Fire Safety Journal, 13 (1988) 9 - 15
Strength and Deformation Properties of Steel at Elevated Temperatures:
Some Practical Implications
L. TWILT
Technical Centre for Fire Prevention, TNO Institute for Building Materials and Structures, P.O. Box 49,
NL-2600 AA Delft (The Netherlands)
S UMMARY
By way o f illustration, the following
features o f strength and deformation prop-
erties o f steel at elevated temperatures are
dealt with in this paper: high temperature
creep, 'effective' yield stress, thermal elon-
gation and relaxation behaviour. The prac-
tical significance o f these phenomena is
discussed on basis o f their effect on the
behaviour o f structural components ex-
posed to fire.
1. INTRODUCTION
Investigations into the mechanical prop-
erties of materials at elevated temperatures
normally focus on the modelling of strength
and deformation characteristics under certain
loading conditions, accounting for parameters
such as temperature and time. Developed
models are verified [1 - 3], or even established
[4- 6] by pilot tests on simple structural
systems. Comparing the outcomes of the
various models, nevertheless, quite large dis-
crepancies appear to exist. So far, only minor
attention has been paid to the practical
implications of these discrepancies. This is
amazing, since only on the basis of such an
analysis can the practical significance of the
various models be evaluated.
In this paper, some basic features of the
various models for the mechanical properties
of steel are briefly revealed, and the practical
consequences of these are discussed. The
discussion is focused on steel elements, al-
though some attention will be paid to the
effect of the various assumptions made on
the structural behaviour of composite steel-
concrete elements.
0379-7112/88/$3.50
9
2. THE EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE CREEP
At temperatures above about 450 °C, steel
displays creep phenomena. This means that
under these circumstances, the deformation
of a steel member under constant loading
will increase with time, even if the tem-
peratures and stresses remain unchanged.
The process proceeds more rapidly as the
stress and/or the temperature in the member
is increased. The occurrence of creep means
that the deformation and collapse behaviour
of a steel structure in a fire depends strictly
on the heating-up program to which it is
subjected.
The models by which the mechanical
properties of steel at elevated temperatures
are described, can basically be distinguished
in sophisticated models, in which creep is
included explicitly [ 1 , 3 , 7 ] and pragmatic
models in which the strength and deformation
properties are presented by a set of tem-
perature-dependent stress-strain relationships
[2, 4 - 6, 8]. In the latter approach, creep
is included in an implicit way. On the basis
of the first-mentioned models, graphs can
be constructed which give the critical steel
temperature as a function of the load param-
eter ~ [9]. See, as an example, Fig. 1.
The different curves in this Figure are
related to different heating conditions of
the steel. The upper curve corresponds to
a severe fire/non-insulated member; the
lower curve to a non-severe fire/heavily
insulated member. The middle curve stands
for average conditions. It is seen that, com-
pared to the average curve, the m a x i m u m
deviation of the critical temperature due to
creep is approximately 20 °C. If now a situa-
tion is considered in which the steel member
is exposed to standard fire conditions, then
© Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands
10
1.0
E
i_
L_LA I I I I I I ] I q
o,..
L
o 05
q ctP~3 L2
200
--~D-~ steel t e m p e r a t u r e ( ° C )
Fig. 1. The critical steel temperature as a function of the load parameter/3 for various heating conditions [9 ].
TABLE 1
Effect of the rate of heating on the critical steel temperature of fire-exposed small-scale steel frames
0.20; ~eff = 76) [10]
Heating rate Critical temp. (°C)
(°C/min) Experimental
5 535
10 530
50 535
the heating rate of the steel will, under prac-
tical circumstances, vary between 50 °C/min
(non-insulated member) and 5 °C/min {heavily
insulated member). In terms of fire resistance
time, this would mean t hat -- due to c r e e p -
differences are f ound of only a few minutes.
In view of the ot her uncertainties involved,
such an accuracy is meaningless.
Also the results of research described in,
for example, refs. 10 and 11, lead to the
conclusion that the d e f o r m a t i o n behaviour
and thus the collapse t e m per a t ur e of beams
and columns is n o t significantly influenced
by the heating program, subject to the proviso
that the rate of heating varies between the
above-mentioned values and the final steel
t e m per atu r e does n o t exceed, say, 600 °C.
This is illustrated in Table 1 where the critical
temperature of small-scale, unbraced portal
frames subjected to both vertical and hori-
zontal loads under various heating conditions,
is presented [10]. All ot he r parameters,
\\\
J ~ % ~
4{ GO0
(P/Pp2o =
~ ~L H
Theoretical
t 4OOmm t
505 ~H
L_ 400mm_1
such as loading and effective slenderness
of the columns are identical in the various
tests. Also the critical t em perat ure calculated
on the basis of the material law described
in ref. 2 is given. The agreement with the
experimental values is reasonable.
It is concluded therefore, that, at least
under standard fire conditions, it is not
necessary to use a complicated creep model,
but t h a t relatively simple models based on
time-independent stress-strain diagrams will
suffice. This conclusion is i m p o r t a n t from
the practical point of view, since the vast
majority of the fire engineering designs is
still based at present on standard fire ex-
posure.
The above conclusion obviously does n o t
mean that the development of creep models
was in vain. Such models can be used for
special analysis, where an unusual fire ex-
posure is expected. Another application
could be to carry out systematic calculations
 11

in order to trace more generally the condi- truncation is at a strain (=ey) of 0.5%. The
tions (e.g., natural fire exposure, loading, corresponding effective yield stress as func-
heating rate) under which creep effects may tion of the steel temperature is presented
be taken into account implicitly. in Fig. 4. If the elementary plastic theory
may be applied and if the steel temperature
is uniformly distributed, this relationship
3. ' E F F E C T I V E ' Y I E L D S T R E S S O F S T E E L A T is the only material law that is needed to
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES calculate the steel temperature at which
collapse will occur, the so-called critical
The concept of 'effective' yield stress is temperature. In literature, many design
introduced in the ECCS Recommendations assumptions for the relation between effec-
on the Fire Safety of Steel Structures [12, tive yield stress and steel temperature are
13] and elsewhere, cf. e.g., ref. 14, in order presented, which normally differ substan-
to be able to apply elementary plastic theory. tially. One of the reasons for these differ-
Elementary plastic theory renders extremely ences is that the strain for which the effective
simple solutions for the critical temperature yield stress is derived is arbitrary chosen
of members, such as beams, which is advan- and will, therefore, generally be different in
tageous from the practical point of view. the various approaches. This, however, is
The idea of the effective yield stress is, that not the only reason, as is illustrated in Fig. 5
the stress-strain relations are truncated at in which the ECCS proposal is compared
a relatively high strain level, so as to define with data suggested by BSC [8]. It is seen
a yield plateau: see Fig. 2. This is necessary that, also on basis of the same ey values,
since the stress-strain relationships of steel quite large differences exist, especially in the
at elevated temperatures do not show an temperature range of 4 0 0 - 6 0 0 ° C . These
explicit yield traject, b u t strain hardening are due to different shapes of the stress-
will occur all the way in the plastic range. strain relationships according to ECCS and
In a plastic design for room temperature
conditions, and if steel is used which has 250-
no yield traject, normally the 0.2% p r o o f E ~ zo -c
Z~ ~/I ~ effective yield
stress is taken as the 'effective' stress level. c: 200- / f ~, ..200 250
stress levels
I
To use the 0.2% p r o o f stress in a fire engi- /
L~ 300 350
neering design as effective yield stress seems, T400
150,
however, less appropriate, since under fire ~- 450
conditions the deformations are less critical u~ - 500
than at room temperature.
The way that the effective yield stress is 1°t
50
I 5so
600 *c
derived from proposed stress-strain relations, effective yield
strain for
for steel grade Fe 360 in refs. 13 and 14, z,O0 a;e ~ 600 "C
is illustrated in Fig. 3. Note that for a (prac- '
0.1 oL.2 ,
0.3 o.t~ I
0.5 o!6
tical) temperature range of 4 0 0 - 6 0 0 ° C , - - ~ s t r a i n E: in %
Fig. 3. Stress-strain diagrams for Fe 360 according
t~ to ref. 12, showing the effective yield stress levels.
tt}
(D
t_
actual behaviour
tD
-
1,0

pted in Gy__~0
/ ~'el-c°mmendations Oy20
~1 ~ I effective 0.5
V L effective yield-i yield stress G'y.~,
strain ~y J
I
I 500 1000

strain --Im.- temperature ('C)

Fig. 2. Simplification of the stress-strain diagrams Fig. 4. Effective yield stress o f structural steel as a
of steel at elevated temperatures. f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e according to ref. 12.
12

l0 "\ TABLE 2
Oye \\\ BSC:~.y:10% Critical steel temperatures according to various ma-
Oy2o \\~ BSC:~:y:0.5% terial laws as functions of the load level P/Pp2o
j~ 0.5
~x~ECCS (~y:05%) Studies P/Pp2o
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
500 1000
temperature(°C) ECCS
(~y : 0.5%)
360 430 490 540 585 630

Fig. 5. Effective yield stress as function of tempera- BSC 460 515 535 585 625 690
ture: ECCS [12] vs. BSC [8]. (~y = 0.5%)
BSC 515 550 575 615 660 715
(~y = 1.0%)
BSC. It is of interest t o investigate t h e prac-
tical c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the i d e n t i f i e d differ-
ences.
50 50
With this a i m it is n e c e s s a r y , as a first step,
to find o u t w h a t t h e various m a t e r i a l laws tI[mi
~ n]25 ~ t~[m25in]~I ~\\
m e a n in t e r m s o f critical steel t e m p e r a t u r e .
If t h e e l e m e n t a r y plastic t h e o r y m a y be
a p p l i e d a n d if t h e r e is a u n i f o r m t e m p e r a t u r e
o o!s ,b o o!5 ~'o
d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e steel m e m b e r , it can be
s h o w n t h a t t h e following e q u a t i o n h o l d s (a) -- P/P"'° (b) ~'- P/P"'°
[13]: Fig. 6. Fire resistance tf of unproteeted beams as a
function of the load level P/Pp2o, ealeulated on the
P /Pp2o -
oy0 (I) basis of the effeetive yield stresses aeeording to ECCS
0y20 [12] and BSC [8]. (a) BSC: ~y =0.5%. (b) BSC:
where ~y = 1.0%.

P = actual load
In t h e case of p r o t e c t e d steel m e m b e r s ,
Pp:0 = collapse load at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e
it is i m p o r t a n t to w h a t e x t e n t t h e i n s u l a t i o n
ay0 = e f f e c t i v e yield stress at t e m p e r a t u r e 0
t h i c k n e s s , necessary to m e e t a certain fire
oy20 = yield stress at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e .
resistance, is i n f l u e n c e d b y the c h o s e n m a t e -
F o r a given value o f P/Pp2o, t h e critical rial law. T h e n e c e s s a r y i n s u l a t i o n thickness,
steel t e m p e r a t u r e f o l l o w s via Fig. 5 d i r e c t l y d (m), m a y be a p p r o x i m a t e d b y t h e fol-
f r o m the given m a t e r i a l law. T a b l e 2 sum- lowing e q u a t i o n [ 1 3 ] :
marizes critical steel t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r a
t ]1.3
(practical) range of PIPp2o (= 0.7 - 0.2), t a k i n g F ;k (2)
d = 0.0083 e ---140/
i n t o a c c o u n t t h e ECCS and t h e BSC data.
F o r a certain l o a d level, d i f f e r e n c e s o f 100 °C
and m o r e a p p e a r t o b e possible. where
As a n e x t step, t h e e f f e c t in t e r m s o f fire F
resistance m u s t be e x a m i n e d . First c o n s i d e r - section value, m -1
V
u n p r o t e c t e d steel m e m b e r s . F o r a practical
range o f t h e section f a c t o r (F/V = 50 and X = t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e insulation,
200 m -~) t h e fire resistance is calculated m2C/W
as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e ratio P/P,2o, t a k i n g into 0s = critical steel t e m p e r a t u r e , °C
a c c o u n t critical steel t e m p e r a t u r e s a c c o r d i n g t = r e q u i r e d fire resistance, min.
to T a b l e 2. F o r s o m e results, b a s e d o n a Thus, f o r a given s i t u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d
t h e r m a l m o d e l as d e s c r i b e d in refs. 13 a n d 14, b y F/V, X, t, t h e relative e f f e c t o f t w o se-
r e f e r t o Fig. 6. It f o l l o w s f r o m t h e s e Figures lected m a t e r i a l laws can be w r i t t e n as:
t h a t t h e t w o m a t e r i a l laws lead o n l y to m i n o r
d i f f e r e n c e s in fire resistance, i.e., a p p r o x .
5 min. T h e c h o i c e o f ey is n o t v e r y critical. d: \0s~ - - 1 4 0 (3)

3.0
2.0 f
d l : acc. to
"~2 ~y2 =1.0% i" d2: ace. to
1.0
~y2 =0.5%
I I
0 0.5 1.0
P/PP2o
Fig. 7. The ratio dl/d2 b e t w e e n the necessary insula-
tion thickness for p r o t e c t e d steel beams as f u n c t i o n
of the load level P/Pp2o, calculated on basis o f t h e
effective yield stress according to ECCS [12] and
BSC [8].
where
O,l, d l = critical steel temperature and the
necessary insulation thickness ac-
cording to material law 1.
Os2, d2 = critical steel temperature and the
necessary insulation thickness ac-
cording to material law 2.
Note that eqn. (3) is of a very general nature,
i.e., it is independent of the required fire
resistance, section factor, etc.
Taking the ECCS data as reference (= ma-
terial law 1) the relative effect of the BSC
data, when compared to the ECCS sugges-
tions, can easily be calculated. For some
results, refer to Fig. 7. Regarding the BSC
data, it is differentiated between ~y2 = 0.5
and 1.0%. It is seen that the optimal benefit
of the BSC data is achieved for relatively
high load levels (P/Pp = 0.6 to 0.7). For
lower loads, the effect is, again, rather un-
important.
It is concluded that the discrepancies
between the ECCS suggestion for the effec-
tive yield stress and the BSC data are rather
large: up to 50%. However, in terms of fire
resistance or necessary insulation thickness,
these differences are, for practical situations,
not very significant. Of course this conclu-
sion is validated here only for the comparison
between the ECCS and BSC data. In the
scope of a European research project, a more
general study into the effect of the various
material laws at elevated temperatures on
the resistance to fire of steel and composite
steel-concrete building elements [15] is
presently under way. A problem in this
respect is to find objective criteria for the
stress level ~y at which the stress-strain rela-
tion at elevated temperatures should be
13
truncated, in order to find realistic values
ECCS;Eyl,0.5%
^
for the effective yield stress.
BSC ; ~y2=0.5,1.0%
4. T H E R M A L A N D R E S I D U A L S T R E S S E S
Thermal stresses will occur due to a non-
uniform temperature distribution over the
cross section of a member, e.g., a column.
The magnitude of the thermal stresses de-
pends on the thermal elongation and the
relaxation behaviour of the materials in-
volved, in combination with:
- temperature gradient;
-
--rigidity of the materials involved, which
in turn will be a function of the tempera-
ture;
-- restraint conditions of the structural
element under consideration.
For a statically determinated column with
a uniform temperature distribution and a
homogeneous cross section, the thermal
stresses will obviously n o t exist, irrespective
of the thermal elongation of the structural
material involved. This will be the case for
simply supported steel columns exposed to
fire on all sides, since, due to the relatively
high thermal conductivity of steel, a uniform
temperature distribution will occur. However
in, for example, fire-exposed concrete-filled
HSS columns under similar conditions, a
significant non-uniform temperature distribu-
tion must be expected, since concrete is a
bad thermal conductor. Consequently, in the
core of such a column, the temperature is
lower than at the edges, leading to additional
compression stresses at the edges and addi-
tional tensile stresses in the core. Especially
for higher buckling lengths, this may result
in a significant decrease of the buckling load
at elevated temperatures, compared with
the situation in which the effect of the ther-
mal stresses is n o t taken into account. As
an example refer to Fig. 8 [16], where two
buckling curves are presented, calculated
for HSS columns ([~ 3 0 0 X 3 0 0 X 7 m m 3)
filled with reinforced concrete, after 90 min
standard fire exposure. The drawn line is
based on a model, in which the effect of
thermal stresses is accounted for; the dashed
line is calculated with the same model, but
ignoring the effect of the thermal stresses.
It is seen that, in the given situation, the
effect of the thermal stresses for a buckling
14
~ . ~ ~ 2000I ~ - - : t h .... [st . . . . . .
"C ~'~ included
----- : thermat stresses
1000I - ~"~.~. neglected
k carried out in West Germany, Belgium and
(a) (b) - - - m - buckling length (m }
Fig. 8. Illustration of the effect of thermal stresses
in a fire-exposed HSS column, filled with concrete.
(a) Distribution of temperature and thermal stresses
(schematic); (b) buckling curves at elevated tempera-
tures.
length of, say 3 m, is almost negligible. For
higher buckling lengths this effect becomes
dominant. It is w or t h noting in this respect
that some of the presently used calculation
models for composite columns do ignore the
effect o f thermal stresses. Therefore, such
models, which normally have a semi-experi-
mental basis, should be used with e x t r e m e
caution when extrapolating outside the
range o f experimental evidence.
The effect o f residual stresses is quite
similar to th at o f thermal stresses. However,
the circumstances under which t h e y play a
role on the buckling load at elevated tem-
peratures are different. In hot-rolled steel
sections {both I or ~ shape), i m p o r t a n t
residual stresses may occur due to the manu-
facturing process. These residual stresses m a y
affect the structural behaviour of fire ex-
posed steel columns.
Fo r concrete-filled SHS-columns, the situa-
tion is opposite. Where the thermal stresses
are i m p o r t a n t due to the non-uniform tem-
perature distributions, the residual stresses
are, f r o m a practical poi nt of view, not im-
p o r t a n t since after, say, 30 min standard
fire exposure, the t e m per a t ur e in the steel
tube is so high that it does n o t significantly
contribute to the load-bearing capacity of
the column.
How i m p o r t a n t the residual stresses in the
case o f traditional steelwork are, is n o t well
known. In setting up theoretical models,
some workers assume t ha t the residual stresses
vary as a function of the yield stress [17],
others assume that the residual stresses
simply vanish at elevated t em pe r at ur e [18].
In the European R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s [12],
it has been assumed t hat the buckling curves
at elevated temperatures can be described by
equations similar to those derived for r o o m
t e m per atu r e conditions. It is thus implicitly
assumed that the residual stresses are n o t af-
fected by the steel t em perat ure increase.
Compared to the results of recent tests
Denmark, this approach leads to solutions
which are on the safe side. Systematic analy-
ses into the actual influence of residual
stresses, based on experimental evidence,
are n o t available so far.
It follows from the above discussion t h a t
the stress-strain relations at elevated tem-
peratures are not the only material properties
which may affect the mechanical response
of a structural element, when exposed to
fire. Occasionally, residual and/ or thermal
stresses may have a significant effect. The
size of this effect will depend on the material
properties involved (i.e., thermal elongation/
relaxation) and it is also very much influenced
by system properties such as composition
and shape of the cross section and the static
system.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper describes some features o f the
strength and d e f o r m a t i o n properties of steel
at elevated temperatures. It is not aimed
at an in-depth discussion o f the various
p h e n o m e n a involved, but focuses on some
practical implications of different material
laws described in the literature.
In this way it can be shown t hat under
practical circumstances --i.e., fire engineering
design based on standard fire exposure --
high t em perat ure creep may be dealt with
in an implicit way. A practical way to do
this is to incorporate creep effects in tem-
perature-dependent stress-strain relations.
F r o m such relations the so-called 'effective
yield stress' can be derived, the concept of
which is explained. It is shown that rather
large differences in the design assumptions
regarding this quantity do result only in
minor differences in terms of fire resistance
a n d / o r required insulation thickness.
Finally, the possible effects o f thermal
and residual stresses are briefly discussed.
It follows t hat these factors, which sometimes
are overlooked in calculations, may have a
significant influence on the structural behav-
iour of fire-exposed structural steel and
st eel -concret e elements.

The given examples show that, in a rela-
tively simple way, insight into the signifi-
cance of the various proposed material laws
can be obtained by evaluating their practical
implications. It is felt therefore, that such
an analysis is an indispensable addition to
more in-depth studies of the various features
of material behaviour at elevated tempera-
tures.
LIST O F S Y M B O L S
F = fire-exposed surface per unit length of
a steel member
V = volume of the steel member
P = actual load
Pp20 = collapse load at room temperature
d = thickness of insulation material
t = required time of fire duration
O ' y 2 0 ---- effective yield stress at room tem-
perature
yield stress at elevated temperature
0 s = critical steel temperature
load parameter
effective yield strain
thermal conductivity
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