Energy ans Astro revision [191 marks]

Two renewable energy sources are solar and wind.

[1 mark]
1a. Describe the difference between photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels.

Markscheme
solar heating panel converts solar/radiation/photon/light energy into thermal energy AND photovoltaic cell converts
solar/radiation/photon/light energy into electrical energy

Accept internal energy of water.

Examiners report
[N/A]

2 –2 [2 marks]
1b. A solar farm is made up of photovoltaic cells of area 25 000 m . The average solar intensity falling on the farm is 240 W m and
the average power output of the farm is 1.6 MW. Calculate the efficiency of the photovoltaic cells.

Markscheme
power received = 240 × 25000 = «6.0 MW»
1.6
efficiency «= = 0.27 / 27%
6.0

Examiners report
[N/A]
 An alternative generation method is the use of wind turbines.

The following data are available:

Length of turbine blade = 17 m

Density of air = 1.3 kg m –3
Average wind speed = 7.5 m s –1

[3 marks]
1c. Determine the minimum number of turbines needed to generate the same power as the solar farm.

Markscheme
area = π × 17 2 «= 908m2»
1
power = × 908 × 1.3 × 7.53 «= 0.249 MW»
2
1.6
number of turbines «= = 6.4» = 7
0.249

Only allow integer value for MP3.

Award [2 max] for 25 turbines (ECF from incorrect power)

Award [2 max] for 26 turbines (ECF from incorrect radius)

Examiners report
[N/A]

Explain two reasons why the number of turbines required is likely to be greater than your answer to (c)(i). [2 marks]
1d.
 Markscheme
«efficiency is less than 100% as»

not all KE of air can be converted to KE of blades

OR

air needs to retain KE to escape

thermal energy is lost due to friction in turbine/dynamo/generator

Allow velocity of air after turbine is not zero.

Examiners report
[N/A]

Outline, with reference to energy changes, the operation of a pumped storage hydroelectric system. [2 marks]
2a.

Markscheme
PE of water is converted to KE of moving water/turbine to electrical energy «in generator/turbine/dynamo»

idea of pumped storage, ie: pump water back during night/when energy cheap to buy/when energy not in demand/when there is a
surplus of energy

Examiners report
[N/A]

–1
 The hydroelectric system has four 250 MW generators. The specific energy available from the water is 2.7 kJ kg –1. Determine the [2 marks]
2b.
maximum time for which the hydroelectric system can maintain full output when a mass of 1.5 x 1010 kg of water passes through the
turbines.

Markscheme
total energy = «2.7 x 10 3 x 1.5 x 10 10 =» 4.05 x 10 13 «J»
4.0× 1013
time = « » 11.1h or 4.0 x 104 s
4× 2.5× 108

For MP2 the unit must be present.

Examiners report
[N/A]

Not all the stored energy can be retrieved because of energy losses in the system. Explain one such loss. [1 mark]
2c.

Markscheme
friction/resistive losses in walls of pipe/air resistance/turbulence/turbine and generator bearings

thermal energy losses, in electrical resistance of components

water requires kinetic energy to leave system so not all can be transferred

Must see “seat of friction” to award the mark.

Do not allow “friction” bald.

Examiners report
[N/A]

–2
 At the location of the hydroelectric system, an average intensity of 180 W m –2 arrives at the Earth’s surface from the Sun. Solar [2 marks]
2d.
photovoltaic (PV) cells convert this solar energy with an efficiency of 22 %. The solar cells are to be arranged in a square array. Determine
the length of one side of the array that would be required to replace the
hydroelectric system.

Markscheme
1× 109
area required = «= 2.5 x 10 7 m 2»
0.22 × 180

length of one side = √area = 5.0 k«m»

Examiners report
[N/A]

Outline the conditions necessary for simple harmonic motion (SHM) to occur. [2 marks]
3a.

Markscheme
force/acceleration proportional to displacement «from equilibrium position»

and directed towards equilibrium position/point

OR
and directed in opposite direction to the displacement from equilibrium position/point

Do not award marks for stating the defining equation for SHM.
Award [1 max] for a ω–= 2x with a and x defined.

Examiners report
[N/A]
 A buoy, floating in a vertical tube, generates energy from the movement of water waves on the surface of the sea. When the buoy
moves up, a cable turns a generator on the sea bed producing power. When the buoy moves down, the cable is wound in by
a mechanism in the generator and no power is produced.

The motion of the buoy can be assumed to be simple harmonic.

A wave of amplitude 4.3 m and wavelength 35 m, moves with a speed of 3.4 m s –1. Calculate the maximum vertical speed of the [3 marks]
3b.
buoy.

Markscheme
3.4
frequency of buoy movement = or 0.097 «Hz»
35

OR
35
time period of buoy = 3.4
or 10.3 «s» or 10 «s»
2πx0 2× π× 4.3
v=« or 2πfx0» = 10.3
or 2 × π × 0.097 × 4.3
T

2.6 «m s–1»

Examiners report
[N/A]
3c. Sketch a graph to show the variation with time of the generator output power. Label the time axis with a suitable scale. [2 marks]

Markscheme
peaks separated by gaps equal to width of each pulse «shape of peak roughly as shown»

one cycle taking 10 s shown on graph

Judge by eye.
Do not accept cos2 or sin2 graph
At least two peaks needed.
Do not allow square waves or asymmetrical shapes.
Allow ECF from (b)(i) value of period if calculated.

Examiners report
[N/A]

Water can be used in other ways to generate energy.

3d. Outline, with reference to energy changes, the operation of a pumped storage hydroelectric system. [2 marks]
 Markscheme
PE of water is converted to KE of moving water/turbine to electrical energy «in generator/turbine/dynamo»

idea of pumped storage, ie: pump water back during night/when energy cheap to buy/when energy not in demand/when there is a
surplus of energy

Examiners report
[N/A]

3e. The water in a particular pumped storage hydroelectric system falls a vertical distance of 270 m to the turbines. Calculate the [2 marks]
speed at which water arrives at the turbines. Assume that there is no energy loss in the system.

Markscheme
specific energy available = «gh =» 9.81 x 270 «= 2650J kg –1»

OR

mgh = 1 mv2
2

OR

v2 = 2gh

v = 73 «ms–1»

Do not allow 72 as round from 72.8

Examiners report
[N/A]
 The hydroelectric system has four 250 MW generators. Determine the maximum time for which the hydroelectric system can [2 marks]
3f.
maintain full output when a mass of 1.5 x 1010 kg of water passes through the turbines.

Markscheme
total energy = «mgh = 1.5 x 1010 x 9.81 x 270=» 4.0 x 1013 «J»

OR

total energy = « 1 mv2 = 1

× 1.5 × 1010× (answer (c)(ii))2 =» 4.0 x 10 13 «J»
2 2
4.0× 1013
time = « » 11.1h or 4.0 x 104 s
4× 2.5× 108

Use of 3.97 x 10 13 «J» gives 11 h.

For MP2 the unit must be present.

Examiners report
[N/A]

3g. Not all the stored energy can be retrieved because of energy losses in the system. Explain two such losses. [2 marks]

Markscheme
friction/resistive losses in pipe/fluid resistance/turbulence/turbine or generator «bearings»
OR
sound energy losses from turbine/water in pipe

thermal energy/heat losses in wires/components

water requires kinetic energy to leave system so not all can be transferred

Must see “seat of friction” to award the mark.

Do not allow “friction” bald.

 Examiners report
[N/A]

4a. State two characteristics of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. [2 marks]

Markscheme
black body radiation / 3 K

highly isotropic / uniform throughout

OR
filling the universe

Do not accept: CMB provides evidence for the Big Bang model.

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

4b. The present temperature of the CMB is 2.8 K. Calculate the peak wavelength of the CMB. [1 mark]

Markscheme
2.9× 10−3
«λ = » ≈ 1.0 «mm»
2.8

[1 mark]

Examiners report
[N/A]
4c. Describe how the CMB provides evidence for the Hot Big Bang model of the universe. [2 marks]

Markscheme
the universe is expanding and so the wavelength of the CMB in the past was much smaller

indicating a very high temperature at the beginning

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

A spectral line in the light received from a distant galaxy shows a redshift of z = 0.16.

–1 –1 [2 marks]
4d. Determine the distance to this galaxy using a value for the Hubble constant of H0 = 68 km s Mpc .

Markscheme
«z =
v
c ⇒» v = 0.16 × 3 × 10 5 «= 0.48 × 105 km s−1 »
v 0.48 × 105
«d = ⇒v= 68
= 706» ≈ 710 «Mpc»
H0

Award [1 max] for POT error.

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Estimate the size of the Universe relative to its present size when the light was emitted by the galaxy in (c). [2 marks]
4e.

Markscheme
R R
z= R0
−1 ⇒ R0
= 1.16
R0
R
= 0.86

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

Theta 1 Orionis is a main sequence star. The following data for Theta 1 Orionis are available.

Luminosity L = 4 × 10 5 L⊙
R = 13R
Radius
⊙
b = 4 × 10 –11 b
Apparent brightness
⊙

where L
⊙, R
⊙ and b
⊙ are the luminosity, radius and apparent brightness of the Sun.

State what is meant by a main sequence star. [1 mark]

5a.

Markscheme
stars fusing hydrogen «into helium»

[1 mark]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Show that the mass of Theta 1 Orionis is about 40 solar masses. [1 mark]
5b.

Markscheme
1
M = M ⊙ (4 × 105) 3.5 = 39.86M ⊙

«M ≈ 40M ⊙ »

Accept reverse working.

[1 mark]

Examiners report
[N/A]

The surface temperature of the Sun is about 6000 K. Estimate the surface temperature of Theta 1 Orionis. [2 marks]
5c.

Markscheme
T4
4 × 105 = 132 ×
60004

T ≈ 42 000 «K»

Accept use of substituted values into

L = σ4
πR2T 4.
Award [2] for a bald correct answer.

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Determine the distance of Theta 1 Orionis in AU. [2 marks]
5d.

Markscheme
1AU2
4 × 10− 11 = 4 × 105 × d2

d = 1 × 108 «AU»

L
Accept use of correct values into b = .
4πd2

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

Discuss how Theta 1 Orionis does not collapse under its own weight. [2 marks]
5e.

Markscheme
the gravitation «pressure» is balanced by radiation «pressure»

that is created by the production of energy due to fusion in the core / OWTTE

Award [1 max] if pressure and force is inappropriately mixed in the answer.

Award [1 max] for unexplained "hydrostatic equilibrium is reached".

[2 marks]
 Examiners report
[N/A]

5f. The Sun and Theta 1 Orionis will eventually leave the main sequence. Compare and contrast the different stages in the evolution of[3 marks]
the two stars.

Markscheme
the Sun will evolve to become a red giant whereas Theta 1 Orionis will become a red super giant

the Sun will explode as a planetary nebula whereas Theta 1 Orionis will explode as a supernova

the Sun will end up as a white dwarf whereas Theta 1 Orionis as a neutron star/black hole

[3 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 The diagram shows the structure of a typical main sequence star.

6a. State the most abundant element in the core and the most abundant element in the outer layer. [2 marks]

Markscheme
core: helium

outer layer: hydrogen

Accept no other elements.

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 The Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram shows two main sequence stars X and Y and includes lines of constant radius. R is the [3 marks]
6b.
radius of the Sun.

density of star X
Using the mass–luminosity relation and information from the graph, determine the ratio .
density of star Y

Markscheme
1

ratio of masses is ( )
104 3.5
= 102
10−3

3
ratio of volumes is ( )
10
= 106
10−1

102
so ratio of densities is = 10− 4
106

Allow ECF for MP3 from earlier MPs

[3 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Star X is likely to evolve into a neutron star.

On the HR diagram in (b), draw a line to indicate the evolutionary path of star X. [1 mark]
6c.

Markscheme
line to the right of X, possibly undulating, very roughly horizontal

Ignore any paths beyond this as the star disappears from diagram.

[1 mark]

Examiners report
[N/A]

Outline why the neutron star that is left after the supernova stage does not collapse under the action of gravitation. [1 mark]
6d.

Markscheme
gravitation is balanced by a pressure/force due to neutrons/neutron degeneracy/pauli exclusion principle

Do not accept electron degeneracy.

[1 mark]
 Examiners report
[N/A]

The radius of a typical neutron star is 20 km and its surface temperature is 10 6 K. Determine the luminosity of this neutron star. [2 marks]
6e.

Markscheme
L = σAT 4 = 5.67 x 10 –8 x 4 π x (2.0 x 10 4)2 x (106)4

L = 3 x 10 26 «W»
OR
L = 2.85 x 10 26 «W»

Allow ECF for [1 max] if

πr 2 used (gives 7 x 1026 «W »)
Allow ECF for a POT error in MP1.

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

6f. Determine the region of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the neutron star in (c)(iii) emits most of its energy. [2 marks]
 Markscheme
2.9× 10−3
λ= = 2.9 × 10−9 «m»
106

this is an X-ray wavelength

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

Describe what is meant by the Big Bang model of the universe. [2 marks]
7a.

Markscheme
theory in which all space/time/energy/matter were created at a point/singularity

at enormous temperature

with the volume of the universe increasing ever since or the universe expanding

OWTTE

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 State two features of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation which are consistent with the Big Bang model. [2 marks]
7b.

Markscheme
CMB has a black-body spectrum

wavelength stretched by expansion

is highly isotropic/homogenous

but has minor anisotropies predicted by BB model

T «= 2.7 K» is close to predicted value

For MP4 and MP5 idea of “prediction” is needed

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

A particular emission line in a distant galaxy shows a redshift z = 0.084.

The Hubble constant is H0 = 68 km s –1 Mpc–1.

7c. Determine the distance to the galaxy in Mpc. [2 marks]

 Markscheme
v
c = z ⇒ v = 0.084 × 3 × 105 = 2.52 × 104 «km s–1»
v 2.52 × 104
d= = 68
= 370.6 ≈ 370 «Mpc»
H0

Allow ECF from MP1 to MP2.

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

Describe how type Ia supernovae could be used to measure the distance to this galaxy. [3 marks]
7d.

Markscheme
type Ia have a known luminosity/are standard candles

measure apparent brightness

determine distance from d = √

L
4πb

Must refer to type Ia. Do not accept other methods (parallax, Cepheids)

[3 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Outline, with reference to star formation, what is meant by the Jeans criterion. [2 marks]
8a.

Markscheme
a star will form out of a cloud of gas

when the gravitational potential energy of the cloud exceeds the total random kinetic energy of the particles of the cloud
OR
the mass exceeds a critical mass for a particular radius and temperature

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

In the proton–proton cycle, four hydrogen nuclei fuse to produce one nucleus of helium releasing a total of 4.3 × 10 –12 J of energy. [2 marks]
8b.
The Sun will spend 10 10 years on the main sequence. It may be assumed that during this time the Sun maintains a constant luminosity of 3.8
× 10 26 W.

Show that the total mass of hydrogen that is converted into helium while the Sun is on the main sequence is 2 × 10 29 kg.

Markscheme
1010× 365×24× 3600× 3.8× 1026
number of reactions is = 2.79 × 1055
4.3× 10−12

H mass used is 2.79 × 1055 × 4 × 1.67 × 10−27 = 1.86 × 1029 «kg»

[2 marks]
 Examiners report
[N/A]

Massive stars that have left the main sequence have a layered structure with different chemical elements in different layers. [2 marks]
8c.
Discuss this structure by reference to the nuclear reactions taking place in such stars.

Markscheme
nuclear fusion reactions produce ever heavier elements depending on the mass of the star / temperature of the core

the elements / nuclear reactions arrange themselves in layers, heaviest at the core lightest in the envelope

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 The graph shows the variation with time t of the cosmic scale factor R in the flat model of the universe in which dark energy is [1 mark]
9a.
ignored.

On the axes above draw a graph to show the variation of R with time, when dark energy is present.

Markscheme
curve starting earlier, touching at now and going off to infinity

[1 mark]

Examiners report
[N/A]

–26 –3
 Recent evidence from the Planck observatory suggests that the matter density of the universe is ρm = 0.32 ρc, where ρc ≈ 10 –26 kg m –3
is the critical density.

The density of the observable matter in the universe is only 0.05 ρc. Suggest how the remaining 0.27 ρc is accounted for. [1 mark]
9b.

Markscheme
there is dark matter that does not radiate / cannot be observed

Unexplained mention of "dark matter" is not sufficient for the mark.

[1 mark]

Examiners report
[N/A]

The density of dark energy is ρΛ c2 where ρΛ = ρc – ρm. Calculate the amount of dark energy in 1 m 3 of space. [2 marks]
9c.

Markscheme
ρΛ = 0.68ρc = 0.68 × 10−26 «kgm−3 »

energy in 1 m 3 is therefore 0.68 × 10 −26 × 9 × 10 16 ≈ 6 × 10 −10 «J»

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Derive, using the concept of the cosmological origin of redshift, the relation [2 marks]
10a.
1
T∝ R

between the temperature T of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation and the cosmic scale factor R.

Markscheme
the cosmological origin of redshift implies that the wavelength is proportional to the scale factor: λ ∝ R
1
combining this with Wien’s law λ ∝
T

OR
hc
use of kT ∝
λ

«gives the result»

k
Evidence of correct algebra is needed as relationship T = is given.
R

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

The present temperature of the CMB is 2.8 K. This radiation was emitted when the universe was smaller by a factor of 1100. [2 marks]
10b.
Estimate the temperature of the CMB at the time of its emission.
 Markscheme
use of T ∝ 1
R

= 2.8 x 1100 x 3080 ≈ 3100 «K»

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

State how the anisotropies in the CMB distribution are interpreted. [1 mark]
10c.

Markscheme
CMB anisotropies are related to fluctuations in density which are the cause for the formation of structures/nebulae/stars/galaxies

OWTTE

[1 mark]

Examiners report
[N/A]

Describe what is meant by dark matter. [2 marks]

11a.
 Markscheme
dark matter is invisible/cannot be seen directly
OR
does not interact with EM force/radiate light/reflect light

interacts with gravitational force

OR
accounts for galactic rotation curves
OR
accounts for some of the “missing” mass/energy of galaxies/the universe

OWTTE

[6 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]

The distribution of mass in a spherical system is such that the density ρ varies with distance r from the centre as [1 mark]
11b.
k
ρ=
r2

where k is a constant.

Show that the rotation curve of this system is described by

v = constant.

Markscheme
«from data booklet formula» v = √ substitute to get v = √ 4
4πGρ πGk
3
r 3

Substitution of ρ must be seen.

[1 mark]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Curve A shows the actual rotation curve of a nearby galaxy. Curve B shows the predicted rotation curve based on the visible stars [2 marks]
11c.
in the galaxy.

Explain how curve A provides evidence for dark matter.

Markscheme
curve A shows that the outer regions of the galaxy are rotating faster than predicted

this suggests that there is more mass in the outer regions that is not visible
OR
more mass in the form of dark matter

OWTTE

[2 marks]

Examiners report
[N/A]
 The following data are available for a natural gas power station that has a high efficiency.

Rate of consumption of natural gas = 14.6 kg s–1

Specific energy of natural gas = 55.5 MJ kg –1
Efficiency of electrical power generation = 59.0 %
Mass of CO2 generated per kg of natural gas = 2.75 kg
One year = 3.16 × 107 s

Calculate, with a suitable unit, the electrical power output of the power station. [1 mark]
12a.

Markscheme
«55.5 × 14.6 × 0.59» = 4.78 × 108 W

A unit is required for this mark. Allow use of J s–1.

No sf penalty.

Examiners report
[N/A]

Calculate the mass of CO2 generated in a year assuming the power station operates continuously. [1 mark]
12b.

Markscheme
«14.6 × 2.75 × 3.16 × 107 =» 1.27 × 10 9 «kg»

If no unit assume kg

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Explain, using your answer to (b), why countries are being asked to decrease their dependence on fossil fuels. [2 marks]
12c.

Markscheme
CO2 linked to greenhouse gas OR greenhouse effect

leading to «enhanced» global warming

OR
climate change
OR
other reasonable climatic effect

Examiners report
[N/A]

Describe, in terms of energy transfers, how thermal energy of the burning gas becomes electrical energy. [2 marks]
12d.

Markscheme
Internal energy of steam/particles OR KE of steam/particles

«transfers to» KE of turbine

«transfers to» KE of generator or dynamo «producing electrical energy»

Do not award mark for first and last energies as they are given in the question.

Do not allow “gas” for “steam”

Do not accept reference to moving OR turning generator

 Examiners report
[N/A]

Alpha Centauri A and B is a binary star system in the main sequence.

State what is meant by a binary star system. [1 mark]

13a.

Markscheme
two stars orbiting about a common centre «of mass/gravity»
Do not accept two stars orbiting each other.

Examiners report
[N/A]

bA apparent brightness of Alpha Centauri A [4 marks]

13b. (i) Calculate bB
= apparent brightness of Alpha Centauri B
.

(ii) The luminosity of the Sun is 3.8 × 10 26 W. Calculate the radius of Alpha Centauri A.
 Markscheme
i
stars are roughly at the same distance from Earth
OR
d is constant for binaries
LA 1.5
LB
= 0.5
= 3.0

Award [2] for a bald correct answer.

ii

r=√ 1.5× 3.8× 1026

5.67 × 10−8×4π× 58004

= 8.4 × 108 «m»

Award [2] for a bald correct answer.

Examiners report
[N/A]

Show, without calculation, that the radius of Alpha Centauri B is smaller than the radius of Alpha Centauri A. [2 marks]
13c.

Markscheme
«A=
L
» B and A have similar temperatures
σT 4

so areas are in ratio of luminosities

«so B radius is less than A»

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Alpha Centauri A is in equilibrium at constant radius. Explain how this equilibrium is maintained. [3 marks]
13d.

Markscheme
radiation pressure/force outwards

gravitational pressure/force inwards

forces/pressures balance

Examiners report
[N/A]

A standard Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram is shown. [2 marks]

13e.

Using the HR diagram, draw the present position of Alpha Centauri A and its expected evolutionary path.
Markscheme
Alpha Centauri A within allowable region

some indication of star moving right and up then left and down ending in white dwarf region as indicated

Examiners report
[N/A]
 The first graph shows the variation of apparent brightness of a Cepheid star with time.

The second graph shows the average luminosity with period for Cepheid stars.

26 [3 marks]
14a. Determine the distance from Earth to the Cepheid star in parsecs. The luminosity of the Sun is 3.8 × 10 W. The average
apparent brightness of the Cepheid star is 1.1 × 10 –9 W m–2.

Markscheme
from first graph period=5.7 «days» ±0.3 «days»
L
from second graph = 2300 «±200»
LSUN

d = «√
2500× 3.8× 1026
= 8.3 × 1018m» =250 «pc»
4π×1.1× 10−9

Accept answer from interval 240 to 270 pc If unit omitted, assume pc.
Watch for ECF from mp1

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Explain why Cephids are used as standard candles. [2 marks]
14b.

Markscheme
Cepheids have a definite/known «average» luminosity

which is determined from «measurement of» period

OR
determined from period-luminosity graph

Cepheids can be used to estimate the distance of galaxies

Do not accept brightness for luminosity.

Examiners report
[N/A]

The peak wavelength of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation spectrum corresponds to a temperature of 2.76 K.

Identify two other characteristics of the CMB radiation that are predicted from the Hot Big Bang theory. [2 marks]
15a.

Markscheme
isotropic/appears the same from every viewing angle

homogenous/same throughout the universe

black-body radiation

Examiners report
[N/A]
 A spectral line in the hydrogen spectrum measured in the laboratory today has a wavelength of 21cm. Since the emission of the [1 mark]
15b.
CMB radiation, the cosmic scale factor has changed by a factor of 1100. Determine the wavelength of the 21cm spectral line in the CMB
radiation when it is observed today.

Markscheme
23 100 «cm»
OR
231 «m»

Examiners report
[N/A]

Describe how some white dwarf stars become type Ia supernovae. [3 marks]
16a.

Markscheme
white dwarf must have companion «in binary system»

white dwarf gains material «from companion»

when dwarf reaches and exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit/1.4 MSUN supernova can occur

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Hence, explain why a type Ia supernova is used as a standard candle. [2 marks]
16b.

Markscheme
a standard candle represents a «stellar object» with a known luminosity

this supernova occurs at an certain/known/exact mass so luminosity/energy released is also known

OWTTE

MP1 for indication of known luminosity, MP2 for any relevant supportive argument.

Examiners report
[N/A]

Explain how the observation of type Ia supernovae led to the hypothesis that dark energy exists. [3 marks]
16c.

Markscheme
distant supernovae were dimmer/further away than expected

hence universe is accelerating

dark energy «is a hypothesis to» explain this

 Examiners report
[N/A]

The graph shows the observed orbital velocities of stars in a galaxy against their distance from the centre of the galaxy. The core of the
galaxy has a radius of 4.0 kpc.

Calculate the rotation velocity of stars 4.0 kpc from the centre of the galaxy. The average density of the galaxy is 5.0 × 10 –21 kg m –[2 marks]
17a.
3.

Markscheme
v = «√ = √ 43 × π × 6.67 × 10− 11 × 5.0 × 10− 21 × (4000 × 3.1 × 1016)
4πGρ
3
r»

v is about 146000 «m s–1» or 146 «km s–1»

Accept answer in the range of 140000 to 160000 «m s –1».

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Explain why the rotation curves are evidence for the existence of dark matter. [2 marks]
17b.

Markscheme
rotation curves/velocity of stars were expected to decrease outside core of galaxy

flat curve suggests existence of matter/mass that cannot be seen – now called dark matter

Examiners report
[N/A]

The Sun has a radius of 7.0×10 8m and is a distance 1.5×10 11 m from Earth. The surface temperature of the Sun is 5800 K.

Show that the intensity of the solar radiation incident on the upper atmosphere of the Earth is approximately 1400Wm−2 . [2 marks]
18a.

Markscheme
σAT 4
I=
4πd2
2
5.67 × 10−8× (7.0× 108) × 58004
= 2
(1.5× 1011)

2
5.67 × 10−8×4π× (7.0× 108) × 58004
OR 2
4π× (1.5× 1011)

I=1397 Wm−2

In this question we must see 4SF to award MP3.

Allow candidate to add radius of Sun to Earth–Sun distance. Yields 1386 Wm –2.

Examiners report
[N/A]

−2
 −2 [2 marks]
18b. The albedo of the atmosphere is 0.30. Deduce that the average intensity over the entire surface of the Earth is 245Wm .

Markscheme
«transmitted intensity =» 0.70 × 1400 «= 980Wm–2» ​
πR2
× 980Wm− 2
4πR2

245Wm–2

Examiners report
[N/A]

Estimate the average surface temperature of the Earth. [2 marks]

18c.

Markscheme
5.67 × 10–8 × T 4 = 245

T = 256K

Examiners report
[N/A]

Describe one key characteristic of a nebula. [1 mark]

19a.

Markscheme
made of dust and/or gas
formed from supernova
can form new stars
some radiate light from enclosed stars
some absorb light from distant stars
 Examiners report
[N/A]

−3
19b. Beta Centauri is a star in the southern skies with a parallax angle of 8.32×10 arc-seconds. Calculate, in metres, the distance of [2 marks]
this star from Earth.

Markscheme
1
d= OR 120pc
8.32 × 10−3
120×3.26×9.46×1015=3.70×1018m

Answer must be in metres, watch for POT.

Examiners report
[N/A]

Outline why astrophysicists use non-SI units for the measurement of astronomical distance. [1 mark]
19c.

Markscheme
distances are so big/large OR to avoid using large powers of 10 OR they are based on convenient definitions

Examiners report
[N/A]

Aldebaran is a red giant star with a peak wavelength of 740 nm and a mass of 1.7 solar masses.

Show that the surface temperature of Aldebaran is about 4000 K. [2 marks]

20a.
 Markscheme
2.9× 10−3
T=
740× 10−9
3900 K
Answer must be to at least 2SF.

Examiners report
[N/A]

The radius of Aldebaran is 3.1×10 10 m. Determine the luminosity of Aldebaran. [2 marks]

20b.

Markscheme
L=5.67×10-8×4π×(3.1×1010)2×40004

=1.8×1029W

Accept use of 3900 4 to give 1.6×10 29W.

Examiners report
[N/A]

Outline how the light from Aldebaran gives evidence of its composition. [2 marks]
20c.

Markscheme
absorption lines in spectra

are specific to particular elements

Accept “emission lines in spectra”.

Examiners report
[N/A]
20d. Identify the element that is fusing in Aldebaran’s core at this stage in its evolution. [1 mark]

Markscheme
helium

Examiners report
[N/A]

Predict the likely future evolution of Aldebaran. [3 marks]

20e.

Markscheme
helium flash
expansion of outer shell OR surface temperature increase
planetary nebula phase
only the core remains
if below 1.4M S/Chandrasekhar limit then white dwarf

Examiners report
[N/A]

Light reaching Earth from quasar 3C273 has z=0.16. [4 marks]

21a.
(i) Outline what is meant by z.

(ii) Calculate the ratio of the size of the universe when the light was emitted by the quasar to the present size of the universe.

(iii) Calculate the distance of 3C273 from Earth using Ho=68kms−1 Mpc−1 .
 Markscheme
Δλ
(i)z = where Δλ is the redshift of a wavelength and λ0 is the wavelength measured at rest on Earth OR it is a measure of
λo
cosmological redshift

Do not allow just “redshift”.

R
(ii) ≪ z =
Ro
− 1, RRo = 1
z+ 1
≫ so RRo =≪ 1
1.16
≫= 0.86
Do not accept answer 1.16.

(iii) v=zc=0.16×3×108=4.8×104kms-1
4.8× 104
d= v
Ho
= 68
= 706Mpc OR 2.2×1025m

Examiners report
[N/A]

Explain how cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation provides support for the Hot Big Bang model. [2 marks]
21b.

Markscheme
as the universe expanded it cooled/wavelength increased

the temperature dropped to the present approximate 3K OR wavelength stretched to the present approximate 1mm

Value is required for MP2.

Examiners report
[N/A]
 This question is in two parts. Part 1 is about energy resources. Part 2 is about thermal physics.

Part 1 Energy resources

Electricity can be generated using nuclear fission, by burning fossil fuels or using pump storage hydroelectric schemes.

Outline which of the three generation methods above is renewable. [2 marks]

22a.

Markscheme
pump storage;

renewable as can be replaced in short time scale / storage water can be pumped back up to fall again / source will not run out; } (do not
accept “because water is used”)

Examiners report
[N/A]

In a nuclear reactor, outline the purpose of the

heat exchanger. [1 mark]

22b.

Markscheme
(allows coolant to) transfer thermal/heat (energy) from the reactor/(nuclear) reaction to the water/steam;

Must see reference to transfer – “cooling reactor/heating up water” is not enough.

Examiners report
[N/A]
 moderator. [2 marks]
22c.

Markscheme
reduces speed/kinetic energy of neutrons; (do not allow “particles”)

improves likelihood of fission occurring/U-235 capturing neutrons;

Examiners report
[N/A]

Fission of one uranium-235 nucleus releases 203 MeV.

Determine the maximum amount of energy, in joule, released by 1.0 g of uranium-235 as a result of fission. [3 marks]
22d.

Markscheme
(203 MeV is equivalent to) 3.25 × 10− 11 (J);

6.02 × 1023 nuclei have a mass of 235 (g) / evaluates number of nuclei;
(2.56 × 1021 nuclei produce) 8.32 × 1010 (J) / multiplies two previous answers;

Award [3] for bald correct answer.

Award [1] for correct conversion from eV to J even if rest is incorrect.

Examiners report
[N/A]
 Describe the main principles of the operation of a pump storage hydroelectric scheme. [3 marks]
22e.

Markscheme
water flows between water masses/reservoirs at different levels;

flow of water drives turbine/generator to produce electricity;

at off peak times the electricity produced is used to raise water from lower to higher reservoir;

Examiners report
[N/A]

A hydroelectric scheme has an efficiency of 92%. Water stored in the dam falls through an average height of 57 m. Determine the [3 marks]
22f.
rate of flow of water, in kg s− 1, required to generate an electrical output power of 4.5 MW.

Markscheme
mgh
use of t
;

m 4.5× 106
t
= 0.92 × 9.81 × 57
; (t is usually ignored, assume 1 s if not seen)
3
8.7 × 10 (kg s− 1);
Award [3] for a bald correct answer.

Examiners report
[N/A]
 This question is in two parts. Part 1 is about energy resources. Part 2 is about thermal physics.

Part 2 Thermal physics

Distinguish between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat. [2 marks]
22g.

Markscheme
specific heat capacity is/refers to energy required to change the temperature (without changing state);

specific latent heat is energy required to change the state/phase without changing the temperature;

If definitions are given they must include salient points given above.

Examiners report
The essential difference between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat is that the former refers to a change of temperature
without changing state; whereas the latter refers to a change of state without changing temperature. Most candidates just wrote
definitions which they had learnt by rote – and omitted the constant temperature for a substance changing state.
 A mass of 0.22 kg of lead spheres is placed in a well-insulated tube. The tube is turned upside down several times so that the spheres
fall through an average height of 0.45 m each time the tube is turned. The temperature of the spheres is found to increase by 8 °C.

Discuss the changes to the energy of the lead spheres. [2 marks]

22h.

Markscheme
gravitational potential energy → kinetic energy;

kinetic energy → internal energy/thermal energy/heat energy;

Do not allow heat.

Two separate energy changes must be explicit.

Examiners report
This is a question specifically about energy changes so candidates are expected to use accurate language and spell out the changes
one by one. Common mistakes were omitting the “gravitational” in gravitational potential energy; referring to “heat” rather than thermal
energy; and saying that gravitational potential energy changed to thermal and kinetic energy as if it were a single process.

−
 The specific heat capacity of lead is 1.3 × 102 J kg− 1K− 1. Deduce the number of times that the tube is turned upside down. [4 marks]
22i.

Markscheme
use of mcΔT ;

use of n × mgΔh;

equating (cΔT = ngΔh);

236 or 240;

or

use of ΔU = mcΔT ;

(0.22 × 1.3 × 102 × 8 =) 229 (J);

n × mgΔh = 229 (J);
229
n= 0.22 × 9.81 × 0.45
= 236 or 240; } (allow if answer is rounded up to give complete number of inversions)

Award [4] for a bald correct answer.

Examiners report
This was generally well done. There were four marks and the question asks the candidates to “deduce” so it is essential that the
argument is transparent. The examiner cannot be expected to search through a mass of numbers in order to carry forward an error.
 This question is about the Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram and the Sun.

A Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram is shown.

The following data are given for the Sun and a star Vega. [3 marks]
23a.
Luminosity of the Sun = 3.85 × 1026 W
Luminosity of Vega = 1.54 × 1028 W
Surface temperature of the Sun = 5800 K
Surface temperature of Vega = 9600 K
Determine, using the data, the radius of Vega in terms of solar radii.

Markscheme
=(
LV σAV[TV]4 σ[rV]2[TV]4
=) ;
LS σAS[TS]4 σ[rS]2[TS]4

1.54 × 1028 [rV]2 96004

= × ;
3.85 × 1026 [rS]2 58004

rV = (√ 1.54 × 1026 ×
28 58004
rS =) 2.3 rS;
3.85 × 10 96004

Do not award third marking point if radius of the Sun is lost.

Examiners report
candidates notably addressed absolute magnitude without referring to apparent magnitude as the question asked. Well-prepared
candidates (both HL and SL) only had a problem with the part related to the use of a non-linear temperature scale. Average prepared
candidates displayed difficulty in the experimental measurement of the temperature of the distant star and also with details of nuclear
processes occurring in the Sun during transformation to a red giant.
 Outline how observers on Earth can determine experimentally the temperature of a distant star. [3 marks]
23b.

Markscheme
obtain the spectrum of the star;

measure the position of the wavelength corresponding to maximum intensity;

use Wien’s law (to determine temperature); } (allow quotation of Wien’s equation if symbols defined)

Award [3 max] for referring to identification of temperature via different ionizations of different elements.

Examiners report
candidates notably addressed absolute magnitude without referring to apparent magnitude as the question asked. Well-prepared
candidates (both HL and SL) only had a problem with the part related to the use of a non-linear temperature scale. Average prepared
candidates displayed difficulty in the experimental measurement of the temperature of the distant star and also with details of nuclear
processes occurring in the Sun during transformation to a red giant.

This question is about the Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram and the Sun.

A Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram is shown.

The Sun will remain on the main sequence of the HR diagram for about another five billion years. After this time it will become a red
giant, following the evolutionary path shown in the diagram.
 Outline why the Sun will leave the main sequence, and describe the nuclear processes that occur as it becomes a red giant. [4 marks]
24a.

Markscheme
insufficient hydrogen (to continue fusion);

star collapses (under gravity);

temperature increases;

initiated fusion of helium, (energy released causes) rapid expansion of star;

Examiners report
Well-prepared candidates (both HL and SL) only had a problem with the part related to the use of a non-linear temperature scale.
Average prepared candidates displayed difficulty in the experimental measurement of the temperature of the distant star and also with
details of nuclear processes occurring in the Sun during transformation to a red giant.
 Describe two physical changes that the Sun will undergo as it enters the red giant stage. [2 marks]
24b.

Markscheme
rapid expansion / increase of size;

decrease in temperature / cooler stars appear red in colour / increase of luminosity;

Examiners report
Well-prepared candidates (both HL and SL) only had a problem with the part related to the use of a non-linear temperature scale.
Average prepared candidates displayed difficulty in the experimental measurement of the temperature of the distant star and also with
details of nuclear processes occurring in the Sun during transformation to a red giant.

This question is about cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation.

A line in the hydrogen spectrum is measured in the laboratory to have a wavelength of 656 nm. The same line from a distant galaxy is
measured to have a wavelength of 730 nm. Assuming that the Hubble constant H0 is 69.3 km s− 1Mpc− 1,

calculate the distance of this galaxy from Earth. [2 marks]

25a.

Markscheme
( Δλλ = ⇒) v = ( 3.00 ×656
8
10 × 74
v
c =) 3.38 × 107 (ms− 1);

v 3.38 × 104
d= = 69.3
= 488 Mpc;
H0
 Examiners report
Well done by candidates, weaker candidates did not write their ideas clearly enough in (a)(ii). Part (b) was also quite well done, but only
better candidates mentioned uncertainty in measurement of distances to galaxies.

25b. discuss why different measurements of the Hubble constant do not agree with each other. [1 mark]

Markscheme
measurements from distant galaxies have large uncertainties;

Examiners report
Well done by candidates, weaker candidates did not write their ideas clearly enough in (a)(ii). Part (b) was also quite well done, but only
better candidates mentioned uncertainty in measurement of distances to galaxies.

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