrounded by a layer of deep fascia
called epimysium )
- lines body cavities (here it is called subserous fascia) (e.g., endothoracic fascia lines the thoracic wall)
- thickens in certain regions for various functions (e.g., to hold down tendons, assist in the musculovenous pump)

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 epidermis
Sebaceous gland
dermis
Arrector pili m. skin

Hair follicle

Sweat gland superficial fascia

Nerve deep fascia

Lymph skeletal muscle
Artery
Vein

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 SKELETAL SYSTEM

THE SKELETON:
-is composed of cartilage & bone
-Both cartilage and bone have connective tissue coverings; perichondrium & periosteum that:
- nourish the external aspects of the skeletal tissue
- are capable of laying down more cartilage and bone (especially during fracture healing)
- provide the interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments

Cartilage:
- semirigid connective tissue forming part of skeleton where flexibility is required
- Three types:
-Hyaline
-Fibrocartilage
-Elastic cartilage
Bone:
-hard form of connective tissue that is responsible for body support, organ protection, calcium
storage & hematopoiesis (formation of blood cells occurs in the bone marrow)
- Two types:
-Compact/ Cortical (outer)
-Spongy/ Trabecular/ cancellous (inner)

- Can be divided into the axial and appendicular skeletons

- Are classified according to shape

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 TYPES OF CARTILAGE
HYALINE CARTILAGE:
- For strong semi-flexible support
- Found in: fetal skeleton, articular surfaces of diarthrodial/ synovial joints and primary
cartilage joints (e.g. synchondroses), cartilage of respiratory tract, nasal cavity and
costal cartilage

FIBROCARTILAGE:
- Particularly good for resisting compressive forces
- Found in: secondary cartilaginous joints e.g., Intervertebral disks,
pubic symphyses as well as in articular disks & tendon/bone junctions

ELASTIC CARTILAGE:
- For flexible support
- Found in: epiglottis, external ear, auditory tube

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 BONE
Axial
skeleton

Appendicular
skeleton

longitudinal-section of glenohumeral joint

- Compact bone (a.k.a. cortical bone) composes Axial skeleton (purple):

about 80% of our skeleton. It is the site for
calcium storage and provides us with rigidity
and mechanical support
- Cancellous bone (a.k.a. spongy or trabecular
bone) is typically found at the ends of long
bones, as well as in the os coxae, and
vertebrae. It is very porous and vascular and
contains red bone marrow, where blood cells
are made
- Bones of head (including
mandible and hyoid bone), thorax
and vertebral column
Appendicular skeleton (pink):
- Bones of the limbs as well as
those of the pectoral and pelvic
girdles
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 BONE SHAPES
- Bones are classified according to their shape -

head
Short bones – cuboidal in shape, found only
in the carpus (wrist) and tarsal region (ankle).
Most have only a single ossification center. neck
Flat bones – usually serve protective Scapula
functions (like the flat bones of the skull). Most
(flat bone)
are intramembranously ossified.
Irregular bones – bones of the face
Sesamoid bones – develop in tendons and act shaft
to protect the tendon and often to increase the
leverage of the associated muscle (e.g., patella)
Long bones – tubular in shape, form the
major bones of the limbs, the ribs.
Typical long bones all possess:
1) head – large, rounded end of a bone; has an
articular surface
2) shaft –long, generally straight, segment of
the bone
3) neck – connects the head to the shaft

Femoral
CONDYLE

FEMUR HUMERUS
anterior view anterior view
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SOME OSTEOLOGICAL
FEATURES
Some osteological features:
articular surface – a smooth joint surface
upon which adjacent bones are in
contact by cartilaginous or fibrous FORAMEN
magnum of
tissues occipital bone
a. facet – a small, flat articular
surface
b. condyle - a large rounded articular
surface
foramen (pl: foramina)
passage through a bone (usually GROOVE for
neurovascular) fossa - shallow transverse sinus
depression
sulcus/ groove - elongate shallow
depression (usually acts as a
passageway for vessels or nerves)
notch – indentation at the edge of a bone Iliac crest

Some osteological structures give muscles

a mechanical advantage or better
attachment site:
epicondyle – a nonarticular projection
adjacent to a condyle
tuberosity – large roughened eminence
tubercle – small roughened eminence Obturator ischial
trochanter – large, very prominent bony foramen spine
projection ischial
spine - sharp, bony projection tuberosity
crest/ line - elongate linear elevation
OS COXA
posterolateral view 15
 INTRODUCTION TO JOINTS
Joint - articulation between two or more parts of the skeleton (bones or cartilage)
1. Cartilaginous – minimal mobility, bones are connected by hyaline or fibrocartilage. No joint cavity = solid joint.
Two types:
a. Primary cartilaginous joints (Synchondrosis type of Synarthrodial joint)
- bones connected by hyaline cartilage
- usually temporary (e.g., epiphyseal plates)
b. Secondary cartilaginous joints (symphysis type of Amphiarthrodial joint)
- united by fibrocartilage
- e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis

2. Fibrous joints – bones are connected by fibrous tissue. No joint cavity = solid joint.
- variable amounts of motion, but never as much as synovial joints
- sutures (of cranium) (type of Synarthrosis)
- gomphoses (of teeth) (type of Synarthrosis)
- syndesmoses (bones are connected by a ligament; e.g., interosseous membranes of forearm and leg) (type of
Amphiarthrodial joint)

3. Synovial joints (Diarthroses) – widest range of motion. Most common.

- articulating surfaces are covered with hyaline cartilage and separated by a joint cavity.
- joint is surrounded by a joint capsule with two layers
a. outer fibrous capsule
b. inner synovial membrane which defines the border of the articular cavity (does not cover the articular
cartilage). It secretes synovial fluid which lubricates the joint.

Classified according to shape and degrees of freedom (motion).

Plane joints: flat surfaces allow for gliding and sliding
Hinge joints: (uniaxial) allow only for direction in one plane (usually flexion/ extension) e.g., elbow
Saddle joints: (biaxial) motion in two planes (e.g., 1st carpometacarpal joint)
Condyloid joints: (limited biaxial) motion in two planes, but one plane usually takes precedence (e.g.,
knuckle joints – metacarpophalangeal joint)
Ball-and-Socket: (multi-axial) motions in all planes
Pivot joints: rotation around a central axis (e.g., atlanto-axial joint) 16
 Suture

Primary cartilaginous
Bones connected by
hyaline cartilage
Gomphosis SYNARTHROSES
-epiphyses (growth plates)
-synchondroses (Immovable articulations)

Secondary cartilaginous Syndesmosis

Bones connected by
fibrocartilage
- Symphyses
AMPHIARTHROSES
(Slightly movable
articulations)

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 SYNOVIAL JOINTS
(Diarthroses – freely movable articulations)

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Classification
of Synovial
Joints
- shape and
degrees of
freedom-

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 MUSCULAR SYSTEM

THREE TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE:

CARDIAC (involuntary) - muscles of the heart and adjacent portions of the

great vessels. Striated muscle fibres that work as a unit and are resistant to
fatigue.
Supplied by the visceral nervous system (GVEs, GVEp).

SMOOTH (involuntary) -walls of vessels and hollow organs (esophagus,

intestines). Also in skin as arrector pili muscles and inside eye and orbit.
Fibres are capable of slow and sustained contractions
Supplied by the visceral nervous system (GVEs, GVEp).

SKELETAL (voluntary) – Striated fibres that act primarily to produce

movement or resist gravity.
Supplied by the somatic nervous system (GSE).

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 Skeletal Muscle Architecture
- Muscles can be classified according to shape -
origin
aponeurosis

insertion

tendon
Skeletal muscles usually attach to bones by
means of a tendon or aponeurosis (flattened
sheet-like tendon)
-the origin of a muscle is the attachment site
on the more stable bone (this is generally the
more proximal attachment) . The more
mobile (and usually distal) attachment is
- skeletal muscles are classified according to shape - considered the insertion of the muscle. 21
 MUSCLE ACTIONS & LIGAMENTS
-Muscles can only actively shorten. They dynamically contract, thereby bringing (or attempting to bring) the origin and insertion
closer together. They can never push the origin and insertion apart. When a muscle actively shortens, then you have a concentric
contraction and have produced an action.
-The action of a muscle is defined as the motions produced by it’s shortening. If you know the muscle’s origin and insertion (and,
therefore, it’s relationship to the intervening joint) you should be able to deduce it’s action.

A Ligament is, usually, a band or sheet of tough fibrous connective tissue connecting two or more bones, cartilages, or other structures,
or serving as support for fasciae or muscles. Ligaments buckle under compression, they resist movements by going under tension. If
you know the attachment points of a ligament, and therefore its relationship to the intervening joint, then you can determine the
function of that ligament.

- Iliopsoas m. flexes the hip joint.

- Iliofemoral ligament is taut in
extension of the hip joint; it
buckles during hip flexion

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 MUSCLE FUNCTIONS
The function of a muscle is the reason that it is actually stimulated.
- Knowing a muscles origin and insertion will not necessarily allow you to deduce it’s function.
- Muscle functions are often the result of isometric or eccentric contractions

TYPES OF CONTRACTION:
Isometric – stimulated muscle is held so that it can’t shorten (length remains the same - only exerts tension)

Isotonic – If the length changes

Concentric – if the active muscle shortens (ACTION)
Eccentric – if the active muscle is lengthened (NOT the same as active lengthening, which muscles cannot do)

Concentric contraction Isometric contraction Eccentric contraction

(Isotonic) -contract deltoid m. to (Isotonic)
-contract deltoid m. to abduct maintain an abducted arm Deltoid gradually relaxes
arm (deltoid m. fibres remain at a thereby controlling the
(deltoid m. fibres shorten) constant length) adduction of the arm.
(deltoid fibres lengthen)

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