Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
GORDON W. RUSSELL
Department of Psychology & Neuroscience
University of Lethbridge
Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
1
2008
3
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Preface
Chapter 2. Personality 36
Introduction 36
Traits 36
Measurement of Personality 38
Personality Theories 42
Biological Influences 60
Summary 71
Suggested Readings 71
xi
xii Contents
Summary 101
Suggested Reading 102
References 233
Author Index 261
Subject Index 271
Aggression in the Sports World
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1
Social Influences
DEFINITIONS
3
4 Aggression in the Sports World
Behavior directed toward an other individual that is carried out with the proximate
(immediate) intent to cause harm. In addition, the perpetrator must believe that the
behavior will harm the target and that the target is motivated to avoid the behavior.
Bushman and Anderson, 2001a
Central to these definitions is the concept of intent. Was the bone-crushing tackle
and resulting fracture inflicted with a view to injuring the opposition or simply an
unfortunate by-product of overly enthusiastic play? For the most part, questions of
intent are left to game officials in deciding whether or not to award a penalty.
A second element in most definitions of aggression stipulates that an individual
not place himself in harm’s way. Stepping through the ropes into the boxing ring
or joining your teammates in the backfield at a football game may result in con-
siderable pain, even injury. However, by recent definitions you are not a victim of
aggression. You freely chose to step into the ring or join your teammates in the
football game. Athletes are governed in their conduct by the official “Rules of
Play.” Aggression is deemed to have occurred when certain rules are broken, for
example, a late hit in football, a rabbit punch in boxing. These acts of “illegal”
or “unsanctioned” aggression are assessed and penalized by contest officials, for
example, referees. The penalties awarded to athletes may involve a loss of points, a
loss of yards or in the case of football (soccer), being shown a yellow card or even
the dreaded red card. Otherwise, the mayhem of the ring and gridiron falls short
of meeting conventional definitions of aggression (see Zillmann, 1979, p. 35).
both hostile and instrumental aggression just as different motives can underlie
the same aggressive behavior. To compound matters further, “Many aggressive
behaviors are mixtures of hostile and instrumental aggression.” Put succinctly,
“Many individual acts of aggression usually serve more than one motive and
have both an anger and a planning component” (Anderson & Bushman, 2002;
Bushman & Anderson, 2001a, p. 276).
INTRODUCTION
Throughout history, sports have developed within the context of nation states. The
geography, wealth, and the political ambitions of governments have seen particular
sports flourish while others struggle for recognition. In a sense, sports may come to
represent something of a people’s national character. In the opening section of the
chapter, we see that a nation’s choice of sports for Olympic participation reflects
its history of military engagements. Indeed, a nation’s success or failure in wars is
shown to be related to intranation violence (e.g., homicides). In addition, looking
at regional cultural differences in the short term we see major North–South differ-
ences in the United States. These differences in aggressive behavior are identified
and traced over time by means of major league baseball records.
A second section examines the important topic of sport heroes. The trends
of exemplar choices are tracked from the late 19th century to the present along
with evidence of the most popular categories. Villains and others unworthy of
sport hero status are identified along with commentary on the disservice they
provide to youngsters who strive to emulate their behaviors and values.
Next, obedience and the effects of third party influence on aggression are
examined. This is followed by the topic of escalation effects in which trivial
exchanges between people can occasionally lead to full-blown violence. Further
discussion considers the stress experienced by game officials in addition to the
nature and sources of abuse they face while officiating. A following section
provides coverage of studies that address the issue of whether male athletes are
over represented in sexual assault cases. Next, the topic of racism was examined
mainly in the context of European football. The concluding section highlights
the role of provocation in instigating aggression by means of verbal exchanges,
chants, and nonverbal communication.
International Influence
Sports have played a prominent role in the history of nations. From earliest
times, individual nations have shown a preference for some sports/games over
others. For some, combatant sports have taken precedence; for other nations,
nonviolent competition seems more attuned to their national character. Just as
nations differ in their preference for combatant sports so too do they differ his-
torically in the amount of inter- and intranation conflict experienced. A question
6 Aggression in the Sports World
Regional Influences
Regional cultural influences can foster values, attitudes, and behaviors that
differ from the dominant culture or other regions within a nation. The origins
of these subcultures often lie well back in the past, frequently being intro-
duced to the region by immigrant populations. Such would appear to be the
case with a persistent culture of honor that has historically flourished in the
southern states of the United States. A cluster of behavioral norms charac-
teristic of a culture of honor dictate the response appropriate to even trivial
provocations. A man must establish and maintain a reputation for toughness.
Aptly described by Cohen, Nisbett, Bowdle, and Schwarz (1996), “If one had
been crossed, trifled with, or affronted, retribution had to follow as a warning
to the community” (p. 946). To do otherwise is tantamount to admitting one
is unmanly and vulnerable.
A series of experiments demonstrate some of the effects on southerners of an
insult (Cohen et al., 1996; see also, Nisbett & Cohen, 1996). Each participant
(a.k.a. “subject”) in these experiments was bumped by a confederate who then
called him an “asshole” as he walked along a hallway. Northerners were largely
able to brush off the treatment. By contrast, southerners (1) saw their masculine
reputation being threatened, (2) were more upset, (3) experienced an increase in
testosterone, (4) were primed for aggression, and (5) were more likely to engage
in aggression. Seemingly, the affront was seen by southerners as damaging to
their reputation of toughness. From a southerner’s perspective, the insult calls
for retaliation to restore the harm done to his reputation.
While the culture of honor is clearly seen to be operative in a social science
laboratory, does its influence extend beyond the campus? Timmerman (2007)
finds evidence of interpersonal aggression in major league baseball that squares
nicely with a culture of honor interpretation. Throughout the 20th century offi-
cial game records have used a batter hit by pitch (BHP) designation to indicate
when an errant pitch, be it accidental or intentional, strikes the man in the bat-
ters box. An indeterminate but large percentage of such throws are undoubtedly
made with the intent to hurt or intimidate the batter and thus meet the definition
of aggression (see discussions on this matter, Reifman, Larrick, & Fein, 1991;
Timmerman, 2002).
The time span for the study was 1963 to 1992 and involved 17,070 BHP
events. The major variables of interest to Timmerman were the background of
the pitcher, that is, a southerner or a northerner, and the race of the batter, that
8 Aggression in the Sports World
is, White, Black, or Latino. The probability of the batter being hit was examined
in three high-risk situations:
Each of these situations then reflects badly on the pitcher and/or can be seen
as a provocation.
The results showed the importance of all three variables in predicting the
likelihood of his being hit, that is, origin of the pitcher, race of batter and the
“situation” as the batter steps up to the plate. A fairly consistent pattern was
found across the three situations. White pitchers born in the South strongly tar-
geted White batters. Pitchers who were northerners instead showed a tendency
to target Blacks. The reasons for this pattern remained somewhat speculative
at this point. Among several plausible explanations, Timmerman (2007) sug-
gests that White southern pitchers make an extra effort to suppress behaviors
that might appear racist. In addition, southern pitchers may fear retaliation,
particularly by Black batters. Retaliation typically involves a batter charging
the mound to attack the pitcher physically. Regarding northern pitchers, Whites
have been shown to aggress strongly against Blacks following an insult (Rogers
& Prentice-Dunn, 1981).
INFLUENCE OF EXEMPLARS
Virtually every major field of human endeavor has produced individuals who
are widely admired because of their outstanding achievement(s). Their admir-
ers may wish only to bask in the glory of their exploits or others, to find inspi-
ration as they aspire to similar success in their own lives. The sports world in
particular has shown itself able to create instant heroes and/or keep alive the
exploits of athletes from bygone days. A peculiarly American phenomenon,
Halls of Fame have grown at an astonishing rate since World War II in serving
as quasi-religious shrines to honor past achievements (Lewis & Redmond,
1974).
To be sure, there is a wealth of testimonial evidence and anecdotal accounts
of deceased and living heroes having inspired individuals to strive for success
in their sport. The capacity of exemplars in all categories to exert influence has
empirical support insofar as substantial numbers of their admirers appear to
make efforts to be the kind of person he/she represents (Russell, 1993, p. 145).
What is the process by which a sport hero influences others? Clearly, heroes
generally are far removed from their admirers and make little or no effort to teach
anything about their skills, values, or lifestyle. Whatever is being learned results
from observing the behavior of the exemplar. The observer additionally takes note
of the consequences for the exemplar of his or her behavior, that is, whether the
Social Influences 9
Attempts to Inspire
With some regularity, athletes who attain star status make concerted efforts to
inspire others to strive for similar success in their own lives. Lockwood, Jordan,
and Kunda (2002) describe these gifted individuals as positive role models.
Is there reason to suggest that their inspirational messages are equally well
received by all members of their following? In addition to projecting their own
accomplishments and highlighting achievements to which others can strive, the
(positive) role model points the way to success.
Lockwood et al. identify an equally inspirational individual as a negative role
model, that is, one who has experienced a calamity. For example, the star athlete
now confined to a wheelchair after crashing while driving intoxicated appears
in a series of public service announcements. His purpose is to illustrate nega-
tive outcomes and to highlight prevention strategies. Accordingly, the positive role
model emphasizes promotion as their dominant regulatory focus. The negative role
model emphasizes strategies employed by individuals pursuing prevention goals.
The relative effectiveness in motivating a following lies with there being a
match between the type of role model (positive/negative) and the strategies high-
lighted in the message (promotion/prevention). Thus, those followers with promo-
tion goals are most likely to be motivated by positive role models emphasizing
promotion strategies. In contrast, those followers with prevention goals are most
10 Aggression in the Sports World
Trends
It would be instructive before proceeding to consider the approximate size of a
sports hero’s category and how it came into being. Research on exemplars has
a long history dating back to the latter half of the 19th century (e.g., Darrah,
1898). Those early studies typically involved a single, poll-type question asked
of large samples of schoolchildren. The question was worded differently from
study to study and often restricted the children’s choice of favorite or most
admired to well-known public figures who were in some sense famous. More
recently, we know that the not so famous, for example, friends, relatives, also
serve as personal heroes in large numbers (Russell, 1993, pp. 131–133).
However, trends in fashion and heroes change. Before the 1930s, the catego-
ries of U.S. national historical characters, religious figures, and representatives
of the “serious arts” were prominent categories. However, they were gradually
supplanted by sports stars, and personalities from radio, the silver screen, and
more recently, television. The traditional categories essentially fell victim to the
emergence of a powerful and pervasive communications technology.
Averill (1950) replicated the 1898 study of Darrah a half century later. Virtually
nonexistent at the turn of the century, a sports category emerged gaining 23% of
the nominations by mid-century. Despite restrictive wording of the central ques-
tion, that is, “Can you tell me the name of a famous person you want to be like?”
13% of a U.S. national sample of 2,258, 7–11-year-old children nominated an
athlete (Foundation for Child Development, 1977).
A more recent estimate of sport category usage is provided by Vescio,
Crosswhite, and Wilde (2004). Australian schoolgirls (N = 357) were asked
to identify “a famous person you admire or think of as your hero/role model.”
Their choices showed an overwhelming preference for female role models
(86.6%). Choices from a sports category showed only a slightly lower (73.3%)
preference for female athletes. Even more telling is the size of the sports
domain. Only 8.4% of the girls chose their exemplar from sports, a figure only
slightly above (5.7%) that of Canadian high schoolgirls (Russell & McClusky,
1985). In comparison, easily the largest source of role models was a combined
friends and relations category (62.1%), virtually identical to that reported in the
Canadian study.
A study conducted in Medicine Hat, Alberta, involving virtually all grade
10 students (N = 280) in the public school system provides a further estimate
(Russell, 1993; Russell & McClusky, 1985). The key question asked of the
students was “to indicate the person, past or present, from any walk of life,
whom you admire the most.” This open-ended, nondirective wording produced
four identifiable exemplar categories. As shown in Table 1.1, sports represent
the smallest overall category. Moreover, it is a category from which girls draw
their exemplars in very small numbers. Rather, they overwhelmingly chose their
most admired individual from the more socially oriented, friends and relations
Social Influences 11
Sports (%) Entertainment (%) Friends (%) Relations (%) Miscellaneous (%)
Note. From The social psychology of sport by G. Russell, 1993, New York: Springer-Verlag. By permission of
Springer-Verlag.
6
Males
Females
5
Strength of efforts to emulate
Figure 1.1 Strength of Efforts Made to Emulate Exemplars. (From The social psychology
of sport by G. Russell, 1993, New York: Springer-Verlag. By permission of Springer-Verlag.)
12 Aggression in the Sports World
to emulate their choices in the sports and relatives categories. In contrast, girls
made greater efforts to emulate their nominations from a friends’ category.
While the figure suggests that boys make considerable efforts to be like their
sports exemplars, we know little of the success of those efforts. Moreover, it
remains to be determined which specific attribute(s) of the exemplar they were
striving to emulate.
It is a naive view that assumes people use the same basis or criteria in selecting
their most admired person. Equally unwarranted is an assumption that the attri-
butes underlying their choices are generally worthy and serve the best interests
of society. From the foregoing section, it appears that youngsters make consider-
able efforts to emulate their choices and likely have some success in this regard.
However, for some, their “success” may be that of learning attitudes, behavior,
and values detrimental to their own social and moral development and that may
possibly prove harmful to others in society at a later date.
Smith (1983) interviewed young hockey players asking them to name their
favorite National Hockey League (NHL) player and to estimate how aggressive
he was in league play. The result was a positive relationship, that is, young skat-
ers whose NHL hero was aggressive were also aggressive in their own junior
level play. Confirming evidence is provided by Bredemeier, Weiss, Shields, and
Cooper (1986) inasmuch as boys selecting heroes from high-contact sports were
also more aggressive in their own sports play. The findings also allude to a very
important point, that is, the boys were also more aggressive in other nonsports
settings.
Smith (1978) also reported that youngsters admitted learning dirty tactics
from their NHL heroes through media sources, primarily newspapers and televi-
sion. Among players who learned illegal tactics, 60% had incorporated them
into their own play during the season. Other investigators generally confirm
these results. Mungo and Feltz (1985) asked teenage football players to identify
any illegal tactics they could have learned from college football players and
those in the professional ranks. In addition, they were asked if they used those
tactics in their own games. The youngsters had detailed knowledge of spear-
ing, face masking, late hits, and stomping on a downed player as he is getting
back on his feet. Their analyses yielded a strong relationship between learning
aggressive tactics and the teenager’s use of those tactics in his own league play.
Similar findings were reported in a study of Pee Wee hockey players (11–13
years) using the method of participant observation (Nash & Learner, 1981). The
youngsters learned details of four basic aggressive roles they might assume as
they advance through the ranks, that is, “enforcers,” “stickers,” “temperamen-
tals,” and “passives.” In addition, they learned, “the time, place, and the form
for aggression” (p. 242).
Finally, aggression learned from the sports hero may in the course of events
influence the admirer’s standards of morality. Bredemeier et al. (1986) report
Social Influences 13
that the greater the involvement of boys’ favorite athletes in contact sports, the
less mature is their development of moral reasoning. Indeed, youngsters who
actively participate in high-contact sports similarly attain lower levels of moral
maturity.
Villains or negative reference models may unknowingly have a positive influ-
ence on some members of the public. While the focus of research on exemplars
has thus far been on heroes and role models, Melnick and Jackson (1998) argue
for the inclusion of villains and their influence in future investigations.
New Zealand students (N = 510) with a mean age of 14.1 served as partici-
pants in an exploratory study. Students were asked to identify the one person
whom they most disliked from among “public figures, real or fictional, living or
deceased . . . from all walks of life” (p. 543). Athletes were third (11.4%) among
10 occupational categories of “most disliked villains” (p. 548), placing well back
of politicians (42.1%) and criminals (18.6%).
The nature of negative influence arising from students’ relationships with
their selected villain is seen in their responses to two critical questions. First,
50.9% saw their villain as a negative role model and in regard to their villain’s
ideas, beliefs, and values, rejected them outright. Fully 19.5% related to their
villain in other ways while a further 29.6% did not express an opinion.
A complementary question sought to assess the extent to which villains
directly influence the behaviors of those who have chosen them as a personal
villain. As regards their behavior vis-á-vis that of their villain, 47% make an
effort to behave opposite to that exhibited by their villain. While 18.2% of
students denied that their villain affected their behavior, the remaining 34.8%
declined to answer.
What we see in these results is that substantial numbers of youngsters can
readily identify someone who represents a personal villain from whom they derive
influence. For some, their influence may lead to a positive outcome when the villain
is used as an “avoidance” role model. The end result may be an outright rejection
of what the villain stands for or, individuals resolve to tailor their behavior along
lines quite the opposite to those of the villain. As Melnick and Jackson note, the
apparent success and extent of villains’ influence is somewhat surprising given
that they are far removed, public personages without the power to sanction.
precedes an announcement of the time and place of the next game. “The first
5000 fans into the Coliseum get a free Heavyweight Heroes of Hastings poster.
You get a chance to meet these tough-as-nails legends for autographs, plus some
more great surprises!” (“Heavyweight Heroes,” 2005).
The WHL has over the years produced numerous skilled players of the high-
est caliber who have additionally served their communities with distinction.
Why then are “tough-as-nails” players often with mediocre skating skills placed
on a pedestal to be hailed as heroes before a hockey public? I think I know the
answer. Is it because interpersonal violence on the ice has become entrenched as
a core value in the sport, a value at least equal in importance to playing skills?
OBEDIENCE
Coaches in some contact sports routinely assign one or more players to act as
protectors of physically weaker teammates and/or remain on standby to attack
an opposing player when called upon. The order to attack may be given openly
or may be mutually understood to be operative when certain situations arise
16 Aggression in the Sports World
in the course of a contest. For example, a common tactic has been to have the
hockey enforcer attack the opposition’s “star” player. The inevitable fight usu-
ally results in both players being sent to the penalty box. The enforcer’s team
gains a clear advantage in having their opponent’s star benched for a time. They
lose little with the loss of their less skillful enforcer. However, what if for some
reason the enforcer is reluctant to attack the star player. Could he refuse to obey
the coach’s order, explicit or otherwise? The pressures are such that it would be
an exceedingly rare event when an athlete disobeys such an order. Taking such
a step can and has ended careers.
Let me ask this question. If you were keeping the accounts for your boss
and he told you to record the cost of his weekend getaway to a nearby ski
resort as a business expense when it was nothing of the sort, would you? From
what we know of the obedience process, the likelihood is that most people
would fudge the books even though they recognize that it is dishonest, possibly
a criminal act.
A series of highly controversial lab investigations makes clear the fact that
people generally are far more obedient than most of us would suspect or care to
believe (Milgram, 1974). The basic design of these experiments involved partici-
pants who were assigned the role of “teacher” in what was described as a study
of the influence of punishment on learning. The participant’s task was to admin-
ister electric shock to another participant each time he made an error. The “other
participant” was a confederate of the experimenter, an actor who feigned his
responses to the shock. Obviously, shock was never delivered to the confederate
during the course of the experiment. Shock was ostensibly delivered by means
of 30 switches representing increasing levels of voltage ranging from “Slight
Shock” to “Danger: Severe Shock” to “XXX.” It was evident to the participant
that as the trials progressed and with enough errors a point would be reached
where he would be administering exceedingly painful and dangerous jolts.
Following his script, the confederate made a large number of mistakes and
with each error was given a slightly stronger shock. The participant faced an
agonizing predicament. Should he continue to punish the distressed learner with
stronger and stronger shocks or should he refuse to proceed and leave the experi-
ment? At the same time, any hesitation on his part was met with the experimenter
insisting he continue. Hesitation on later trials was met with direct orders to
continue, delivered in an authoritative manner.
An astounding 65% of all participants continued to shock the learner at all
levels of intensity culminating in 450 V. This, despite having received assurances
they were free to leave the experiment at any time and would be paid for their
participation. The further point to note is that the experimenter had little of the
trappings of authority and lacked power to punish in anyway the participant for
breaking off the experiment. Even so, across a series of systematic replications,
the rates of obedience remained relatively constant across different populations
and in nonuniversity, nonscientific settings.
Any doubts regarding the external validity of Milgram’s research findings
were largely put to rest as the original experiments were subsequently con-
ducted off the Yale campus and in different populations. The rates of obedience
Social Influences 17
remained relatively constant across other nations, for example, Australia and
West Germany, and different ages, for example, children and adults. Even relo-
cating the lab in a dilapidated office building in a nearby community saw obedi-
ence rates remain virtually unchanged.
Many in the scientific community and beyond were surprised by the Milgram
findings. At the same time, the program drew its critics, some on the basis of
methodology and others on ethical grounds. The most incisive response of the
day to Milgram’s work was that of Diane Baumrind’s (1964) article appearing in
the American Psychologist. Well worth a reread from time to time.
The writer used to end his lectures on the Milgram investigations by asking
for a show of hands of how many could see themselves disobeying the experi-
menter. Virtually every hand shot up. Notwithstanding the possibility that my
social psychology course attracted only the virtuous, it seems a majority of us
are deceiving ourselves. Would you really refuse to doctor the accounts for your
ski-loving boss? Before you answer, let me remind you that your boss has con-
siderably more authority than Milgram’s powerless experimenter. Your boss can
sack you!
The Milgram (1974) investigations may be enjoying a second life since being
shut down in the 1970s. Those researchers developing virtual reality systems have
chosen the Milgram paradigm in investigating “human responses to interaction
with a virtual character in the type of extreme social situation” originally created
for Milgram participants. The computer-generated system “delivers a life-sized
virtual reality within which a person can experience events and interact with
representations of objects and virtual humans” (Slater et al., 2006, p. 2).
The researchers were faithful in following the procedures of the original
experiments. In this instance, the participants were required to administer
a word association test to a female virtual human. When she responded with
an incorrect answer, the participant was instructed to deliver an electric shock
of increasing voltage with each error. Throughout, participants are described
as knowing with certainty that neither the virtual woman nor the shocks were
real. Yet, they responded to the situation as though it was real. Moreover, their
responses in interacting with a visible learner were clearly demonstrated at all
levels, that is, subjective, behaviorally and physiologically. Despite the knowl-
edge that the virtual events and shock were unreal they behaved as though they
were real.
A comparison was made between two experimental conditions, that is, the
female learner was in full view of the participant or was hidden from view. In
the latter case, she was seen briefly at the outset but thereafter her responses
were communicated through text without mention of her distress and protests.
All participants in the “hidden” learner condition administered the maximum, 20
“XXX” shocks. With the female visible and protesting, 17 of the 23 participants
administered the maximum whereas 3 gave 19, with one person delivering 18, 16,
and 9 shocks each, before withdrawing from the experiment. The overall pattern
of participant responses to orders from an authority figure is described as “simi-
lar” to those exhibited in Milgram’s original studies. It would be a mistake to lose
sight of the extraordinary influence of obedience on interpersonal aggression.
18 Aggression in the Sports World
Direct Influence
We see in many situations that onlookers actively make an effort to encourage
more intense aggression on the part of those embroiled in a physical alterca-
tion. For example, when a fight breaks out in the stands at a combatant sport, a
small percentage of the males in attendance (agitators, 7%) indicate they would
applaud and otherwise encourage the fighters. In the same situation, a larger
number of sport fans (peacemakers, 20%) would be seen making efforts to
mediate or restore order (Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001, p. 145). The
question is whether the effects of active bystanders to promote or discourage
aggression generally meet with success.
First, consider a further experiment in Milgram’s (1964) program of obedi-
ence research. In this study, two additional (confederate) teachers assisted the
true participant in determining the shock level to be delivered to the learner for
incorrect answers. In addition, participants were not required to increase the
level of shock directed to the learner following errors. Instead, the shock value
set was the lowest recommended by the three teachers. However, throughout
the trials of the experiment, the two confederates consistently urged the partici-
pant to set higher levels of shock for incorrect responses. This constant urging
strongly influenced the participants. The levels of shock delivered to the learner
dramatically increased across trials. At the same time, participants assigned to
a control condition that lacked the presence of the two confederate teachers set
mild levels of shock that remained fairly constant across all trials.
The above results were replicated by Borden and Taylor (1973). Participants
competing in the Taylor reaction-time task (Taylor, 1967) sharply increased their
shock settings to their opponent in response to the urging of a small audience
(for more on this measure see Chapter 7, pp. 208–209). This was in contrast to
subjects in a control condition lacking an audience. To answer an earlier ques-
tion, this and other research strongly suggests that the efforts of onlookers to
egg on or incite others to violence can be successful. It is interesting to note that
the increase in shock level continued well after the observers were withdrawn.
The audience was also successful in urging participants to reduce shock levels.
However, in a disappointing turn of events, shock settings immediately rose to
their former levels with the departure of the audience.
The question of whether spectators attending a combatant sport can be influ-
enced by agitators to join in a fight can be answered in the affirmative. Some
in a crowd will in all likelihood join in the fray egged on by those wanting to
foment trouble. Others in the sports crowd actively urging restraint and a cessa-
tion of brawling in the stands will similarly enjoy a measure of success, at least
for as long as they remain on site.
Indirect Influence
The answers above lead us to a further question. While bystanders can verbally
discourage or incite individuals to aggress, can passive bystanders wearing their
Social Influences 19
heart on their sleeves do likewise? Borden (1975) again sought answers to these
questions in the context of the competitive reaction-time task.
Participants in the first part of the experiment competed against a fictitious
opponent in the presence of a person with strong pacifist ideals, that is, the
observer wore a coat displaying a large peace symbol and was introduced as a
member of a peace group. For other participants, the silent observer wore a coat
displaying a karate club crest. This person was introduced as an instructor in
the martial arts. The different attire and instructions were intended to signal to
the subjects that their observer deplored aggression or approved of aggression.
The pacifist stayed to observe the participant for a number of trials as did the
karate instructor. They then left the participant alone in the lab as he continued
to compete in further trials.
Borden’s analysis yielded results in keeping with his predictions. Aggressors
will be influenced by passive observers in ways consistent with the values attrib-
uted to them, that is, pacifist observers will facilitate an inhibition of aggression
whereas onlookers seen to favor aggression will facilitate aggressive behavior.
This is essentially what occurred. Subjects were more aggressive in the presence
of the karate instructor than after his departure. A corresponding increase in
aggression followed the departure of the pacifist. Seemingly, the mere prospect
of approval or disapproval from passive spectators is sufficient to modify or
enhance our aggression.
We see in the above sections evidence that strangers in our immediate cir-
cumstances can overtly incite us to aggress or to reduce our aggression. Also
effective in this regard are passive, uninvolved bystanders who have only to
display, or otherwise make known, their approval or disapproval to elicit behav-
ior from others that is consistent with their attitude. Whether by design or hap-
penstance, organizers of the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany staged the basic
elements of a passive, third party attempt to reduce aggression in the opening
ceremony at all matches. Against the background of extraordinary security
measures and heightened international tensions, spectators were treated to the
sight of little children accompanying the players onto the pitch hand in hand.
Wearing their football uniforms and dwarfed by their footballer partners, the
children presented an absolutely charming and delightful picture to the inter-
national audience. I would like to think that a number of disturbances did not
occur as a result.
ESCALATION EFFECTS
In the wake of a bench clearing brawl or a major disturbance among the specta-
tors, one of the first questions asked by sport or police officials is “how did it get
started?” From film footage or testimony by bystanders and/or those involved, it
often becomes apparent that the brawl had exceedingly trivial beginnings. That
is, things just got out of hand. It started with an exchange of unpleasantries, a
stare, or perhaps a gesture. Next a shove. Then someone throws a punch and, as
they say, “all hell broke loose after that.”
20 Aggression in the Sports World
Many violent outbursts of this sort have their origins in exceedingly trivial
provocations, for example, a petty annoyance, a rude comment. The initial prov-
ocation draws a somewhat stronger response that in turn draws a further stronger
retaliation. The result is an upward spiral of increasingly aggressive exchanges,
a pattern described as escalation effects (Goldstein, Davis, & Herman, 1975).
Time and time again we see full-blown battles that in retrospect started from
just small, inconsequential beginnings. The level of eventual hostilities is out
of all proportion to the size of the original provocation. It is not to be expected
that the person who spoke rudely to us will “learn his lesson” and walk away
from the somewhat more insulting remark we made in response. More likely, he
will respond in kind probably with greater force, perhaps, even a shove. It is this
sequence of minor, provocative exchanges that frequently precedes a scuffle or
a full-scale brawl.
Once the series of increasingly aggressive exchanges are underway, the
process seems to take on a life of its own. The antagonists appear unable to
break away from the upward spiraling aggression. Various proposals to halt the
progression of exchanges have been tested with disappointing results (Goldstein,
Davis, Kernis, & Cohn, 1981). Interrupting those involved, videotaping the par-
ticipants, even drawing their attention to their aggression—none was success-
ful in stopping the hostilities. Providing the combatants with the expectation
of a later face-to-face meeting with the other party was equally unsuccessful.
However, the installation of a “hot line” with which participants can summon
the experimenter was successful in reducing the overall intensity of aggression.
However, escalation effects continued as before. In a curious twist, although the
hot line was available to the participants, none actually used it! The mere pres-
ence of the hot line was sufficient to reduce the levels of hostile exchanges.
TARGETS OF AGGRESSION
Game Officials
Sweden (November, 2001): A soccer goalie was sentenced to 2 years in prison
for attacking a referee during a September 22 game. Claudio Rubino Jerez was
also ordered to pay $8,000 in damages to Ariel Scaparro, a court official said.
Scaparro was hospitalized with a broken cheekbone and right foot. Scaparro
was attacked twice during a fifth-division game in a Stockholm suburb after he
had ejected Rubino Jerez because of a severe foul. All 12 fifth-division games
in Stockholm were canceled a week after the attack. Rubino Jerez’ team, Tensta
United, was expelled from the league.
Australia (June, 2001): A 19-year-old female rugby referee is chased into the
dressing room by angry parents following a junior (13 and under) rugby match
in Brisbane. Two police squad cars were called to break up the angry crowd.
From the writer’s perspective, one of the least attractive roles in sports is
that of a game official, for example, umpire and referee. Seldom thanked and
generally inadequately compensated, they are frequently targeted for abuse
from several quarters, that is, fans, players, coaching staffs, and media. Beyond
Social Influences 21
having to cope with disgruntled elements, other sources of stress can further add
to their burden.
The expectations that people hold for others are a pervasive influence in the
sports world. As regards aggression, it is apparent that sports officials, for exam-
ple, referees, umpires, make highly subjective decisions regarding the actions of
competitors, specifically, whether aggression has actually occurred and if so, the
seriousness of the act. Expectancy effects can be seen to operate when football
(soccer) referees make judgments regarding the seriousness of aggressive play
during matches (Jones, Paull, & Erskine, 2002). Participants were 38 associa-
tion football referees who were randomly assigned to either an experimental or
control group. Both groups reviewed the same 50 film clips of “incidents” from
matches that invariably involved a team wearing blue uniforms. In addition to
a common set of instructions, the experimental group was told that the blue
team had a reputation for foul and aggressive play. Having established expec-
tations in the minds of referees in the experimental group, all referees were
then asked to indicate the action they would take if they were refereeing the
matches. Although the number of decisions taken was equal, the experimental
group of referees showed more yellow and red cards to players on the blue team.
Thus, even highly trained and experienced game officials demonstrate an expec-
tancy bias in their judgments of aggression (for more on expectancy effects see
Chapter 7, pp. 204–205).
Job stress is a legitimate matter for concern in sports as in many other fields.
Excessive stress can have harmful effects on one’s mental well-being in addition
to job performance. Moreover, it is sometimes the reason why officials leave
a sport for pursuits that are more peaceful. Before focussing on the specific
sources of aggression and threat facing game officials, it is instructive to con-
sider first the broader range of events that cause stress.
There are a number of dimensions or factors underlying the stress experi-
enced by baseball umpires. Using an analytic technique called factor analysis,
Rainey (1995) identified four major sources of stress. In the order of importance,
the first dimension was labeled Fear of failure. This major factor reflects an
intense concern with the adequacy of their decision making at critical points in
a game or during a contest that is dominated by aggression. A second dimension
was identified as Fear of physical harm. Here umpires experience fears of being
assaulted or threatened by players, coaching staff, or spectators. Time pressures
represent yet another source of stress for umpires. Often their umpiring assign-
ments conflict with their full time occupation, as do their familial responsibili-
ties. The fourth major dimension has been identified as Interpersonal conflict.
In this instance, stress results from those occasions when they are required to
deal with volatile, hostile coaches and players who often are unfamiliar with the
rules. It should be noted that roughly the same dimensions underlie the sources
of stress experienced by referees in football, soccer, and volleyball.
The further question to be asked is how severe is the stress experienced
by onfield officials? Clearly, it does not begin to approach levels experienced
by test pilots, air traffic controllers, and brain surgeons. Rather it has been
described as “mild to moderate” (Rainey, 1994b, p. 257). Individuals officiating
22 Aggression in the Sports World
Folkesson et al., 2002) and 11% for baseball and softball umpires (Rainey,
1994a); overall, a percentage figure in the low to mid-teens.
Slightly less than half of the assaults were described as minor, for example,
pushing and spitting. A slight majority was more serious, for example, pushing,
choking, and throwing missiles at the referee. Those responsible for the attacks
were most frequently players (41%). The researchers were also able to identify
parents, a category that represented 20% of the assaults followed by coaches
(19%) and fans (15%).
On occasion, a game official incurs the wrath of all three sources of abuse,
that is, players, coaches/trainers, sport fans. The Lethbridge Hurricanes of the
WHL had just been eliminated by the Regina Pats in a clean sweep of their
playoff series. With little more than a minute remaining, referee Brent Reiber
called an elbowing penalty on the Lethbridge center. At this point coach Bryan
Maxwell threw a water bottle hitting Reiber drawing a bench penalty. On the
next (power) play, Regina scored the winning goal. The hometown fans were
enraged, littering the ice and screaming at Reiber. A drink was thrown in his face
as he left the ice. Assistant coach Williams made verbal threats as did Hurricane
center Byron Ritchie who is quoted as saying, “I’m going to (bleeping) kill you,
Reiber!” The drama continued under the bleachers as game officials were sur-
rounded by the Lethbridge coaching staff and players. The WHL vice-president
is quoted as saying that coach Maxwell made contact with the referee and one
of the linesmen. In denying the accusation, Maxwell countered, “I expressed a
couple of feelings. That was about it” (Vanstone, 1996). Suspensions and court
appearances followed (Yoos, 1996).
The governing bodies of virtually all sports organizations properly regard even
minor assaults on a game official as an extremely serious offense. Players laying
hands on umpires, referees, linesmen, and so forth, seemingly undermine the
authority and integrity of the sport itself. A push, or a punch, can end a career.
Punishment is typically swift and severe. Consider the long running, landmark case
of a Dutch footballer. Dutch authorities have at long last lifted a life ban on defender
Hendrik Wentink, who played so long ago that his club DWS Amsterdam is now
defunct. Wentink was barred from football for life for striking a referee. Now,
51 years later, he has been granted a pardon. Wentink is said to be overjoyed by his
reprieve. His only regret is that he cannot resume his playing career—he is 72.
“Old-timer Wins,” 1993
Women as Targets
There is a general belief that females are much less likely than males to be
singled out for physical aggression. Furthermore, when such attacks occur, they
will be less severe than those launched against men. Clear support for these
general beliefs was found in a study by Taylor and Epstein (1967) using the com-
petitive reaction-time procedure. Both male and female participants competed
against either a male or female partner. Both sexes set higher levels of shock
for their male opponent than they did when their opponent was female. While
support was forthcoming for the beliefs that women are physically assaulted
less frequently and with less severity than men (Frodi, Macauley, & Thome,
24 Aggression in the Sports World
1977), victim characteristics and situational factors can enter the picture to
qualify those beliefs.
Consider as an example, the physical attractiveness of the woman targeted
for male aggression. As a social cue, the role of attractiveness in influencing
men’s aggression toward females can be seen in a study by Ohbuchi and Izutsu
(1984). Men who were attacked by an unattractive woman retaliated with greater
intensity, that is, electric shock, than when the attack was by a physically attrac-
tive woman.
We also see that the reluctance of men to aggress against women diminishes
when the woman poses a threat (Richardson, Leonard, Taylor, & Hammock,
1985). Male participants were subjected to threats from a female confederate in
the competitive reaction-time paradigm. Prior to competing against the female
confederate, the handgrip strength of each man was measured and recorded by
the female. For half of the men, their grip strength was announced and reported
as “average” in comparison with the established norms. For the remaining half
she indicated a weak performance well below the norm. Within these two
conditions, the confederate either offered no comment or, belittled his effort
with the suggestion, for example, “Perhaps, you should let me do that”? The
combination of threat arising from an inferior performance in the presence of
a woman and her disparaging remarks later resulted in an impressive, high
level of aggression against her in the reaction-time competition. It seems that
the gap traditionally recognized between the frequency and severity of aggres-
sion directed toward males versus females has narrowed considerably. Among
other factors, target attributes, threat, and situational factors can act to weaken
male inhibitions against inflicting harm on females.
A situation in which the social atmosphere features music containing sexu-
ally aggressive lyrics can similarly increase aggression toward the opposite sex.
After listening to misogynous lyrics, men administered hotter chili sauce to a
female and expressed more feelings of vengeance than other men listening to
neutral lyrics. When the tables were turned and women heard men-hating lyrics
they responded in a similar fashion (Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2006).
RACISM
Preliminary to discussing the extent of racism in sports and the research exam-
ining its role in conflicts, it seems timely to introduce several definitions of
the major concepts associated with the topic. Emotions tend to run high when
people discuss the issues surrounding racism and ethnic conflicts. Such emo-
tions are also further heightened when the basic terms are found to mean differ-
ent things to different individuals. This is not to say that all theorists would fully
agree with the definitions I have chosen below but they will serve the purpose of
providing a common starting point.
Definitions
We start with prejudice, defined simply as “An unjustifiable negative attitude
toward a group and its individual members” (Myers, 1996, p. 390). Note that
the attitude is held against all members of the group without regard for excep-
tions. The definition of racism is two-pronged. Myers (1996) proposes that rac-
ism involves “an individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior
toward people of a given race.” Second, racism involves “institutional practices
(even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race”
(p. 392). Finally, another term that should be clarified is stereotype. Briefly
stated, stereotypes are “beliefs to the effect that all members of specific social
groups share certain traits or characteristics” (Baron & Byrne, 1997, p. 208).
A recent study (Wolfers & Price, 2007) reveals the pervasive presence of
racism in contemporary sports. It further provides an example of how implicit
stereotypes can influence the split-second judgments required of referees work-
ing under the stress of actual game conditions. Data for an investigation of
racial discrimination was obtained from the records of the National Basketball
Association (NBA) covering all regular season games played between 1991 and
2004. Evidence of racial bias was sought by comparing the number of fouls
awarded to Black and White players as a function of the racial composition of
the three-person crews of referees.
An own-race bias was clearly in evidence. The investigators reported that
players are awarded as much as “4 percent more fouls and score up to 2.5 percent
fewer points when the three officials are of the opposite race than when they are
of their own race” (p. 1). It was further noted that relative to a White basketball
player, a Black player is awarded increasingly more fouls as the White members
of the officiating team is increased from zero to three. Wolfers and Price (2007)
favor an explanation whereby “referees interpret similar actions differently,
Social Influences 27
depending on whether the foul was committed by a black or white player, and on
whether the referee him or herself is black or white” (p. 1). They essentially rule
out malicious intent on the part of referees. Rather, implicit stereotypes possibly
come into play especially where split-second decisions are made in high stress
circumstances. As a footnote, preliminary data from the 2004/2005 season to
the present reveals that a pattern of own-race bias continues in the NBA.
I am beginning this section with several accounts of collective violence that
underscore the centrality of racial and ethnic attitudes frequently found at the
heart of crowd disorders. In examining the role of ethnicity or race as an under-
lying cause of interpersonal aggression, it is easy to lose sight of the scale of
violence that can be attributed to its effects in the broader arena. To illustrate
briefly, I have chosen a single season of football (soccer) played in Europe, a
season marred by a rise in violence between groups along ethnic/racial lines.
Following several examples, the focus will be narrowed to controlled labora-
tory and field studies to examine more closely the effects of racial variables
on experimental participants. The first example involved the writer during a
Sabbatical leave at Utrecht University in The Netherlands.
It was while my wife and I were finishing a late breakfast in our Utrecht apart-
ment that a major news event began to unfold. We heard singing and shouting
as the train to Amsterdam rumbled past our apartment window that overlooked
the tracks. The train was packed to overflowing with boisterous supporters of
FC (Football Club) Utrecht. The party aboard the “football special” was already
well underway. We were later to learn that the club’s supporters were on their
way to watch a match against FC Ajax. On the afternoon of the same day, we
again heard the train rumbling by our window jam-packed with rowdy returning
Utrecht fans. We had not anticipated its return until late that evening.
The story actually began to unfold during the previous night when hooligans
broke into Ajax stadium defacing the walls with graffiti and painting swasti-
kas on the playing field (the Ajax football organization has strong Jewish ties).
In covering the event, Columnist Marcel van der Kraan placed the event in a
European context stating “While other European football countries are facing
mainly anti-black problems, the Netherlands has suffered a sudden and dramatic
outburst against Jews” (van der Kraan, 1993). When over 900 Utrecht fans arrived
in Amsterdam singing anti-Jewish songs and distributing hate literature they were
promptly turned around and put back on trains. The order came from the mayor
of Amsterdam. They “lost the money spent on tickets and never saw a minute of
the game” (p. 30).
A number of headlines on news stories filed during the same season illus-
trate something of the extent and seriousness of ethnic and racially motivated
clashes. Columnist Chris Endean looked at the current state of Italian football
under the headline “Racism takes a turn for the worst”. In a summary statement,
trouble-making supporters given the name “Ultras” are equated with hooliganism,
xenophobia, and racism (Endean, 1993). “Fanning flames of hatred” was the
heading for another capsule summary of Italian football. This writer alerts his
readers to “an alarming increase in racism and hooliganism” (House, 1992).
The star of Vasas Budapest, Claude Mbemba, was Hungary’s only Black player
28 Aggression in the Sports World
at the time of another article. He was the target of racial taunts in addition to
being viciously attacked by thugs (Cresswell, 1992). Moreover, slurs consistently
accompanied appearances of Anthony Yeboah, a Black African star playing for-
ward in the German first division (Rotmil, 1992).
There is some measure of comfort to be had from the vigorous actions of
European government and league officials during the season. To be sure, the
mayor of Amsterdam deserves full credit for his actions as does the German
Football Association (GFA) and other bodies for initiatives intended to curb rac-
ism. One such initiative is described under a headline reading, “Germany fights
back at racists”. Players on all first division clubs wore a message prominently
displayed on their playing jerseys. It read, “mein freund ist auslander” (my friend
is a foreigner). The intent of the GFA was to send a clear message expressing
total opposition to racism (Stone, 1992). Elsewhere, the French government passed
legislation whereby anyone wearing Nazi symbols would be subject to a 1-year jail
term. Hooligans also face fines up to $30,000 for inciting violence while drunken
supporters could be fined up to $5,000 (“Nazi fans will be jailed,” 1993).
Recent History
All sports have been plagued with prejudice and interracial aggression through-
out their long history. Racial riots rocked many American cities in the aftermath
of the heavyweight boxing title fight of 1910. Jeffries, the reigning White cham-
pion was soundly defeated by Jack Johnson, his controversial Black challenger
(“Bar fight pictures,” 1910). Nineteen seventy witnessed violent protests involv-
ing the Stop The Seventy Tour Committee that opposed a British tour by an
all-White South African cricket team. The team’s continued presence in Britain
brought the police out in force. Barbwire surrounded cricket fields while the
anti-Apartheid forces engaged in heated demonstrations and on occasions, fixed
battles (Hain, 1971).
Racial intolerance and prejudice remain a disturbing presence in sports as
they do in other spheres of human endeavor. Currently of interest are the cir-
cumstances under which interracial aggression is likely to occur. Early inves-
tigations have yielded a complex pattern of results. Blacks have been shown
to be more physically and verbally aggressive toward White participants than
toward other Blacks (Wilson & Rogers, 1975). This finding represents a rever-
sal of earlier results that instead suggested Blacks directed more aggression
toward other Blacks (Winslow & Brainerd, 1950). Seemingly, the second half
of the 20th century was a more enlightened and tolerant period of American
history in which Blacks became more assertive and expressive of their anger.
However, the situation in which Black–White interactions take place is
all-important.
Experimental Evidence
Consider first a study in which a personal insult was introduced to the situation
(Rogers & Prentice-Dunn, 1981). White participants interacted with either
Social Influences 29
basis of the earlier work of Beal, O’Neal, Ong, and Ruscher (2000), Timmerman
proposes that more recently the perception of a White pitcher hitting a Black
batter has changed and instead, is now seen as interracial aggression. For exam-
ple, Beal et al. note that Whites are less likely to aggress overtly against Blacks.
Therefore, White pitchers “may be more reluctant to hit Blacks than they are to
hit other Whites or Hispanics” (Timmerman, 2002, p. 115).
PROVOCATIONS
With a few exceptions, people are not immune to taunts, insults, or rude gestures
directed at them by others. Nor do we generally walk away from a push or shove.
Each of these provocations has a higher than average probability of eliciting some
form of aggressive response. You will recall that provocations were mentioned
earlier in this chapter in the investigation of a culture of honor in the Deep South
(e.g., Cohen et al., 1996). University males from northern and southern states
were deliberately “bumped” and insulted by an experimental accomplice. The
physical and verbal provocations produced strong aggressive reactions from the
southerners and relatively mild reactions from northern students.
Provocations can take a variety of forms in addition to physical and verbal
insults. External social provocations in the form of staring, gestures, and chants
are often seen to be effective in drawing an aggressive response. It should further
be noted that not all people respond to provocations in an aggressive manner.
Many will attempt to reconcile differences or appease their provocateur while
still others will turn on their heels and walk away.
Verbal Provocations
Unkind and insulting words can cut deep. They often strike at our good reputa-
tion, our self-image, character, or people and matters close to our heart. Some
will choose to ignore insulting remarks; others will instead find a way to strike
back in an act of counter aggression.
The response to a verbal provocation rocked the football world when in the
dying minutes of the 2006 FIFA World championship game Zinedine Zidane,
captain of the French side, head-butted Italian defender, Marco Materazzi, in
the chest. Zidane was red-carded and ejected from the game, a 5 to 3 overtime
shootout loss to Italy. The incident began with Materazzi persistently tugging
on Zidane’s shirt. As Zidane recounts, “He said some very harsh words, which
he repeated several times. They were words that touch the innermost parts of
me . . . Very personal things, my mother, my sister” (Moore, 2006, p. E01). The
full depth of hurt experienced at Materazzi’s words are expressed in Zidane’s
later comments “I am a man after all. I would rather have taken a punch in the
jaw than have heard that” (p. E01).
Materazzi offered a different version of the incident. In interviews and without
being specific, he acknowledged having insulted Zidane. He continued, saying
that he made no mention of racism, religion, or politics, nor was Zidane’s mother
Social Influences 31
a clever chant used by London clubs when playing teams from the north, namely,
“Did the Ripper get your mum?” (p. 642).
Although the words to chants often portend severe consequences for their
rivals, their effects are usually confined to an exchange of insults. Marsh, Rosser,
and Harré (1978) observed that although thousands may be fiercely chanting
“You’re gonna get your fucking head kicked in” few altercations actually result.
Interestingly, the tradition of obscene chants and songs has not found its way
across the Atlantic to North America. American college football crowds typi-
cally sing school fight songs accompanied by their marching band. The lyrics
are tame, frequently portraying the home team as courageous, ready to fight,
fight, fight! and destined to be victorious. To rival fans the lyrics at best, seem
faintly intimidating, scarcely threatening.
While British football fans and American college students may be exposed to
songs with threatening and/or violent lyrics as they watch from the stands, many
may in fact be listening to songs from an additional source. A rapidly expanding
technology has made it a virtual certainty that many fans will have access to
their favorite songs before, during, and after sport contests. Cell phones, I-pods,
MP3s, and variations thereof can bring music to their ears. However, there are
several critical differences between listening to popular music on an I-pod and
both violent television and the playing of video games (Anderson, Carnagey, &
Eubanks, 2003).
Popular music obviously is unaccompanied by a video component. Furthermore,
the lyrics to popular music are almost incomprehensible to all but the most devoted
fans of the genre. Lastly, the focus of listeners’ attention is generally on the music
itself with less attention being paid to the lyrics. Of course, other attractions or
incidents occurring in the sports setting may also draw attention away from the
music. Thus seated in the bleachers at a sports event, many listeners may simply
fail to process the lyrical content of songs.
Note should be taken of the views of some clinical practitioners and social
commentators who would suggest that singing or otherwise experiencing violent
lyrics will reduce feelings and thoughts of aggression. With great regularity,
cathartic notions spring up whenever any form of aggressive behavior is under
scrutiny. Pop psychologists and others enamored with catharsis have a vision of
people venting, draining, or discharging their pent-up aggressive urges through
some sort of safety valve mechanism. Despite the popular appeal of catharsis, the
social science research community has failed to provide support for these views.
Regarding the effects of songs with violent content, the results of five controlled
experiments did not support cathartic views. To the contrary, violent lyrics in songs
were shown to increase aggressive thoughts and hostility (Anderson et al., 2003).
There are several ways in which such increases can contribute to negative
behaviors. In the short run, our perceptions of our current social situation may
take on “an aggressive tint” (Anderson et al., 2003, p. 969). The fact of our height-
ened hostility and thoughts can influence our perceptions and interpretations of
the social events in which we find ourselves. Negatively toned interpretations
may prompt a stronger than usual aggressive response to an individual, thereby
Social Influences 33
setting the stage for an upward spiral of increasingly antisocial exchanges. Thus,
while the immediate effects of violent lyrics may not be dramatic, the escalation
of those effects may lead to serious verbal or physical altercations.
Staring
Among human primates, a direct steady gaze signifies threat. The response to
the threatening stare is largely dependent on the group status of the primates
involved, for example, low, intermediate, and high. In a typical context, the gaze
will elicit a fight, flight, or appeasement response. As with a direct gaze, gaze
avoidance also elicits a range of responses. Both serve as an effective means of
nonverbal communication (Ellsworth, 1975).
Stares have three important properties. First, a gaze is salient. It has an
especially strong likelihood of being noticed by others. Even at a considerable
distance, for example, “across a crowded room,” or in one’s peripheral vision, a
stare has the capacity to draw attention to itself. A second property is arousal.
Making eye contact with someone staring increases one’s galvanic skin response
and heart rate. If staring occurs in a pleasant social situation, a direct gaze
will make it even more pleasant. However, should it occur in a threatening or
negative situation, eye contact would serve to worsen the social atmosphere.
The third important property of a gaze is involvement. In general, we interpret
another’s gaze as indicative of the type of involvement intended or the intensity
of the current relationship. In contrast, an averted gaze is often an attempt to
reduce the level of involvement or to avoid confrontation or conflict. This latter
point warrants a personal example.
My research interests have taken me to a large number of hockey games over
the years. At one point, I was interested in the interaction within pairs of oppos-
ing players who had collided heavily and fallen to the ice while the play moved
elsewhere. Typically, they were tangled together with gloves, sticks, and skates,
often with one player on top of the other. I watched their gaze as they struggled
to disentangle themselves and get back on their skates. Specifically, I used a
small pair of binoculars to focus on their faces for signs of words being uttered
and visual exchanges. The results of my informal observations were striking.
The two players glanced at the overhead arena clock, studied the ice surface,
looked at the boards, even appeared to be inspecting the stitching and weave of
their jerseys. What they did not do was make eye contact with each other nor
did they exchange pleasantries. As long as they avoided eye contact, they were
able to get back on their skates and join their teammates. In contrast, when they
made eye contact, a fistfight erupted forthwith.
Some boxers have adopted staring as a tactic intended to intimidate their oppo-
nent. During the prefight instructions by the referee, they invade each other’s per-
sonal space directing a steady fierce gaze at their opponent. In other social settings,
young men interpret prolonged staring as a challenge to fight. Marsh et al. (1978)
relate an example of staring being taken as a provocation in a series of taunts
and threats. A group of Oxford Rowdies surrounded a small group of Sheffield
34 Aggression in the Sports World
football fans at half time. A leader steps forward and begins to torment a Sheffield
boy who thus far “has been looking steadfastly at the ground in front of him,
glances up for an instant at the leading Oxford fan. He is immediately accused of
staring and is challenged to stand up and fight. The challenge is ignored.” (p. 89).
The taunting continues with the leader flicking the collar and hair of the Sheffield
boy. Suddenly “the Sheffield boy leaps up, his face red with anger” (p. 89) striking
a pose to do battle. At this juncture, an older Oxford fan arrives, steps between the
two adversaries and shepherds the Sheffield boy out of harm’s way.
Staring can also produce behavior akin to flight. We see evidence of this in a
novel field experiment (Ellsworth, Carlsmith, & Henson, 1972). An experimental
confederate stood on the curb close to motorists waiting for the light to change
from red to green. He constantly stared at the motorist who found himself in a
thoroughly ambiguous situation and without cues to interpret the meaning of
the stare. Compared to motorists in a no-stare condition, those stared at drove
through the intersection faster. The result was replicated in a number of situa-
tions including one in which the confederate pulled alongside the motorist and
stared from a motor scooter.
The point to bear in mind is that the situation in which eye contact or star-
ing occurs is all-important in determining a person’s response. Rival supporters
making eye contact in a confrontational setting will likely respond with aggres-
sion whereas motorists being stared at in an ambiguous situation take flight.
Gaze avoidance, a glance, a prolonged stare, all represent means of nonverbal
communication that prompts a variety of behaviors, including aggression.
SUMMARY
The present chapter has examined the role of various external social influences
on human aggression. It began with broad national and regional cultural differ-
ences that shape the aggressive character of governments and individuals alike.
Prominent athletes have emerged as a visible category of sport heroes, especially
for boys. Attention was drawn to the influence of negative role models and their
detrimental effects on their young admirers. The extraordinary power of author-
ity figures to influence interpersonal aggression was examined along with that
of others to affect directly or indirectly ongoing aggressive behavior from the
sidelines. The difficulty people have in breaking off from escalating aggressive
exchanges was highlighted. Those disproportionately targeted for aggression in
sports, for example, officials, blacks, women, were the subjects of later sections.
The chapter concluded with a discussion of provocations among which were
staring, chants, songs, and verbal barbs.
Suggested Reading
Nisbett, R. E., & Cohen, D. (1996). Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the
South. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Social Influences 35
Perhaps as much as 50% of the U.S. homicides for which a cause can be identified
originate with exceedingly trivial matters. They may be sparked by a dispute over a
few dollars, an offhand remark to which offense has been taken or a petty disagree-
ment. For male southerners in the United States, these incidents are exceedingly serious
matters that threaten their carefully cultivated reputation. A culture of honor dictates
that affronts, however trivial, call for violent retribution. The authors trace the cultural
origins and developmental processes by which southerners come to embrace the culture
of honor.
2
Personality
INTRODUCTION
TRAITS
As with many concepts in the social sciences, there is less than complete agree-
ment on a definition of personality. I have singled out two from among the large
number available to provide a common starting point for the pages to follow.
Allport (1965) proposed that, “personality is the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic
36
Personality 37
behavior and thought” (p. 28). A more recent definition emphasizes the unique-
ness and consistency of behavior we recognize in others. R. E. Smith (1993) offers
a definition of personality regarding it “as the distinctive and relatively consistent
ways of thinking, feeling and acting that characterize a person’s responses to life
situations” (p. 430).
Several points should be noted in regard to the concept of personality. There
is, for example, a general recognition that one’s personality is shaped by early
influences that originate with our interactions with others in the community,
institutions, and the home environment. There is a further assumption that
one’s personality is fairly stable and enduring across time. However, there is
a dissenting viewpoint suggesting that how we behave is effectively deter-
mined by the situation in which we find ourselves. While personality theorists
may be found aligned with a trait position and others with a state position, a
third viewpoint has emerged and offers a satisfactory resolution for many, that
is, the interactionist position. Mischel (1977), an early staunch situationist,
has modified his views to include person variables alongside those present in the
situation. He proposes: “To understand the interaction of person and environment
we must consider person variables as well as environmental variables” (p. 251).
To summarize in general terms, some behaviors can be best understood as
traits, whereas others can more readily be attributed to the influence of situational
constraints. Narrow traits such as aggression generally provide stronger predictions
of how people will behave (Olweus, 1979). Those of our acquaintances generally
known to be aggressive will display a certain regularity in their public behavior.
They are apt to be found shouting at the referee during their son’s peewee games,
displaying hostility in the workplace, the local sports and recreational center, or
behind the wheel of their automobile. More diffuse broader traits, for example,
extroversion, will produce considerably less agreement among observers that the
individual consistently displays extroverted behavior on a day-to-day basis.
The upcoming pages are intended to provide an overview of personality
research and theory as it is related to interpersonal aggression in sports. The
topic is exceedingly large and, unfortunately, burdened by a literature that is
spotted with studies of inferior quality. Formal reviews of the topic (e.g., Eysenck,
Nias, & Cox, 1982; Martens, 1976) have produced scathing criticisms of much
of the published material on the topic. For example, an excerpt from the Eysenck
et al. overview states “There has been an alarming failure to consider the com-
plexities of the topic, to allow for the weaknesses and deficiencies of many existing
personality questionnaires, or to make distinctions which are absolutely crucial
in this field, e.g., between outstanding and average practitioners of a given sport,
or between different types of sports, such as individual versus group sports”
(p. 1). Martens directs his criticisms primarily at methodological flaws and
errors of interpretation. In particular, he notes the use of inadequate sampling
procedures and statistical analyses that are unsuited to the data. Furthermore,
researchers often generalize their findings to situations and persons that are far
beyond what is justified by their results. Lastly, the fact of a significant correla-
tion between two variables is frequently interpreted in causal language. One is
not justified in doing so (see Supplemental Reading, Chapter 7).
38 Aggression in the Sports World
MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
There is a bewildering array of tests and other means available for assessing aggres-
sion in the context of sports. They are not however of equal quality. They are far
from it. Some have excellent psychometric properties, that is, validity or reliability,
whereas other measures fail to meet even minimal standards of test construction.
Validity
First, we discuss the psychometric properties of measures purporting to assess
aggression in sports. Of paramount importance is the matter of validity. In ask-
ing about the validity of a test or other measure one is simply asking if the test
measures what it purports to measure. While the title of a test may identify it
as the Manson Aggression Intensity Measure (MAIM) and the test items give
every appearance of tapping the trait of aggression, that is, the items have “face”
validity, we should nevertheless require hard evidence that physical aggression
is in fact being assessed. Several means are available by which the validity of a
test can be established. We begin with a description of the most important type
of validity, that is, predictive validity.
Predictive Validity
In the ideal case, we would be looking for evidence of predictive validity. The
fictitious MAIM might be administered to hockey players at the start of their
season, with a view to relating it to their individual records of aggressive penalty
minutes at the end of the season. If the MAIM is a valid measure then a signifi-
cant correlation between the measures taken at two points in time should result.
Such a study has been conducted (Bushman & Wells, 1998).
Specifically, the Physical Aggression subscale of the Aggression Questionnaire
(AQ; Buss & Perry, 1992) was used to predict the on-ice aggression of young
hockey players in Iowa. Bushman and Wells (1998) administered the subscale to 91
high school hockey players at the start of their season. When the season concluded
months later, two further measures were calculated from official game records.
The first was penalty minutes for aggression (e.g., fighting, slashing, tripping),
Personality 39
the other, for nonaggressive penalties (e.g., delay of game, too many players on
the ice). The relationships between the Physical Aggression subscale and actual
on-ice aggression was r = +.33, whereas that between Physical Aggression and
nonaggressive penalties was negligible, r = +.04. Thus, the subscale administered
at the start of the season successfully predicted the end of season, official tallies
of individual player aggression months later. Such evidence allows us to say that
the Physical Aggression subscale has good predictive validity with respect to
interpersonal aggression occurring in hockey.
Concurrent Validity
Other means of establishing the validity of an aggressive measure include con-
current and content validity. Concurrent validity is similar to predictive validity
except for the fact that the criterion is available at the same time. Had the Physical
Aggression subscale been administered to the young Iowa hockey players at the
end of their season when their records of aggressive penalty minutes became
available, then Bushman and Wells (1998) would instead have been establishing
the subscale’s concurrent rather than predictive validity.
Content Validity
Content validity is seen in the application of the known groups method. For
example, in a hypothetical extension of Bushman and Wells’ (1998) work with
the Physical Aggression subscale, we return to several high schools and seek
the cooperation of two student clubs, the boxing club and the debating society.
By the very nature of their on-going interests and training we would predict
that the student boxers would score quite high on the Physical Aggression sub-
scale. What we know about the activities of those participating in the debating
society would not lead us to expect high scores on a trait measure of Physical
Aggression (verbal aggression, perhaps!). Should our boxers score substantially,
that is, significantly, higher than the debaters, then a claim can be made for the
Physical Aggression subscale having content validity.
Reliability
The second most important psychometric property of an (aggression) measure is
its reliability or its consistency in measuring the concept or trait in question. Note
that the correlation coefficient is again used to represent the strength of associa-
tion. Is there consistency in test results over time (test–retest reliability) or strong
agreement between two or more judges? Finally, the test items themselves should
show a high degree of consistency in the responses of those taking the test.
Test–Retest Reliability
One should expect a high degree of stability in a measure administered to the same
individuals on two occasions, perhaps separated by 4–6 weeks. Those scoring
40 Aggression in the Sports World
high on the first occasion should score quite high 4 weeks later. Conversely,
low scorers would for the most part be expected to score in the lower range after
the interval. A relatively high correlation is generally required to satisfy the
requirement of a stable consistent measure, that is, in excess of r = +.80.
Internal Consistency
There are two means by which the internal consistency of a test is generally
determined. The first is the split-half technique where, for example, the first 15
items are correlated with the second 15 items. An alternative is the odd-even
method in which the odd-numbered items are correlated with the even-numbered
items. The latter method is suited to the case where the scale items are of
increasing difficulty.
Interjudge Reliability
Outcomes in a substantial number of major sports are decided by judges. In
many such sports, their decisions are surrounded by controversy. The fact
of strong nationalistic biases and others lining their pockets have crept into
the judging process in some sports. Malfeasance aside, the question being
addressed here is the extent to which expert judges are in agreement in their
scoring of athletic performance. One would expect a high level of agreement
given they are watching the same athletes perform, albeit from slightly different
angles. Just such a reliability coefficient was calculated for the judges assigned
to one of boxing’s most famous and controversial fights. The occasion was
the 1971 heavyweight bout between the reigning champion Muhammad Ali
and the challenger Joe Frazier. The 15-round-title fight was staged in Manila,
Philippines in what was later called “The Thrilla in Manila.” Enormous
prestige and millions of dollars rested on the outcome. Ali lost his title by a
unanimous decision.
The contest represented the sport at the highest level. With so much riding
on the outcome, fight fans might reasonably expect the two judges at ringside
and the referee to be in fairly strong agreement on each boxer’s round-by-round
score. How did the expert ring officials do that night? In a word, dismally! The
reliability coefficient was r = +.57, far below an acceptable level of interjudge
reliability (Stallings & Gillmore, 1972). Recall from above that a correlation
in the range of +.80 is generally required to demonstrate sufficient reliability.
Certainly, one is entitled to ask about the reliability of judges’ scoring in other
sports, for example, figure skating, diving, and synchronized swimming.
PERSONALITY THEORIES
Macho Personality
The original Spanish concept of machismo has spawned a number of variants
that have pervaded many modern sports. Highly prized in Hispanic cultures,
it has had a major influence on North American sports and even individuals
involved in leisure-time activities. The counterpart of the macho male can be
found on other continents and at other periods in history. Australia has given us
the sports-loving ocker, a stereotype described by Everett (1988) as “the potbel-
lied, singlet-clad, can-in-hand Australian male” (p. 138). The ocker’s origins and
the role he plays in today’s Australian society are portrayed in Lewis’s (1983)
book, Real Men Like Violence.
The cultural expression of macho themes came to the fore in Germany during
the late 19th century and in the early decades of the 20th century. The dueling
practice, or Mensur, was primarily practiced at universities and was believed
to develop courage and coolness in German males. Young boys were taught
swordsmanship and the ritual surrounding the Mensur in the gymnasium. Even
children at play in the nursery were given instruction.
British playwright and journalist Jerome K. Jerome (1900) saw the Mensur as
a brutalizing experience. He provides a particularly graphic eyewitness account
of a duel.
The setting:
The room is bare and sordid; its walls splashed with mixed stains of beer, blood,
and candle-grease; its ceiling, smokey; its floor, sawdust covered.
The combatants:
Quaint and rigid, with their goggle-covered eyes, their necks tied up in comforters,
their bodies smothered in what looks like dirty bed quilts, their padded arms stretched
straight above their heads, they might be a pair of ungainly clockwork figures.
The duel:
The whole interest is centered in watching the wounds. They come always in
one of two places—on the top of the head or the left side of the face. Sometimes
a portion of hairy scalp or section of cheek flies up into the air, to be carefully
preserved in an envelope by its proud possessor, and shown round on convivial
evenings; and from every wound, of course, flows a plentiful stream of blood. It
splashed doctors, seconds, and spectators; it sprinkles ceiling and walls; it satu-
rates the fighters, and makes pools for itself in the sawdust.
“Doctors” (actually medical students) rush in and make deliberately clumsy
efforts to repair the wounds.
Personality 43
fans are themselves the proud owners of high-powered, often “modified,” racers
on which they lavish attention and money.
While the hypermasculine personality model predicts that macho males
would be strongly attracted to a subculture featuring fast and powerful cars,
evidence of such an attraction has only recently emerged. German psychologists,
Krahé and Fenske (2002) sought to determine the factors that predict aggres-
sive driving behavior. In addition to completing the Hypermasculinity Inventory
(Mosher & Sirkin, 1984), the 154 male participants provided reports of their
own aggressive driving practices.
The Aggressive Driving Scale is a 24-item, self-report measure with a
reliability coefficient of +.85 reported for the scale (Krahé & Fenske, 2002).
A 5-point response format ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often) accompanies
each item. Three examples nicely illustrate the diversity of aggressive expression
among German motorists. Consider the following items: “How often do you
swear out loud at other drivers?,” “How often do you get into fights with other
drivers?,” and “How often do you try to edge another car off the road?”
The results were clear in identifying a set of predictors of aggressive driving.
Men scoring high on the measure of macho personality were over represented
among those whose self-reports showed them to be the most aggressive drivers.
Furthermore, it was also the younger men and those who themselves drove powerful
cars that reported dangerous driving practices. Additionally, macho German males
expressed a preference for speed and “sportiness” in a car they were considering to
buy. At the same time, they were less concerned with safety features than nonmacho
males. This study is an important reference point for those personality and applied
researchers trying to understand and/or stem the carnage on our roadways.
Displays of machismo by athletes engaged in combatant sports may hold a
special attraction for the macho male. High- and low-macho men were shown
one of three 14-min film clips: the Hagler–Leonard middleweight championship
fight in 1987, amateur bouts at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, or experts skiing sev-
eral of the world’s most spectacular runs (exciting control condition). The results
were straightforward. Macho males scored higher on a measure of aggressive
mood following the professional and amateur title fight films. However, low-
macho males show no change in aggressive mood across the three film con-
ditions (Russell, 1992b). Among other things, this study and earlier research
(Smeaton & Byrne, 1987) highlights the fact that macho males are more reactive
to violent events than nonmacho males.
Recent years have seen the aggressive promotion of alcohol, tobacco, automo-
biles, and sports equipment by the advertising industry using underlying macho
themes. The ads are slick, attention grabbing, and unquestionably profitable for
the industry. Of course, supermacho men have long-graced the screen from Errol
Flynn to Sean Connery to Clint Eastwood to Arnold Schwarzenegger. A subtle
consequence of repeated exposure to these macho portrayals is that many have
uncritically embraced the macho man as an ideal whose values and behaviors
many parents have tried to instill in their sons. Seemingly, the best interests of
society are not well served by elevating macho males to the status of role models
for aspiring youngsters.
Personality 45
Coaches should be alert to the Type As among their charges, especially with
respect to their physical well-being. Type As complain less about hard work
(Weidner & Matthews, 1978), report less fatigue (Carver, Coleman, & Glass,
1976), and are more likely to play with injuries (Carver, DeGregorio, & Gillis,
1981). Once injured they make slower than expected progress during treatment.
Furthermore, Type A athletes tend to attribute responsibility for the injury to
themselves and express more anger than other injured athletes (Rhodewalt &
Strube, 1985).
Earlier, I alluded to the close relationship between Type A individuals and
the macho personality. Considering that the two personality types share some of
the same traits, for example, impulsivity and hostility, we should expect some
overlap in their outward appearance. In this regard, Virginia Price (1982) has
observed “Type A behavior and ‘macho’ or masculine behaviors are in many
respects indistinguishable” (p. 72). Price relates an anecdote describing the
behavior of two Type A men. Their actions would also typify the behavior of
macho males. Two men known to be Type A were accosted by armed attackers
in separate incidents. Both challenged their assailants; both were killed! (p. 73).
Where others might pause to reflect on their situations, Type As do not. Where
most of us show fear in dangerous situations, Type As and macho males appear
fearless.
Locus of Control
A commonly used theory of personality that has numerous implications for
sports has been the Locus of Control model (Rotter, 1966). People are presumed
to be disbursed along a continuum ranging from an internal locus of control to
an external locus of control. Individuals with an internal orientation generally
feel they can by their own actions exert a degree of influence over outcomes in
their day-to-day lives, that is, they do not see themselves at the mercy of exter-
nal forces. People with an external orientation instead see little of a connection
between their own behavior and subsequent outcomes in their lives. Rather,
events in their lives occur largely as the result of external forces over which
they have little control, for example, Lady Luck, destiny, essentially being blown
about by the winds of fate.
Two sample questions from Rotter’s (1973) measure of locus of control will
illustrate the basic underlying distinction. Required to make a choice, would you
choose (a) “The average person can have an influence in government decisions”
or (b) “This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the
little guy can do about it?” Choice (a) and similar statements reflect an internal
orientation, whereas choice (b) reflects an external locus of control.
Locus of control has been shown to predict a variety of sport behaviors. To
further illustrate, internals perform better than externals, if a task is competitive
rather than cooperative (Nowicki, 1982). Golfers competing on the Ladies’s
Professional Golf Association (LPGA) tour completed a locus of control mea-
sure before the start of a tournament. The analysis revealed that golfers with an
internal orientation had a lower scoring average than women with an external
Personality 47
orientation. The better golfers then believed the quality of their play was largely
the result of their own efforts (Crews, Shirreffs, Thomas, Krahenbuhl, &
Helfrich, 1986).
Studies have generally shown a relationship between an external locus of
control and both verbal and physical aggression. A large international study
involving 722 youngsters from Finland and Italy was conducted in an effort
to replicate the predicted associations with aggression and, further, to extend
the measurement of aggression to include indirect aggression (Österman et al.,
1999). The predictions were confirmed for three forms of aggression, that is,
physical, verbal, and indirect, but only in the case of boys. For girls, the relation-
ships between an external orientation and the three types were nonsignificant.
There is a suggestion that externals may perform better in one aspect of ice
hockey. Players with an external locus of control were credited with more assists
during the regular season than their internally oriented teammates. Furthermore,
their playmaking skills are overshadowed by their pugilistic skills. Players with
an external orientation are also involved in a greater number of on-ice fights
(Russell, 1974). Seemingly, internals respond more constructively to frustrations
seeing obstacles as “surmountable,” whereas externals generally regard obstacles
as “insurmountable” (Brissett & Nowicki, 1973). Consequently, externals are less
able to utilize alternative, nonaggressive responses such as negotiation or com-
promise. Believing there is little they can do to change the course of a developing
confrontation, they just let the inevitable happen and the gloves come off.
sense do high Machs have a distorted view of reality. Rather, they have a clear
view of their social surroundings. In particular, they know where the power lies
and how it might be turned to their advantage.
Sports that provide participants with numerous opportunities for social
interactions favor the high Mach athlete. More precisely, it is in those social situ-
ations that are in some sense ambiguous or uncertain that the manipulative skills
of the high Mach athlete gives them a clear performance advantage. To illustrate,
the success of Machiavellian tactics is seen in a study of football and tennis
players (Paulhus, Molin, & Schuchts, 1979). Ratings of athletic proficiency were
related to Machiavellian tendencies, that is, high Machs generally excelled at both
sports. What is the likely key to their success? The authors of the study suggest
high Mach football players push “every rule to the limit” (p. 204). In addition,
they willingly exploit their relationship with the coach to get more playing time.
In the case of high Mach tennis players, the suggestion is they resort to a number
of questionable tactics intended to unsettle or “psych out” their opponent.
The success of Machiavellian tactics in providing a performance edge how-
ever, does not extend to ice hockey. High Mach players have essentially the same
record of assists and goal scoring as their low Mach teammates. In the case of
physical aggression, it is a different story. Over the course of a full season of
play, high Machs drew more penalties for aggressive infractions, for example,
fighting, charging, spearing, than did lows. Interestingly, high Machs are more
likely to be found playing on defense. It is inside the blue line that their superior
interpersonal skills, for example, reading cues and the intentions of incoming
forwards, work to their advantage (Russell, 1974).
It was noted earlier that several of the personality models described in this
section overlap as a result of sharing the central trait of aggression. In some cases,
the overlap is minimal; in other cases, considerable. For example, R. J. Smith
(1978) undertook a comprehensive review of the psychopathic personality. His
work included a comparison with the Machiavellian personality. He concluded,
“There seems hardly a single serious contradiction between the two profiles
emerging from theory and research” (p. 92). We turn now to an examination of a
Machiavellian relative, perhaps a close cousin.
or others” (p. 34). He further notes that many individuals may exhibit several
of the symptoms. Someone you know may be impulsive, superficial, glib, even
antisocial but that does not mean he/she is a psychopath.
There are 12 major symptoms underlying psychopathy, half of which involve
emotional and interpersonal traits, the remainder are characteristics of the
psychopath’s antisocial lifestyle. Taken together, they provide an inclusive pic-
ture of the psychopathic personality (Hare, 1993). However, the following is a
shortened listing with a very brief description of each symptom, hopefully suffi-
cient in detail to convey a sense of its nature. We begin with three emotional/
interpersonal symptoms.
1. Glib and superficial. Psychopaths in many ways exhibit superior social
skills. One investigator sees these skills as a hallmark of the psychopathic
personality in observing “they have charming and winning ways”
(R. J. Smith, 1978). These individuals then are attractive, amusing, and
persuasive. However, there is a hollow ring to their conversation, a cer-
tain shallowness, a lack of substance and sincerity.
2. A lack of remorse or guilt. The apparent absence of a conscience has
long been the hallmark of the psychopathic personality. The psychopath
is not in the least troubled having manipulated, conned, or physically
harmed another person.
3. Deceitful and manipulative. Psychopaths are manipulative and given
to lying, cheating, and deception to gain their ends. They show little
concern with being found out. They can with considerable effect con
people or “the system” without regret, exploiting their victims’ weak-
nesses to their own advantage.
A second set of three symptoms are characteristic of the psychopath’s erratic,
antisocial behaviors in everyday circumstances.
1. Impulsive. Impulsivity is an important symptom in contributing to a
overall pattern of social deviance. Psychopaths act suddenly giving
little or no thought to the consequences of their actions. Little thought
is given to the future. Instead, they live day to day.
2. Poor behavior controls. The psychopath’s behavior is often volatile.
Minor provocations produce responses that are out of all proportion to
the size of the insult, criticism, or frustration. Quick to take offense,
they show an inability to control or inhibit their fiery temper.
3. Early behavior problems. The early childhood of the psychopath is
marked by serious behavioral problems. Among the range of problems
are truancy, persistent lying, animal cruelty, and violence.
On a cautionary note, Hare reminds us that far more psychopaths are outside
the walls of prisons than inside. They can be found virtually anywhere plying
their trade, using their charm and winning ways to achieve their self-serving
ends. Their victims are invariably left devastated, their lives in ruin.
Identifying the individual psychopath is ideally achieved through use of the
Psychopathy Checklist (Hare, 1993). As noted, extensive training is required
50 Aggression in the Sports World
for its use. Levenson (1990) has developed a 13-item alternative measure of
psychopathy based on clinical criteria, notably that provided by the early work
of Cleckley (1976). A sample item is “I often do things just for the hell of it.”
The scale’s relevance to testing psychopathy symptoms in the context of
sports aggression is seen in the results of personality variables in relation to fan
violence (Russell, 1995). Ice hockey fans in two Canadian cities were asked to
rate their reason(s) for attendance and the likelihood of their joining in a distur-
bance should one erupt nearby. The analyses yielded strong positive correlations
between psychopathy and both “I like to watch the fights” and their willingness
to join in a disturbance in the stands. In addition, the Levenson (1990) scale of
psychopathy and a measure of assaultiveness were highly correlated.
Identificatory Ties
The topic of individual differences in sports took a major step forward with the
recent work of Daniel Wann of Murray State University (Wann, 2006). Much
of his research has centered on the identification of individuals with a favorite
team and the implications of that identification for their day-to-day behaviors.
The concept of “identification” refers to the extent to which the individual sport
fan feels psychologically connected to a team or athlete (Wann, 1997).
Fans’ level of identification tends to remain fairly stable, even over extended
periods of time. Through the good times and the not-so-good times, highly iden-
tified fans are unwavering in their loyalty. Reflecting back on a losing season, for
the highly identified fan there is always “next year.” In truth, their self-selected
role as a team supporter has become an important element in their personal
identity.
Research into the correlates of strong team identification has been furthered
with the development of the Sport Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS; Wann &
Branscombe, 1993). Several attempts to establish the relationships between SSIS
and interpersonal aggression have yielded mixed results overall. Initial studies
administered the Buss–Durkee Hostility Inventory (Buss & Durkee, 1957) as
the measure of trait aggression with nonsignificant results (Russell & Goldstein,
1995; Wann, 1994; Wann, Peterson, Cothran, & Dykes, 1999). However, a
more recent investigation used the updated AQ (Buss & Perry, 1992) finding
a significant positive relationship between SSIS scores and physical aggression
(Wann, Shelton, Smith, & Walker, 2002). However, this finding was restricted to
52 Aggression in the Sports World
the male sample. It is further noteworthy that a similar positive relationship was
found between antisocial behavior and the 5-item Sport Fandom Questionnaire
(SFQ; Wann, Hunter, Ryan, & Wright, 2001). A systematic replication of the
latter study might help to clarify the issue. There is considerably less uncertainty
if we turn to a behavioral criterion of aggression involving self-reports from fans
indicating how they would behave in real world circumstances.
On a National Scale
The response of spectators exposed to displays of sports violence is mediated
by the degree to which they identify with a favorite athlete, team, or nation.
An experiment by Branscombe and Wann (1992) demonstrates the effects of
witnessing sport violence on the physiological state of viewers. Subjects were
shown two film versions of an international boxing match in which the American
boxer wins and one in which the Russian fighter wins. The subjects were
divided into two groups, that is, those who strongly identified with the United
States and those with weak identificatory ties to the United States. Irrespective
of which fighter won the bout, those with strong ties to their country showed
pre- to postfilm increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Moreover, the
individuals most highly identified with the United States were also harsher in
their evaluations of the Russian people. Elevated blood pressure is a reflection
of heightened arousal, a condition that generally serves to increase the intensity
and likelihood of aggression, albeit under fairly specific circumstances (Baron &
Richardson, 1994).
A field study conducted in Italian football illustrates the role of identificat-
ion in influencing antisocial behavior (Zani & Kirchler, 1991). Over 500 reg-
istered club supporters from Naples and Bologna provided information to the
investigators that included self-reports of the strength of their identification
with their respective teams. Fans who strongly identified with their team were
labeled “fanatics,” while those less strongly identified with their club were
called “moderates.” Predictably, fans labeled fanatics were embroiled in distur-
bances more often than moderates. Moreover, the more closely fans identified
with their football club (FC), the more likely they had participated in crowd
disturbances.
Interestingly, the behavior of the Naples fans differed from that of the
Bologna fans. The Bologna fanatics became involved in a greater number of
disorders than did those from Naples. The researchers speculate that Naples fans
acquired a positive self-image as a result of their team’s first place finish during
the season. By contrast, Bologna finished deep in the lower ranks. Seemingly,
the identification of fanatics with the Bologna team was severely weakened as a
result of their poor showing. The researchers suggest the Bologna fanatics
lack the possibility of a positive identification with their team. Since their team “has
nothing left to lose” they are not interested in the game and in the sporting values
and norms, but develop their own rules which govern the disturbances they them-
selves create in the stadium. (Zani & Kirchler, 1991, p. 19)
Personality 53
they might take? Would they go beyond booing, heckling, threatening gestures,
and verbal abuse? Certainly, personal threats against prominent athletes are not a
rarity. East German figure skating star Katarina Witt, among others, has reported
receiving threats (Brennan, 1994). Perhaps the most publicized act of violence
was the savage attack on tennis player Monica Seles during a match in Hamburg,
Germany. A fan of her rival Steffi Graf, stabbed her during a changeover on the
court. The man was apprehended and later given a 2-year suspended sentence.
The severity of her wound caused her to retire from competitive tennis for an
extended period of time (Brennan, 1994).
We see further evidence of potentially lethal tactics being adopted by some
racing car fans eager to advance the cause of their favorite drivers.
The 1994 Monte Carlo rally lost much of its lustre when thrill-seeking specta-
tors threw a shovelful of snow onto a stretch of mountain road early in the race.
In a split second, with all traction lost between their slick racing tyres and the
safety of dry asphalt, three-times Monte Carlo winner Didier Auriol and potential
world champion Colin McRae spun out of the rally just hours after it started.
Auriol retired immediately, his Toyota too badly damaged to continue, but
McRae restarted his Subaru Impreza 555. The most glamorous rally in the world
is slipping into chaos. This year’s stages were badly marshalled as police failed
to prevent spectators strewing snow in the path of whichever driver happened
to threaten their chosen idol. Only Frenchman Francois Deleco was allowed to
pass freely through the Ardéche where drivers ran the gauntlet between snow and
spectators at more than 180kmh. “There are only a few throwing snow, but they
are idiots,” said Colin McRae. “I understand that they want to see dramas, but at
what price?”
FISA, the sport’s governing body will be under pressure to improve marshal-
ling. In 1986 spectators were killed in the Portugal rally after a car lost control.
“In that country they throw gravel which has the same effect as snow,” said world
rally champion Juha Kankkunen. (“Rally crowd’s stupidity,” 1994)
At this juncture, it is important to re-affirm that active fans indeed have the
power to influence the outcome of contests (e.g., Greer, 1983; Laird, 1923; Lehman
& Reifman, 1987). Furthermore, that belief is strongest among sports fans that
most highly identify with their favorite team (Wann, Dolan, McGeorge, &
Allison, 1994). Consider a further implication of strong team allegiances. Students
at Murray State University were asked if they would be willing under a condition
of anonymity and with no possibility of arrest or retaliation to “break the leg of
the star player/coach of the opposing team immediately before the championship
game, thereby injuring them so they could not participate” (Wann et al., 1999,
p. 559). A second version of the question was created instead asking students if they
were willing to trip the opposition’s star player or coach. The percentages of the
willing ranged from 32% expressing a willingness to break the leg of the opposing
coach to 48% willing to trip the star player. Was there a relationship between the
strength of team identification and each of the four aggressive actions? Yes, the
analyses yielded significant positive correlations. The further significance of this
study is evidence that male and female fans are entirely willing to proactively
commit illegal acts of instrumental aggression even before a contest begins!
56 Aggression in the Sports World
The above study (Wann et al., 1999) examined sport fandom in relation to
instrumental aggression. That is, a large percentage of fans expressed a will-
ingness to assist their team by influencing the outcome through violent and
illegal means. However, the question remained as to whether highly identified
fans would also commit acts of hostile aggression under similar conditions of
anonymity.
A replication provided a test of this hypothesis (Wann, Haynes, McLean,
& Pullen, 2003). Again under the cloak of anonymity, participants were asked
to rate the likelihood they would trip the opposing star player/coach or break
the leg of the player/coach. The question was posed in a context described as
providing no competitive advantage to be gained from their actions. That is, the
participants’ violent acts are solely expressions of purely hostile aggression.
For all male and female participants, team identification was positively related
to tripping or breaking the leg of a star player or coach. Interestingly, there was
a greater willingness to commit instrumental acts of anonymous aggression than
overtly hostile acts of aggression. For example, 34% and 32% of fans were will-
ing to consider breaking the star player’s or coach’s leg for instrumental reasons
(Wann et al., 1999), whereas 14% and 13% would do so for hostile motives
(Wann et al., 2003). Parenthetically, only 3% and 4% of participants expressed
a willingness to consider the murder of an opposing player or coach (the small
numbers precluded an analysis). More recently, Wann et al. (2005) conducted a
replication in which the outcome of a college men’s basketball game against a
bitter rival was made known before participants’ providing self-reports of anon-
ymous acts of hostile aggression against the opposing team members. Highly
identified fans informed of a loss by their favorite team expressed a greater
willingness to commit more serious acts of violence, that is, break the leg of a
star player or coach.
More common to our experience as sport spectators is verbal aggression.
Here too, it can be asked if an outpouring of verbal abuse originates with
those fans most closely aligned with a team. In a test of this question, Wann,
Carlson, and Schrader (1999) had nearly 200 students attend an intercollegiate
men’s basketball game. Upon their arrival, they completed a pregame battery
of measures. Following the contest, the students were asked to answer four key
items assessing the extent to which they shouted abuse at (a) game officials and
(b) the opposition as well as whether the abuse was instigated for (c) instrumen-
tal or (d) hostile reasons.
Consistent with other studies in this series, highly identified spectators exhib-
ited more instrumental and hostile aggression than students less strongly identi-
fied. Confirmatory findings were reported in a study of verbal aggression among
spectators witnessing intercollegiate basketball and ice hockey games (Wann,
Schrader, & Carlson, 2000). In this replication, instrumental and hostile forms
of verbal aggression were again directed equally at opposition teams.
To be sure, there are many more ways for fans to assist their team other
than by resorting to overt physical or verbal attacks against their rivals. The
unscrupulous fan has at their disposal a range of dishonest, unethical, antiso-
cial, and illegal actions by which they potentially can assist their sport team.
Personality 57
Using the same overall design, Wann et al. (2001) asked a college sample to rate
their willingness to engage in a series of highly questionable acts, again with
an assurance of anonymity. Three actions will suffice to illustrate the breadth
of misdeeds participants were asked to consider. They might write a paper for
a player, help a player acquire steroids, or lie in court to protect a player. A
substantial 41% of the students expressed at least some interest in cheating on
behalf of their team, that is, letting a player cheat off you in class. As with
other studies in this research program, the analyses yielded a positive relation-
ship between team identification and a willingness to implement each of these
deplorable acts.
conflicts are adopted at the expense of violent ones. Inner peace and harmony is
a primary goal sought throughout the training regimen (Nosanchuk, 1981).
As they stand, the findings of Trulson (1986) and others (e.g., Daniels &
Thornton, 1990; Nosanchuk, 1981) offer promise of a therapeutic means of
reducing aggression in selected populations. Indeed, Trulson optimistically titled
his article “Martial Arts Training: A Novel ‘Cure’ for Juvenile Delinquency.”
However, before being swept up with martial arts programs intended to reduce
aggression in various target groups, a cautionary note is in order. The research
is not without its critics on methodological grounds (e.g., Nosanchuk, 1981;
Nosanchuk & MacNeil, 1989). As examples, the martial arts instructor and the
experimenter cannot be the same individual (see experimenter artifacts, Rosnow
& Rosenthal, 1996, Chapter 7). Furthermore, as Becker (1982) has noted there
is wide variability in the content of both traditional and modern martial art
schools. The elements comprising a traditional program of instruction must be
fully present and emphasized in order to assess the program’s effects (see also,
Twemlow & Sacco, 1998).
Methodological shortcomings notwithstanding, it appears we can attribute
any reduction in the boys’ aggression to their having learned the philosophi-
cal lessons of inner peace and harmony. Boys assigned to the modern version
de-emphasizing a philosophical component instead showed a sharp increase
in aggression (Trulson, 1986). Seemingly, any reduction cannot be credited to
training in lethal skills.
Cognitive Influences
False Consensus Effect
The manner in which individuals construe events as they unfold will often
determine the actions they take. Spectators in attendance at an event when a
fight erupts nearby may be influenced in their decision by a strong cognitive
bias, namely the false consensus effect. This bias may to a degree be responsible
for some spectators escalating a crowd disorder. The cognitive phenomenon is
the tendency of individuals “to see their own behavioral choices and judgments
as relatively common and appropriate to existing circumstances while viewing
alternate responses as uncommon, deviant, or inappropriate” (Ross, Greene, &
House, 1977, p. 280).
Consider for a moment an example of how a cognitive psychologist might
provide a demonstration of the false consensus effect operating in a real life
situation. A major junior hockey league has recently been “sold” on the merits
of power skating in the development of young players. As the saying goes, “you
skate from the waist down and play hockey from the waist up.” The league
governors have invited several nationally certified power skating coaches to
their summer training camp for an extra 5 days of training sessions, clinics, and
workshops after the regular camp ends. All of the young players in camp are
assembled and the coaches describe the basics and advantages of power skating.
They are further told that there is no charge to them for the extra 5 days. The
Personality 59
league is interested in developing young hockey talent and will cover all costs,
for example, their room and board plus a little spending money.
After the coaches depart, the players are surveyed and asked whether they
personally plan to stay the extra 5 days. Next, each player is asked to estimate
the percentage of players attending the summer camp that will also take
advantage of the opportunity. Were the psychologist to actually conduct this
simple demonstration, the prediction based on the false consensus effect would
be supported if those planning to stay for the 5 days of power skating gave
higher percentage estimates than players not planning to stay. Specifically,
the results of the survey might show that those intending to stay estimated
on average that 61% would also stay. By contrast, those not intending to stay
estimated that on average only 39% would take advantage of the opportunity.
Simply put, people generally believe that others in their shoes would behave
much as they do.
Field studies that recruited spectators found in actual attendance at hockey
games have consistently shown the false consensus effect to be a strong pre-
dictor of involvement in disturbances. That is, men who express a strong likeli-
hood of joining in a fight nearby provide higher percentage estimates of other
men who would do likewise compared with those who see little likelihood of
their getting involved. (Russell & Arms, 1995, 1998). In addition, hockey spec-
tators who rate “I like to watch the fights” as a strong reason for their presence
at the game also believe that a disproportionately larger number of other men
are attending for the same reason.
How might this perceptual bias set the stage for an escalation of crowd
violence? Those considering or wavering in their decision to join in a disturbance
may be emboldened by their belief that an inflated number of other men will
tacitly approve of their action and are themselves likely to intervene. Believing
others are approving and poised to join the battle, the individual takes a step that
he might not otherwise take.
Rumination
Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in the effects on aggression
of another cognitive factor, namely, rumination. In general terms, it has been
defined as one’s “propensity to think almost obsessively over past experiences
that have provoked negative affect in the form of anger” (Maxwell, 2004,
p. 279). In effect, the individual mulls over the thoughts and feelings triggered
by an earlier provocation including the rehearsal of thoughts of retaliation
(Bettencourt et al., 2006). Inasmuch as people differ in the degree to which
they typically ruminate over provocations, the question becomes one of whether
rumination has an effect on subsequent aggression.
For those enamored of cathartic theory, reliving the provocative incident
should result in a venting of anger with a subsequent decrease in aggression.
By contrast, aggressive cue theory (Berkowitz, 1993) would predict an increase
arising from the availability of aggressive cues present throughout a reliving of
the incident (see Chapter 7).
60 Aggression in the Sports World
BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
Sex Differences
There is a fairly widespread assumption that sports are more suited to males than
females. Indeed that may be true if we are referring to sports that favor physical
strength, stature, and a willingness to do violence. In such sports as football, ice
Personality 61
hockey, rugby, and boxing, athletes compete against same-sex opponents. Yet,
in sports where brute force is not critical to success, women have performed
on a par with men. As examples, women have dominated long distance swim-
ming during the past century and more recently scored victories in the grueling
Ididyrod dog sled race covering the 1,169-mile course from Anchorage to Nome,
Alaska.
In two other sports women have been shown to clearly surpass men in head
to head competition. Women excel at Grand Prix jumping earning more points
and prize money over the season than male riders (Ray & Grimes, 1993, p. 59).
The same is true of thoroughbred racing where despite a number of discrimina-
tory barriers, female jockeys earn significantly larger purses than male jockeys.
Even more telling is the sex difference in sheer riding ability. In the words of the
researchers’ “holding everything else constant, women appear to be outperform-
ing men at the finish line” (Grimes & Ray, 1995, p. 103). Where brawn is not
essential to success, women can likely hold their own in competition with men.
The dramatic and attention-getting nature of physical aggression often over-
shadows other forms of aggression that may be occurring at the same time,
for example, verbal and indirect forms. When we consider the question of sex
differences, the answer should be based on all forms of expressing aggression.
Interest in the general question of sex differences in aggression has remained
high throughout the past century. Reviews of the scientific literature have also
been periodically conducted. We begin with an influential review by Maccoby
and Jacklin. Their comprehensive review led them to the conclusion that “males
are more aggressive than females in all human societies for which evidence
is available” (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974, p. 242). They further noted that dif-
ferences in aggression between the sexes had been reported with considerable
consistency back through the 1930s. Moreover, these sex differences in aggres-
sion were found in field studies and formal laboratory experiments conducted
in a large number of cultures using a variety of measures. Maccoby and Jacklin
argued for a biological basis for sex differences in aggression in addition to
recognizing influences stemming from social learning.
A more recent review of sex differences examined studies that used adults as
participants (Eagly & Steffen, 1986) in contrast to young children who were the
focus of investigations in the Maccoby and Jacklin review. The analysis yielded
results that showed men were, overall, again more aggressive than women,
although not all studies reviewed showed that difference. Where male partici-
pants were clearly more aggressive was in experiments where their aggressive
behavior could ostensibly harm their target, for example, electric shock.
In a final example, overall sex differences were again apparent in a literature
review by Björkqvist, Österman, and Lagerspetz (1994). Across all forms of
aggression, males were found to be more aggressive than females. However, if
comparisons are restricted to less assaultive forms, the gap between men and
women appears to shrink.
Social commentary and the results of some investigations raise interesting
questions regarding sex differences in aggression, or the lack thereof. For exam-
ple, sociologist Murray Straus and his colleagues conducted a national survey of
62 Aggression in the Sports World
U.S. couples (Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). To paraphrase a major result,
the investigators were led to conclude that although wives physically beat their
husbands almost as frequently as husbands beat their wives; it is the husbands
who inflict the most damage.
Jeffrey Goldstein of Utrecht University has described his informal observa-
tions of childrens’ playground activities. While boys are generally more active
than girls, for example, chasing and pretend gunplay, girls stand mainly in small
groups chatting excitedly. He raises the distinct possibility that a portion of
their ladylike activity masks aggressive behavior intended to harm other girls.
Gossip, ostracism, manipulation, and character assassination represent forms of
indirect aggression (Björkqvist & Niemelá, 1992; Owens, Shute, & Slee, 2000).
Goldstein advances an insightful hypothesis: “What at first sight appears to be
aggressive boys and nonaggressive girls may, in deed and in consequence, be the
other way around” (Goldstein, 1998, p. 54).
Women as Troublemakers
Although their numbers appear small and researchers have paid them little heed,
young women in the company of male supporters and troublemakers have a clear
presence at football matches. What role if any, do females play in disorders? An
informal opinion survey of London area police officers (Trivizas, 1980) revealed
two ways in which the presence of females may indirectly incite males to antiso-
cial behaviors. First, some males may engage in confrontational behaviors as a
means of showing off. The second opinion takes note of the fact that females are
frequently the target of indecent gestures in football crowds. However, Trivizas
(1980) correctly observes that the mere presence of females may also reduce
the aggression of males (p. 285). Studies have shown that individuals admin-
ister higher levels of shock to their opponent when a passive male is watching
than when a female is observing their choice of shock settings (Borden, 1975).
One explanation for this effect allows that females are generally less approving
of aggression than males. As a consequence, males may hold their aggressive
impulses in check in the presence of women.
As noted, the numbers of females in attendance at European football matches
appears small. Depending upon the region, the traditions of individual stadia,
for example, family oriented or otherwise, provision of comfortable seating, or
a history of female involvement in supporters’ organizations, their numbers can
range up to approximately 20%.
Coalter (1985) undertook an examination of crowd behavior at three Scottish
football grounds using a questionnaire approach that involved nearly 12,000
respondents. The presence of female spectators was markedly different at
the venues. The largest percentage of female supporters (14%) were found at
Pittodrie, a family-oriented organization and home to the Aberdeen Football
Club (FC). Matches at Ibrox Stadium and Easter Road, home of the Glasgow
Rangers FC and Hibernian FC, respectively, attracted approximately half the
numbers of females (7%) seen at Pittodrie. A frequently cited reason for their
low attendance at matches has been the lack of comfortable seating. Coalter is
Personality 63
quick to point out that seating alone has a minimal influence on overall crowd
composition. However, he acknowledges that it may be a factor attracting female
supporters and less committed spectators. It is noteworthy that Pittrodrie was
all-seated and Ibrox was predominantly seated, whereas Easter Road provided
mostly terraced standing room from which to view matches. In sum, females are
in the stands in modest numbers while the factors influencing their decision to
attend remain somewhat obscure.
We see a closer involvement of a considerable number of females among
Italian “ultras.” These groups instigate disturbances in and around stadia and
have been distinguished from hooligans (see Roversi, 1991). Within the “ultras”
groups, 17.1% overall are female. Interestingly, Roversi makes mention of an
all-girl “ultras” group reflecting a tradition of female fans attending matches in
Bologna.
Italian football fans were also the subject of a second study that used a ques-
tionnaire approach in comparing registered Bologna supporters to those from
Naples (Zani & Kirchler, 1991). In this case, a distinction was made between
“fanatic” and “moderate” supporters. As the labels imply, “fanatics” watch all
matches, strongly identify with their team, and wear team-related apparel and
insignia. “Moderates” attend matches irregularly, have weaker ties to their club,
and have a looser organizational structure.
Again, females were represented in significant numbers. Among Bologna
supporters, females made up 20% of respondents, a preponderance of which
were declared “moderates.” Among the more strident Naples supporters, females
represented 8% of respondents, a preponderance being self-styled “fanatics”
(Zani & Kirchler, 1991, p. 10).
Notwithstanding the suggested “indirect” influence that females may exert
on male troublemakers (Trivizas, 1980), we turn to the question of their direct
involvement in disorderly behavior. Trivizas used an archival method, that is,
official arrest records, in comparing offenses occurring in football crowds
with a control group comprised of the same offenses committed in settings
unrelated to football over a 2-year period. Virtually all arrests for offenses
in British football crowds were made of males (99.2%). Arrests of teenage
females (less than 1%) were for offenses such as police obstruction, obstruc-
tion of the highway, and the use of insulting words, the latter charge account-
ing for over two-thirds of all arrests of males and females. Yet, in the control
sample, that is, in situations unrelated to football, females committed 12.7% of
the offense of “using threatening or abusive or insulting words or behaviour”
(Trivizas, 1980, p. 280). Females then, appear to play a less active role in
disorders when attending matches, leaving the largely verbal confrontational
behaviors to males.
Origins of Aggression
A long-standing question has centered on the origins of human aggression. Is
it behavior that is inherent in our nature, something that has been passed down
through inheritance over countless generations or does it have more immediate
64 Aggression in the Sports World
situational causes? During the early years of the last century, the prevailing
view held that behavior was learned. Few in North America believed that it has
its origins in hereditary processes. That view has since changed (see Renfrew,
1997, pp. 25–28).
Animal studies have clearly established that aggressiveness is inherited.
Finnish psychologist Kirsti Lagerspetz (1979) initially classified young rats as
either aggressive or nonaggressive on the basis of their observed behavior, for
example, ratings of attacks and biting. Subsequently, rats in each group were
interbred and the offspring rated on aggression. The selective breeding program
continued over successive generations with the aggressive group exhibiting
increases in aggression scores up until the tenth generation. Of course, the ques-
tion remained as to whether the aggression of humans has a similar genetic
component.
The obvious ethical and methodological problems associated with selective
breeding programs with humans have been bypassed by means of twin studies. In
twin studies, comparisons are made between identical twin pairs (monozygotic)
and nonidentical (dizygotic) or fraternal twin pairs. Monozygotic twin pairs share
a common environment and in addition, have an identical hereditary make-up.
Zygotic twin pairs also share a common environment but are not identical in
terms of genetic make-up. If a trait has a genetic component it should be more
strongly in evidence between monozygotic than between zygotic twin pairs.
Rushton, Fulker, Neale, Nias, and Eysenck (1986) have presented a convinc-
ing case for aggression being a partially inherited trait in humans. In excess
of 500 pairs of monozygotic and dizygotic twins completed measures of five
personality traits. These included aggression, assertiveness, altruism, empathy,
and nurturance, all of which had much stronger correlations within the sample
of monozygotic twins. Aggression then would appear to have its origins in both
our genetic inheritance and the social circumstances in which we are raised.
The relative contribution of each remains a matter for conjecture.
Chromosomal Anomalies
The notion that a chromosomal abnormality is a causal factor in human aggres-
sion has maintained a persistent presence in the media and the minds of the
general public. Men normally possess 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.
However, an estimated 1:550 men in the general population have an extra Y
chromosome. These XYYs were found to be disproportionately involved in anti-
social behavior that included aggression (Price & Whatmore, 1967). Similarly,
XYY men were also found to be overrepresented in the populations of prison
and other security institutions where ratios ranged from 1:35 to 1:100 (Court-
Brown, 1968). It was an easy step to conclude that the extra Y chromosome was
responsible for their aggression and/or incarceration. More recently, a critic has
taken more than a step, in fact a giant leap, suggesting that chromosomal abnor-
malities are responsible for violence among British soccer fans (Lehmann-Haupt,
1992). Interestingly, early on several criminal court cases involved men who
were defended on the basis of their possessing an extra Y chromosome.
Personality 65
associated with victory and lowered levels being associated with defeats. The
result appears fairly stable and extends across age levels, sports, cultures, and
means of viewing a contest, that is, in person or on television.
Finally, the case for testosterone being directly involved in aggression is
bolstered by Cohen, Nisbett, Bowdle, and Schwarz (1996) studies of the Southern
culture of honor. As you will hopefully recall from Chapter 1, Southern and
Northern university males were bumped in a narrow passageway and insulted
by being called an “asshole.” Following the affront, Southerners exhibited a rise
in testosterone levels whereas those of Northerners remained relatively constant.
The researchers interpreted their results as reflecting the Southerners’ prepared-
ness for aggression or dominant behavior.
Mehta and Josephs (2006) extended their investigation of the effects of
saliva testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) arising from competition to include
the participants’ decision to face the same opponent or instead choose a non-
competitive activity. Pairs of university men competed against each other in
a rigged puzzle test that ostensibly measured their “spatial reasoning speed.”
One of the males in each pairing was randomly chosen and given easier
puzzles to solve. Of course, he emerged the “winner,” his opponent, the “loser.”
Participants provided saliva samples before and shortly after the competition.
Immediately after the second sample was obtained, the men were presented
with a choice. Either they could face the same opponent in a new competition
involving a fresh set of puzzles or complete a questionnaire on their food and
music preferences.
The participants were divided into two groups, the top third who showed an
increase in T, the bottom third who showed a decrease in T. For winners, both
increases and decreases in T were unrelated to their choice of further competi-
tion against their earlier opponent versus completing the questionnaire. However,
for losers it was a different story. Those experiencing an increase in T chose
competition with their former adversary. Losers experiencing a decrease chose
the questionnaire option. Finally, the changes in C were unrelated to choice for
both winners and losers.
The relationship between hormones and behavior has been expanded by
the work of Bateup, Booth, Shirtcliff, and Granger (2002). Their use of young
women rugby players in their investigation of T and C under competitive condi-
tions adds to a sparse literature on effects on females. In addition, their choice of
rugby dispels any doubts that the competition involves anything less than exces-
sive physical aggression. Whereas women in the Edwards, Wetzel, and Wyner
(2006) study competed in soccer, rugby requires hard physical contact, tackling,
or kicking for 80 min with no time-outs. The women wear no protective equip-
ment. Female boxing notwithstanding, “this is one of the rare natural social
ecologies in which women’s hormonal responses to highly physical aggressive
competition can be studied” (Bateup et al., 2002, p. 182).
Seventeen female rugby players (ages 18–22 years) served as participants
over the course of five university league matches. Saliva samples were collected
at three points in time, that is, 24 hr before, 20 min before the match began,
and immediately following each match. Analyses yielded an interesting pattern
68 Aggression in the Sports World
of results. During the 24-hr period when the women could only “anticipate”
the upcoming match, both T and C levels increased. Levels of T and C also
increased from pre- to postgame. However, whether the team won or lost their
match was unrelated to T changes. On the other hand, changes in C levels during
the game were negatively related to losing.
A final study rounds out the topic of hormonal influences in competitive
settings (Edwards et al., 2006). The researchers’ chose soccer as their com-
petitive sport in an intercollegiate varsity program that included men’s and
women’s teams. Saliva samples were obtained before and after matches. The
women played two matches: one, a victory; the other, a defeat. The men played
only one match, a victory. Among the findings, both men and women experi-
enced increased levels of T and C during their matches. In victory or defeat, the
increases in women’s T and C were highly similar.
Throughout this section, I have emphasized studies conducted in sports at the
expense of those in nonsport settings, for example, prison populations. Overall
the nonsport studies reveal more of a mix of results, some predicted differences
finding support, others, not. Furthermore, interpretations of the evidence are
sometimes problematic (Edwards, 2006). For example, a testosterone–aggres-
sion link may be bidirectional. That is, testosterone may lead to an increase in
aggressive behavior. Equally likely, aggressive behavior may lead to an increase
in testosterone. Also, it is not entirely clear that the investigative contexts
involved sports that are truly aggressive (see Chapter 1, Definitions). Boxing
and other combative sports would have been a better choice than sports such as
tennis or wrestling. While the latter two sports involve assertive, vigorous, and
competitive behaviors, they do not necessarily involve physical aggression to the
same extent.
It would be a fair summary to conclude that the evidence from all quarters
in support of a testosterone-aggression link is weak. As one authoritative source
suggests “The majority of evidence indicates that in the general population
differences in aggressiveness reflect the level of testosterone only to a limited
extent, if at all.” (italics added; Benton, 1992, p. 46). A second authoritative
opinion concludes, “The relationship between testosterone and aggression in
human males is far less robust than that shown in other mammalian species. In
many cases the data are equivocal” (Ferris, 2006, p. 166).
establish territory or gain access to a food supply. Unlikely in the present example!
More likely, fighting achieves a certain status or establishes a dominance hier-
archy. In addition, our theorist may be interested in the effect of an audience on
the fighters or what onlookers themselves learn from their observations.
The thoughts of our theorist now turn to the problem of how to design an
experiment that can provide empirical data to answer his many questions. Upon
reflection, he quickly realizes that ethical and practical considerations pretty
much limit him to surveys, questionnaires, and interviews. His initial idea of a
controlled experiment seems pretty much out of the question.
As many of my readers will know, behavioral scientists working with lower
animals have investigated fighting between males under controlled experimental
conditions. Their efforts have yielded data of the highest quality and, depending
on one’s willingness to generalize the findings to human interactions, provided
insights into questions surrounding our two boys in the schoolyard. Regarding
generalizing, the watchword should be “caution.”
Let me return to the opening paragraph (above) and describe a set of findings
related to boys squaring off against each other. At the outset, one term in partic-
ular needs clarification, that is, eavesdropping. In using fish as a research model,
it can refer to the ability of a bystander to extract information from observing
two conspecifics interacting with each other (McGregor & Peake, 2000).
The typical lab apparatus consists of specially designed tanks in which the
experimenter can manipulate the ability to observe aggressive encounters by
way of clear, one-way mirror or opaque partitions. A “contest arena” contains
two male fighting fish while an “observation arena” is adjacent and contains a
bystander and a separated control fish.
In an investigation of communication networks, Earley, Tinsley, and Dugatkin
(2003) used green swordtail fish (Xiphophorus helleri) in their examination of
the effects of previewing a conspecific they will later fight. Initially, two sepa-
rated males had the opportunity to visually assess each other, for example, size,
sword length, before being introduced into the same tank.
The fight that followed was significantly shorter than when only one or neither
fish had advance knowledge of his opponent. Among other findings, aggression
against a larger fish occurred more frequently but only after previewing their
opponent. This is taken as evidence that swordtails can gain information on
body size from observing a single conspecific. In addition, when a disadvantage
to fighting is observed, tactics are adopted that will increase their probability of
victory, for example, a rapid escalation of attack.
A further question of interest is whether observing fights produces changes in
the observer’s aggression in other settings and with other conspecifics? Using the
paradigm above, those bystanders able to watch encounters were subsequently
set against conspecifics not previously seen fighting. The results indicated that
general changes in aggressive behavior do not occur after observing a fight
(Earley, Druen, & Dugatkin, 2005). That is, there was no change in the tendency
of bystanders to initiate attacks against previously unseen conspecifics nor was
their tendency to escalate or even win contests changed.
70 Aggression in the Sports World
SUMMARY
In briefly summarizing this chapter, several points bear repeating. As with many
of the concepts in the social sciences, for example, leadership or competition,
there is rarely agreement on a satisfactory definition. Personality is no exception.
The measurement of traits was emphasized insofar as the psychometric proper-
ties of a measure, for example, validity or reliability, are fundamentally impor-
tant in the design and interpretation of a personality study. In addition, a half
dozen personality models that feature aggression as a central trait were briefly
reviewed. The identificatory process was examined and extended to situations in
which fans and others used aggression to affect competitive outcomes. Also, sex
differences in aggression were examined along with extended coverage of the
role of testosterone. The chapter concluded with a summary of a new marker for
physical aggression, that is, the finger digit ratio.
Suggested Readings
Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among
us. New York: Pocket Books.
An estimated 2 million psychopaths are living among us in North America. Many
can be found in prisons; others use their charming ways and manipulative skills to
skirt the law. These are dangerous people who live in our neighborhoods and cause
heartbreak, fi nancial ruin, and shattered lives for those with whom they become
involved.
72 Aggression in the Sports World
Manning, J. T. (2002). Digit ratio: A pointer to fertility, behavior and health. NJ: Rutgers
University Press.
Press the palm of your right hand down on a tabletop. Look down. Do you have a
long ring finger and a shorter index finger? If so, you have a low digit ratio. In general,
men with low finger length ratios are more aggressive and excel at sports, for example,
football or skiing. This book details an extensive body of research findings from this
emerging topic of inquiry.
Zuckerman, M. (2005). Psychobiology of personality (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
This book is ideally suited for those students of personality interested in taking a
broad approach to the topic. The volume presents an overview that includes extended
coverage of topics such as psychobiological methods, trait structure, psychoticism,
impulsivity, sensation seeking, and aggression/hostility. This carefully researched book
is highly recommended to the more advanced student of personality.
3
ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINANTS
Introduction
Consider the plight of an unfortunate baseball fan who finds himself in searing
afternoon heat, sandwiched between two huge sweating men, both of whom
reek of body odor. The capacity crowd is roaring its approval for well-executed
plays by the locals, while screaming abuse at the visitors at every opportunity.
Under these adverse conditions, that is, excessive noise, oppressive temperatures,
noxious odors, and crowding, should we be surprised if the quality of moods
and interpersonal relations worsened among the spectators? To be sure, these
and other environmental conditions can act individually or in any number of
combinations to affect spectators and others in attendance, that is, officials and
athletes. Each factor will be individually examined principally with regard to its
possible influence on aggression.
The latter half of this chapter will examine a second set of external influences
beginning with coverage of a sample of drugs, some legal, some not, accompa-
nied by representative research findings attesting to the effects of each on human
aggression. Included in the sample are alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, marijuana,
diazepam, and steroids.
What are the effects on people’s aggression when they are placed in com-
petitive situations? Notwithstanding its widespread popularity, does competition
bring out the best in people? Equally controversial is the “weapons effect,” the
hypothesis that the mere presence of a weapon, for example, a gun, is sufficient
to elicit aggression from those in the immediate vicinity. Finally, the chapter
concludes with sections on the geography of sports aggression, that is, the where
and why of aggressive incidents.
73
74 Aggression in the Sports World
Crowding
The hapless fan we placed in the most unlikely of circumstances (above) is
undoubtedly feeling the effects of being squashed as he is between two large
men. Notwithstanding the effects of several additional factors weighing on his
mood, crowding per se and the inevitable intrusion on his personal space can
result in mood-altering changes for our fan. A similar scenario has been expe-
rienced at one time or another by nearly all of us. Finding ourselves leaving a
stadium in a slow-moving, densely packed crowd can produce stress or, at the
least, apprehension.
At this point, note should be taken of a basic distinction between crowding
and density. Crowding is a subjective feeling of unease arising from being physi-
cally restricted. The discomfort derives from a perception that there are just too
many people in the immediate area. Density simply refers to the concentration
of people within a defined space. While this section highlights the relationships
between aggression and crowding/density, note should be taken of the relative
absence of aggression in a number of densely populated countries. The former
British colony of Hong Kong and the Netherlands are two prime examples. Both
cope well with their crowded circumstances at the same time enjoying low rates
of social violence.
However, crowding can lead to conflict in just about any circumstance. In
writing of the role of mountaineers in advertising the unique beauty of Nepal,
Lindsay Barrett (1993) observes that “things have gotten a little out of control.
On a recent ascent of Everest, so many different teams converged on the summit
[italics added] that a fight broke out at 8,848m. The government has begun to
organise matters so that such debacles cannot happen again” (p. 27).
Two early investigations of crowding pointed up some of the complexities
for one to consider before assuming a direct crowding-aggression relationship
(Freedman, Levy, Buchanan, & Price, 1972; Marshall & Heslin, 1975). In the
former study, sex differences came to the fore insofar as women experienced
crowding in positive terms. They tended to see such situations as rich social
occasions. However, men reacted to crowding quite differently. They felt person-
ally threatened when crowded together and found the experience to be aversive.
Crowding appeared to sow the seeds of distrust with hostility evident between
some of the male participants. Freedman et al. (1972) attributed their results
to the differing socialization processes between males and females, that is, the
creation of different interpretations and expectations stemming from the close
presence of others.
A second study appeared to contradict the Freedman et al. findings (Marshall &
Heslin, 1975). Contrary to the foregoing results, Marshall and Heslin reported
that women working together liked each other less under crowded conditions.
Men came to like each other more when crowded! A critical difference in design
between the two studies was the greater time required for the experimental task,
one-and-a-half hours in the Marshall and Heslin investigation. They propose
that over time men’s initial hostility gives way to the development of a team
Environmental and Situational Influences 75
spirit and a striving to attain the task goals. They further reason that at the
outset women responded positively to the intimacy of being crowded. However,
given the structure of an extended time frame for the task, feelings of warmth
and intimacy are soon relinquished and instead they “focus on leadership and
achievement.” Feelings of ambivalence toward their own success and achievement
makes “the close proximity uncomfortable for them” (p. 958).
The potential for interpersonal conflict arising from crowded conditions can
also be viewed from the personal space model. Personal space has been defined
as “the area individual humans actively maintain around themselves into which
others cannot intrude without arousing discomfort” (Hayduk, 1978, p. 118). Also,
the greater the incursion into one’s personal space the greater the amount of
discomfort they experience (Hayduk, 1981). These unwelcome intrusions may in
some circumstances serve as a strong provocation (Kinzel, 1970).
Note should be taken of two additional points in generalizing the personal
space model to events in a crowded section of the bleachers. That is, violent
individuals maintain a larger personal space than do peaceable spectators. They
and others requiring greater interpersonal distance also react more strongly to
intrusions (Hayduk, 1981). It follows that the reaction to crowding would be
strongest among particular spectators, that is, those who are dispositionally
assaultive.
Several points regarding crowding as a factor associated with disorders at
sports events should be noted. First, peoples of different nations and cultures
require different distances between themselves and others with whom they inter-
act. Moreover, their tolerance for being jam packed with others in a dense crowd
will vary in a similar fashion (Hall, 1966). Against this background, Mann
(1989) has suggested that the high rates of entry panics and crowd violence seen
in Latin America can be partially attributed to the tolerance of fans for high
levels of crowd density. In his view, a breakdown in order is more likely to result
when interpersonal distances between spectators are minimal.
Expert opinion has historically favored the view that crowding is a major
factor favoring the facilitation of outbursts of spectator violence. Mason (1980)
identified 17 incidents involving crowd disorders at English football matches
occurring over a half century of play before 1915. Terrace overcrowding was cited
as the second leading cause of crowd disturbances just behind anger at referees’
calls and ahead of unpopular decisions taken by football club officials.
The second point to note is that on those occasions when altercations erupt
among crowded spectators, it is unlikely that crowding is solely responsible.
More likely, several factors in addition to crowding have combined to facili-
tate the outburst. For example, British researchers have long recognized terrace
crowding at football matches as a likely contributing factor in crowd disorders.
Yet, a large number of other less obvious factors could also be involved on any
single occasion. These might include the presence of individuals in the crowd
who are bent on causing trouble, friction between rival supporters, controversial
calls by officials, and weather-related factors. We turn now to consider one such
weather factor.
76 Aggression in the Sports World
Temperature
I pray thee, good Mercutio, let’s retire:
The day is hot, the Capulets abroad,
And, if we meet, we shall not ‘scape a brawl;
For now, these hot days, is the mad blood stirring.
Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet
exceedingly high levels (above 100˚F), aggression takes a downward turn. In the
upper range of temperatures the relationship of temperature to aggression is best
described by an inverted-U curve.
Baron and Richardson (1994) make note of several other factors in account-
ing for the curvilinearity at very hot temperatures, factors that influence people
under these extreme conditions, for example, stress, fatigue, anxiety, and odors.
These additional factors are combined along with heat and labeled negative
affect. Up to a point, aggression is the dominant response in a response hierar-
chy that determines our reaction to high temperatures. As temperatures soar to
oppressive levels, aggression is replaced at the top of the individual’s response
hierarchy by a need to escape what is clearly a thoroughly aversive situation.
Hence, aggression is no longer the dominant response and is seen to take a
downward turn when temperatures soar above 100°F (40°C). With evidence
available supporting both the linear (e.g., Carlsmith & Anderson, 1979) and cur-
vilinear models, a resolution of these two conflicting views might best be left to
ongoing research.
Many sports are played in exceedingly hot conditions. Fans and athletes in
many countries are exposed to temperatures topping 100 ˚F. Interpersonal aggres-
sion by fans in the stands or around the stadium would predictably be a more
common occurrence on such days. But what about the athletes? Would they not
also be more aggressive on very hot days? An archival study conducted in major
league baseball allows us to respond, “yes” (Reifman, Larrick, & Fein, 1991).
The researchers chose the number of batters hit by errant pitches (HBP) as
their measure of aggression. The HBP measure was tallied from the records of a
major Texas league for all games played over three seasons, a total of 826 con-
tests. Records of the U.S. national weather office provided the temperatures at
game time. As predicted, the number of batters hit in games steadily increased
as temperatures rose to very high levels. A number of rival explanations such as
pitcher wildness due to fatigue or sweaty palms were ruled out by means of sup-
plemental analyses. Lastly, a footnote may be provided to the linear–curvilinear
debate. Within the range of game time temperatures that rarely exceeded 100°F,
the relationship was linear.
in the first study (Donnerstein & Wilson, 1976) were initially angered by a
confederate who evaluated their essay by means of administering shock within
the teacher–learner paradigm, using an aggression machine (Buss, 1961). Two
levels of white noise, 65 dB and 95 dB, were delivered by means of a headset.
The noise had no effect on nonangered participants. However, individuals who
were previously angered displayed high levels of aggression in the intense noise
condition of the experiment. In the second part of the investigation, partici-
pants were given the option of terminating the noise if they chose; others were
not given that option. Again, participants were either angered or not angered.
Participants received bursts of white noise (95 dB) at unpredictable intervals
while engaged in a task. Angered participants not exposed to noise did not
differ from those exposed to very loud noise yet having the ability to control
it. Those exposed to loud noise without the ability to terminate the bursts of
noise displayed significantly higher levels of aggression, that is, they delivered
stronger shocks to the confederate. Similar findings have been reported by
Geen and McCown (1984). Noise had no appreciable effect on the aggression
of unprovoked participants. Those who were provoked but had the option of
controlling the noise were more aggressive than participants without the option
to terminate the noise. Those without the option to terminate the noise, that is,
uncontrolled, delivered significantly higher levels of shock than the other two
groups of provoked participants.
A critical feature of the designs sketched above is the fact of participants
being angered or provoked before being exposed to loud noise. The provocation
itself leads to a heightened state of physiological arousal, a condition generally
believed to facilitate the expression of aggression (Baron & Richardson, 1994).
The effects of extreme noise levels are considerably stronger when people are
already angry. Consider the example of 20,000 screaming baseball fans infuri-
ated by the umpire’s controversial call during the ninth inning of a championship
game. In the loud din of protest, violence becomes a distinct possibility.
Parallels with my short stay in Cherrydale are evident. Stress notwithstanding,
the schedule of arrivals and departures were unknown to us and, hence, unpre-
dictable, and of course, the noise of the planes was beyond our ability to control.
In our case, Cherrydale was such an idyllic DC suburb that the noise proved to
be only a series of momentary distractions.
Color
Do colors in some way influence the level of aggression in sports or is the idea
just too far-fetched? Seemingly color plays a central role in athletic performance
and aggression. Take red as an example. Red coloration has been associated
with male dominance and increased testosterone levels in a variety of animals.
A question arising from this literature prompted Hill and Barton (2005) to ask
whether red would favor combatants in aggressive sports. Athletes competing in
four combatant sports during the 2004 Olympic Games (Athens) were randomly
assigned to either of two conditions, that is, a red outfit or a blue outfit. The sports
were boxing, Tae Kwon Do, Greco-Roman wrestling, and freestyle wrestling.
80 Aggression in the Sports World
The results were straightforward. Across all four competitions, athletes wearing
red won more bouts than those wearing blue outfits. The same result was found
across the weight divisions in each of the sports. A further analysis assessed
won/lost differences as a function of how close the fighters were in sheer athletic
ability. It was only when the two fighters were evenly matched that a difference
arose favoring the athlete wearing red.
Hill and Barton extended their investigation of color to include team sports.
The performance of five teams competing in the Euro 2004 international soccer
tournament wearing red shirts were compared with their performance in matches
wearing some other color (predominantly, white). Once again, teams performed
better, that is, goal scoring, wearing red than when their shirt was of a different
color.
The study was quickly followed by a systematic replication intended to deter-
mine if the color red had “special” properties. If so, then other colors would
not yield results similar to those above (Rowe, Harris, & Roberts, 2005). The
sport of judo was chosen from the Athens Olympics, a competition in which
athletes were randomly assigned blue or white outfits. The analysis revealed a
significant winning margin by athletes wearing blue outfits, and again, the dif-
ference was most pronounced when the contestant pairs were clearly matched
in ability. Having produced the winning edge with blue and white outfits, Rowe
et al. (2005) concluded “there is nothing inherently special about red” (p. 293).
At this early stage, explanations for the effect are highly speculative. Barton
and Hill (2005) proposed an evolutionary view wherein color is believed to pro-
duce changes in the mood, emotions, and aggression of humans. Among many
nonhuman species color serves as a means of signaling during competitive inter-
actions. Moreover, they make note of the fact that attaching an artificial red
stimulus to some nonhuman species can increase a male’s dominance.
Given their results, Rowe et al. (2005) have instead adopted the view that
“outfit colour affects opponent visibility, which is crucial for avoidance and
interception, and for anticipating behavior” (p. E10). Their (untested) visibility
hypothesis suggests the white outfit is perceived as brighter and provides a
greater contrast with its background. Consequently, the athlete wearing blue has
a visual advantage in being better able to anticipate his opponent’s moves.
Other colors in other sports have also been linked to aggression. We know
for example, that in the Western world black has represented dark forces, evil,
and death (for the Chinese, white serves this function). This pervasive belief in
Western societies that black is the color of sinister intentions prompted research-
ers to investigate whether people wearing black are seen by others as aggressive.
Taking it a step further, are those in black attire more “black-hearted” and do
they actually behave more aggressively than others?
In addressing the first question, researchers recruited naive subjects with vir-
tually no knowledge of football or ice hockey. National Football League (NFL)
and National Hockey League (NHL) uniforms were rated on their malevolent
qualities, for example, bad, mean, and aggressive. Uniforms that were predomi-
nantly black from both the NFL and NHL were perceived to be more sinister
than uniforms of generally lighter colors (Frank & Gilovich, 1988).
Environmental and Situational Influences 81
An answer to the second and more important question was found in the NFL
and NHL records for all seasons dating back to 1970. In both leagues, aggres-
sive penalties served as the measure of team aggression. Teams wearing dark
uniforms were penalized for greater yardage and spent more time in the penalty
box than teams attired in lighter colors.
Those of my readers who follow football and hockey have no doubt thought
of an explanation for the results. Could it simply be that referees judge the
play of defensive players as more aggressive when they wear black uniforms?
Knowledgeable college students and experienced referees were recruited in a
test of this possibility. A staged video featuring defensive play was rated by both
groups of participants. In each case the play was rated as more aggressive and
somewhat dirtier when the team wore black rather than white uniforms. The
key finding was that the referees call a tighter game, that is, they awarded more
penalties to the team in the black version.
Perhaps the simple act of putting on a black uniform in some way prompts
an athlete to seek out more aggressive situations. This appears to be the case.
Participants were given black or white uniforms—ostensibly to create team
cohesion—and then given a choice of activities in which to compete. Teams
wearing black more often chose aggressive contests, for example, chicken fights
and dart gun contest.
To summarize, teams wearing black uniforms are awarded an excess of
aggressive penalties for two reasons. They seek out opportunities for acts of
aggression, and in addition, referees more strictly enforce the rules of play. As a
footnote, teams wearing black fared no better in the win column over the course
of the season.
The Frank and Gilovich (1988) findings, however, have not gone unchal-
lenged. A study by Mills and French (1996) sought to replicate the earlier find-
ing of a significant relationship between uniform color and aggressive penalties
in the NFL and NHL. In testing their hypothesis, they drew upon the official
NHL records of play by the Los Angeles Kings and Minnesota/Dallas Stars.
An analysis was based upon records of aggressive penalties 1, 2, and 3 years
before a switch in uniforms from multicolored jerseys, for example, white,
yellow, and purple, to predominantly black. In their article, Mills and French
simply announce in the “Results” section, “There was no statistical significance
to support the relationship between the color of jersey worn and an increase in
the number of infractions (i.e., penalty minutes) in the NHL” (p. 57). No further
tabled or descriptive details are provided to allow a close inspection of their
data. For this reason alone, I would regard the challenge as weak.
We turn now to an odd study that touches sport only briefly. It involves
several anecdotal bits of evidence supporting the notion that a particular hue of
pink (Baker–Miller Pink) dramatically reduces the aggressive behavior of those
exposed to the color. Violent offenders placed in a cell painted pink are suddenly
calmed as are unruly schoolchildren when taught in a pink classroom. While
these stories invite skepticism, they nonetheless capture the public’s imagination.
I have watched them appear in the media and then disappear only to resurface
again over the past 25 plus years. Most recently, my interest was piqued when
82 Aggression in the Sports World
Lunar Influences
Deep-seated beliefs that the moon exerts an influence on human behaviors are to
be found in Shakespeare, the Bible, legal writings, folklore, and music. Close to
two-thirds of North Americans see at least some events as attributable to lunar
influence (Russell & Dua, 1983). A list of such events includes births, deaths,
pyromania, mental illness, epilepsy, accidents, suicide, homicide, interpersonal
aggression, and, of course, lycanthrophy (werewolves). However, the present
focus is on aggression in sports and the extent to which it is conceivably associ-
ated with lunar cycles.
The records of over 500 Western Hockey League games covering over two
seasons of play provided the basic data in two studies (Russell & de Graaf,
1985; Russell & Dua, 1983). The measure of interpersonal aggression was the
total minutes in penalties awarded in each game for aggressive infractions, for
example, fighting, slashing, and boarding. The games were classified into four
72-hr periods centered on the time of each phase of the moon, that is, new
moon, first quarter, full moon, and last quarter. A second analysis compared
games played during the 72-hr periods centered on apogee (moon is furthest
from Earth) with those played during equivalent periods of perigee (moon closest
to Earth). In analyses involving both the synodic (four moon phases) and anoma-
listic (apogee–perigee) cycles, there was not a hint of associations between lunar
phase and player aggression (see Rotton & Kelly, 1985 for a review of other
lunar hypotheses).
Parenthetically, those who tenaciously cling to lunar beliefs typically draw
our attention to the gravitational pull of the full moon in causing ocean tides.
This strong gravitational force is seen to exert similar effects on our body’s
water content. For example, during the full moon phase of the synodic cycle, the
water content of each of our zillion or so cells is presumed to be sent sloshing
this way and that prompting us to set fires, commit murder, or start fights.
Environmental and Situational Influences 83
Page and Moss (1976) conducted a major test of the prediction that lighting
and interpersonal aggression are related. Male subjects were randomly assigned
to one of four experimental conditions of a lab experiment. Using the Buss (1961)
aggression machine, participants ostensibly administered levels of shock to a
confederate learner in either a brightly lit room or a dimly lit room. In addition,
the learner was either close at hand in the same room or at a distance in a nearby
room. Strong support was found inasmuch as participants administered shocks
of greater intensity and somewhat longer duration in the dimly lit situation (for
details on the aggression machine procedure see Chapter 7, pp. 207–208).
How might a relationship between darkness and crowd aggression be
explained? First, crowd members in semidark conditions are generally unknown
to each other and are thereby afforded a measure of anonymity. Furthermore,
spectators in darkened surroundings may experience a state of deindividuation
whereby they become less self-aware and show little concern with how others
will evaluate their behavior. Add to this a reduction in perceived accountability
for their actions. The result for those watching a competition from darkened
sections is a weakening of inhibitions against aggression (Mann, Newton, &
Innes, 1982).
Ions
The public and researchers have long recognized associations between various
weather phenomena and human behavior. For instance, dry seasonal winds
in various parts of the world have been associated with increases in suicides,
accidents, and some crimes. At the least, people report increases in tension,
irritability, and difficulty in sleeping. These negative effects appear to be shared
by people in the path of the Chinook winds of Western Canada, the Sirocco
(Italy), Santa Ana (California), Foehn (Switzerland), or Sharav (Israel). Studies
of the effects of wind events are typically correlational and yield results that
are open to a number of rival explanations. That is, there is a confounding of
weather variables. With the onset of the Santa Ana wind, there are correspond-
ing changes in air quality, temperatures, barometric pressure, and humidity in
addition to wind velocity, itself an aversive experience. Each weather variable
or various combinations of such variables could be responsible for any observed
effects. In general, a controlled experimental setting is best suited to isolate and
pinpoint a weather variable as the cause of a particular behavior, for example,
aggression. Such relationships have been established between aggression and
the variables of temperature (e.g., Bell & Baron, 1976), air pollution (Rotton &
Frey, 1985), and foul odors (Rotton, Frey, Barry, Milligan, & Fitzpatrick, 1979)
by means of lab experiments.
A weather-related event that is generally unrecognized as an influence on
behavior is ionization of the immediate atmosphere, that is, whether there is a
concentration of positive or negative ions. The prevailing belief has been that
negative ions have generally beneficial effects whereas positive ions produce det-
rimental effects. However, an early correlational study (Muecher & Ungeheuer,
Environmental and Situational Influences 85
1961) suggested that concentrations of negative ions are associated with higher
rates of crime, suicide, and accidents in the workplace. Other studies have yielded
mixed results overall. Included among the naturally occurring events that cre-
ate a preponderance of negative ions are rain and lightning strikes. However,
modern technology contributes to the creation of positive ions in a major way
through machinery, automobiles, air conditioners, and the production of smog.
Commercially manufactured negative ion generators have been marketed
along with claims of positive health and beneficial social effects for users. Such
a machine was used to examine various effects on experimental subjects, specif-
ically Type A individuals (Baron, Russell, & Arms, 1985). As noted previously,
Type A individuals are gripped by an overriding sense of urgency; there is never
enough time; there are deadlines to be met. They are impatient, hard driving,
and competitive as they strive for “success.” Also included as a prominent trait
in the Type A personality profile is hostility. It is mainly when their pursuit
of success is thwarted or they are in some way frustrated that their hostility
surfaces.
One phase of the Baron et al. (1985) experiment involved placing angered
versus nonangered participants in the role of a “trainer.” They ostensibly deliv-
ered a pulse of heat of varying intensities to another participant. Those assigned
earlier to the anger condition overheard the experimenter and his accomplice
speaking about him, that is, “I mean, look at him . . . he looks like an idiot;
what if he screws up?” Otherwise, those in the nonanger condition heard them
discussing the experimental task. The participants were later fully debriefed.
The results of this aspect of the investigation revealed that angered Type A
participants exposed to a negative ion environment showed a major increase in
aggression. On the other hand, Type B individuals, similarly angered, showed
no change in their aggression from low to high concentrations of negative ions.
A key point to note is that negative ions act to increase the aggression of indi-
viduals who are already in an aggressive state. That is, negative ions heighten a
person’s preexisting aggressive mood state rather than create the mood.
Liking for another person is also subject to influence by levels of negative
ions. People whom we initially like because we share similar opinions are liked
even more in a negative ion setting. Those whom we dislike because of differing
opinions are disliked even more intensely in the same negative ion environment
(Baron, 1987). In sum, with respect to aggression and/or a dislike of others, the
presence of a concentration of negative ions can further heighten preexisting,
negatively toned social interactions.
Inasmuch as crowds themselves contribute positive ions to a situation, they
are in effect increasing the likelihood of a crowd disturbance. If a sports event is
being staged in front of hostile, partisan spectators, a preponderance of negative
ions may worsen matters. If instead, the crowd is in a friendly, jovial mood, then
negative ions will act to further enhance goodwill. These effects would likely
occur among Type A individuals. The rush to buy a negative ion generator in
hopes of bringing health and tranquility to your home should perhaps be given
more thought, perhaps even postponed or shelved.
86 Aggression in the Sports World
Alcohol
The part played by alcohol in the daily lives of athletes and their fans varies
dramatically across sports and cultures. For instance, the reputation of a rugby
player is based on three attributes. Apart from any playing skills he may pos-
sess, he must additionally consume excessive amounts of alcohol. His reputation
is further enhanced by an ability to tell raunchy stories and sing naughty ditties
(Young, 1988). By contrast, there is a relative absence of alcohol use among
athletes in other sports, for example, golf, body building, swimming, gymnas-
tics, figure skating, and track and field. It is tempting to speculate that alcohol
use is more common in team than in individual sports.
Alcohol has historically been vilified. Sunday morning sermons have railed
against its use, often with good reason. The tragedies of alcoholism and the
daily carnage on our highways clearly attest to its pernicious effects on society.
It is but a small step to conclude that disorderly behavior by intoxicated indi-
viduals is similarly brought on by drink. Common wisdom holds that when an
individual has had too much to drink he/she is likely to get belligerent, hostile,
or unruly. Of course, not everyone follows this pattern when drinking. But the
question remains, is there a general tendency for people to become aggressive
after consuming alcohol, that is, a causal effect (for more on causality see
Chapter 7, pp. 231–232)?
The field of criminology has provided a considerable number of correlational
studies highlighting the role of alcohol in social violence. For example, a review
of 10 studies (MacDonald, 1961) found that over 50% of murderers had been
drinking before committing their offense. British investigators of soccer violence
and the media have consistently drawn public attention to the drunken state of
some of the young fans. In the case of crowd disturbances, they have been quick
to identify alcohol as a leading cause (Williams, Dunning, & Murphy, 1984).
North American sports fans hold similar views. Buffalo Sabers hockey fans were
asked to rate the importance of 14 factors in contributing to spectator violence.
Questionable decisions by referees and the age of fans were first and second,
respectively. Alcohol was third (Cavanaugh & Silva, 1980). Of course, being
correlational we are unable to attribute causality to the observed relationships.
Some of the earliest formal investigations yielded mixed results. In some
cases, alcohol was found to have no effects on physical aggression (e.g., Bennett,
Buss, & Carpenter, 1969). Not a surprising result for many people. Most of us
attending parties have observed that even when the drinks are flowing freely, the
partygoers become increasingly mellow and sociable as the night wears on. The
foregoing points up the fact that the relationship is complex and other factors
are likely at play.
Researchers at Kent State University (e.g., Taylor, Gammon, & Capasso, 1976)
note a critical difference between studies showing a relationship and those that
failed to find a relationship. Simply put, it was the degree of threat present in
the situation. Participants in some of the studies that failed to find a relationship
Environmental and Situational Influences 87
mind with a tough guy, macho image. By contrast, beer drinkers are typically
portrayed in fun-filled, party situations. Participants then were behaving in ways
entirely consistent with our cultural expectations regarding the supposed effects
of these two types of beverages.
An Overview
The research literature on alcohol and human aggression is extensive. Several
large-scale reviews of the research findings have been conducted using a pro-
cedure called meta-analysis. As examples, Bushman and Cooper (1990) sought
evidence of a causal relationship between alcohol and aggression based on
30 experimental studies as did Steele and Southwick (1985) using 35 alcohol
investigations. A more recent overview of alcohol-aggression investigations was
undertaken (Ito, Miller, & Pollock, 1996), again using meta-analysis. An analy-
sis of 49 studies yielded results that led to the conclusion that alcohol facilitates
aggression, a conclusion consistent with that reached in the earlier Bushman and
Cooper (1990) and Steele and Southwick (1985) reviews. A more recent review
concludes that the relationship between alcohol and interpersonal aggression is
causal and the evidence incontrovertible (Hoaken & Stewart, 2003).
To bring perspective to the importance of alcohol alongside other facilitators
of aggression, the comments of Bushman and Cooper deserve special note.
Alcohol “appears to influence aggressive behavior as much or more than it
influences other social and nonsocial behaviors.” That is “alcohol and aggres-
sion effects are by no means trivial” (p. 348). This view is somewhat tempered
by Ito et al. (1996) who comment “we do not view aggression as an inevi-
table consequence of intoxication” (p. 77). They draw attention to the fact that
alcohol studies create conditions that specifically encourage aggression from
participants in nonjudgmental circumstances. Rather, “most real-world settings
contain many fewer aggression-instigating cues and many more inhibiting
ones” (p. 77). In sum, a causal relationship between alcohol and aggression
is well established. Indeed, much of current research activity has shifted in
emphasis and is centered more on increasing our understanding of the means
or mechanisms, for example, pharmacological, cognitive, by which alcohol
increases aggressive behavior.
rabid fan and casual spectator alike partake of alcohol in equal amounts. Men,
however, consume more of both beverages.
A Digression
Liquor sales at many sports facilities are necessary to a viable economic operation.
Yet at the same time, the selling of alcohol carries with it the potential for facili-
tating some minor and a few major spectator disturbances. It is instructive to pull
back from the stadium or arena and glimpse the full scale of its presence from a
distant perspective, that is, an overview. An informal estimate by a knowledge-
able observer of sports puts the number of intoxicated baseball spectators on any
given day at 8% (O’Brien & Hersch, 1998). At first glance, not a large figure.
However, in a crowd of 20,000 spectators, approximately 1,600 individuals are
in their seats or wandering about the facility legally drunk, many of whom will
later drive home. While this picture may be disconcerting for some, the picture
worsens considerably when we add an unknown percentage of spectators who
are using a variety of other drugs.
The public’s use of over-the-counter medicines, prescribed drugs, and drugs
acquired illegally is widespread. Many of these have the appearance of being
benign with respect to their effects on aggression. At the same time, an entire
class of “alternative medicines” or ancient remedies, for example, herbs or
potions, have not been evaluated for their effect on aggression or other side
effects, except by testimonials of dubious value. However, researchers have con-
ducted investigations on a considerable number of the more commonly used
drugs under controlled laboratory conditions. Some of these investigations are
highlighted on the pages to follow. We start with the writer’s drug of choice
(a one-cup-a-day habit).
Caffeine
Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant and is found in some soft drinks,
tea, chocolate, and of course, coffee. Hyperirritability is a leading symptom
associated with the excessive use of caffeine. Moreover, people who undergo
withdrawal experience dysphoria, a state marked by nervousness, restlessness,
and irritability. The “cure” for dysphoria is a resumption of caffeine ingestion!
An imaginative field study was conducted using long-term patients in a psychi-
atric facility (De Freitas & Schwartz, 1979). The investigators secretly switched
the patients to decaffeinated coffee for a period of 3 weeks, after which regular
coffee was reintroduced. The ward staff and patients knew nothing of the changes,
that is, a double-blind procedure. The nursing staff followed their routine proce-
dure in evaluating the behavior of patients at four points in time: just before the
introduction of decaffeinated coffee, 1 week later, 3 weeks later when the decaf-
feinated period ended, and a short while after regular coffee was reintroduced.
Following the switch to decaffeinated coffee, nurses’ ratings showed decreases
in patients’ anxiety, tension, irritability, and hostility. However, all of these gains
90 Aggression in the Sports World
vanished with the reintroduction of regular coffee. The researchers’ case for a
causal relationship between caffeine and hostility would be strengthened had
they included a control condition in the design of their study, that is, a compa-
rable patient group who were not switched to decaffeinated coffee.
The effects of caffeine on aggression were later examined in a controlled labo-
ratory setting (Cherek, Steinberg, & Brauchi, 1984). People who consumed caf-
feine on a daily basis exhibited modest decreases in aggressive behavior. Cherek,
Tcheremissine, and Lane (2006) offer a plausible explanation in describing their
results, that is, “Since subjects reporting higher caffeine consumption had larger
decreases in aggressive responding, these effects could be attributed to acute caffeine
withdrawal” (p. 432). Similar effects are seen in the upcoming section on nicotine.
Nicotine
While a large number of investigations examining the health effects of smoking
tobacco products have been conducted, very few have studied its effects on
human aggression. In an early laboratory study, Schechter and Rand (1974)
compared the aggression of smokers with that of nonsmokers. Using the Buss
(1961) aggression machine procedure, participants who regularly smoked admin-
istered shocks of both a longer duration and greater intensity to an experimental
confederate. This result occurred after the smokers had been restrained from
smoking. That is, at the time they were experiencing acute tobacco deprivation.
In a subsequent study, Cherek (1981) compared the aggressive behavior of
those smoking low or high nicotine content cigarettes. Compared with nonsmok-
ers, those smoking tobacco cigarettes exhibited overall fewer acts of aggression.
In particular, those smokers in the high nicotine content condition showed a larger
decrease than subjects in the low nicotine condition. With respect to findings
on this question, Cherek et al. (2006) conclude that the results “are consistent
with the view that acute tobacco deprivation may increase aggressive responding,
rather than acute tobacco smoking reducing aggressive responding” (p. 431).
Marijuana
The familiar Taylor competitive reaction time procedure was used to test the
effects of marijuana on interpersonal aggression in an early experiment (Taylor
et al., 1976). Participants were given either a small amount of marijuana or a
large dose of the drug. Participants in both the small and large dosage condi-
tions had the choice of electric shock levels (0–10) they could administer to a
confederate partner when they lost on a trial. Participants in the small dose
condition showed negligible effects. Others in the large dose condition showed a
modest but nonsignificant decrease in aggression.
A systematic replication of the Taylor et al. study was undertaken by
Myerscough and Taylor (1985). Their purpose was twofold. First, they wanted
to assess the effects on shock setting of a considerably larger dose of marijuana,
and second, they wanted to see the effects on intoxicated participants of a much
more intense level of provocation.
Environmental and Situational Influences 91
Diazepam
The effects of diazepam (Valium) on aggression are of particular interest, given
its widespread use as a treatment for anxiety. Moreover, it would appear that the
majority of psychotropic drug users are females. A study by Gantner and Taylor
(1988) was conducted using the competitive reaction-time design to examine the
effects of diazepam on aggression. Male and female undergraduates served as
participants.
In contrast to participants administered a placebo, those given a 10 mg dose
of diazepam exhibited an increase in aggression across trials of the competition.
Perhaps surprising, there was no sex difference. The researchers suggest that the
pain-reducing properties of diazepam may have caused participants to be rela-
tively unconcerned about the shocks given in retaliation for their aggression.
Other studies have also shown increases in aggression arising from the
administration of diazepam (Ben-Porath & Taylor, 2002; Weisman, Berman, &
Taylor, 1998). The Taylor competitive reaction time paradigm was used in each
case. However, researchers using the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm
(PSAP) to examine the effects of diazepam uncovered a different pattern of
results (Cherek, Lane, & Pietras, 2003). Several studies (e.g., Cherek, Steinberg,
Kelly, & Robinson, 1986) show instead a lessening of aggressive responding;
a result possibly attributable to methodological differences (Cherek et al., 2006).
Steroids
For six years I was unaware I was being given a form of steroid of the legal kind
they used to give to horses until they decided it was too strong even for the horses.
John Mc Enroe, The Daily Telegraph, January 12, 2004
92 Aggression in the Sports World
convicted of violent crimes. Participation in the study was voluntary. Only half
of the inmates approached agreed to be interviewed. Surprisingly, only two
attributed their violence to AAS use! In all likelihood a selection bias was oper-
ating making the results of this and similar designs inconclusive. AAS studies
in which participation is voluntary raise the strong likelihood that users were
numerous among those declining the opportunity to participate.
Swedish researchers Thiblin and Petersson (2004) conducted a selective
review of AAS studies, that is, those meeting the criterion of including a clear
statement describing the study’s design. Articles not meeting the criterion were
excluded from the review. In addition to summarizing the prevalence of AAS
abuse, they further took stock of diseases and other deleterious effects arising
from such abuse. Regarding our immediate interest in AAS and its effects on
aggression, the investigators were unequivocal in their conclusion. The research-
ers found overall strong support to the effect that users assume “an increased
risk for developing certain changes in mood characterized by agitation and
increased aggressiveness” (Thiblin & Petersson, 2004, p. 44).
A second Swedish study tested the hypothesis that AAS use may cause
uncontrolled violent rage (Klötz, Garle, Granath, & Thiblin, 2006). Participants
(N = 1,440) in this cohort study had earlier been tested for AAS use during a
6-year period. Participants who tested positive for AAS were compared with those
testing negative with regard to their respective records of criminal offenses, for
example, violent crimes, weapons offenses, property crimes, and fraud. Of the four
types of crimes, it was weapons offenses that were associated with those testing
positive for AAS. In a summary statement the investigators concluded “that the
use of AAS is associated not only with impulsive antisocial behavior but also with
an antisocial lifestyle involving various types of criminality” (p. 1278).
While the anticipated difference between the two groups in violent crimes
did not materialize, the researchers offered a fairly plausible explanation for the
difference in weapons offenses. Criminals involved in armed robberies “or the
collection of crime-related debts” have an advantage if they have a heavy, mus-
cular build (p. 1277). Presumably, AAS can provide that edge.
SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES
variety of competitions, for example, tug of war, touch football, baseball, and
treasure hunt, the early expressions of good sportsmanship and mutual respect
began to evaporate. In its stead verbal and physical hostilities began and esca-
lated to the point of a full blown donnybrook in the mess hall. Name calling and
throwing of food and then dinnerware brought the experiment to an abrupt halt.
Several days of concerted effort by camp personnel were required to restore
some semblance of peace between the Rattlers and the Eagles.
The investigators next arranged a series of tasks for the boys that required the
cooperation of both cabins to succeed. They were superordinate goals or “goals
that have a compelling appeal for members of each group, but that neither group
can achieve without participation of the other” (Sherif & Sherif, 1969, p. 256).
Several “emergencies” having potentially dire consequences for both cabins
were created by the researchers. The camp truck that went for food mysteri-
ously developed engine failure. It could only be started with both groups pulling
together on their former tug of war rope. At another point the waterline broke
down stopping the flow of water to the camp. The Rattlers and Eagles agreed to
join forces to search for the break in the line. In both examples, it was clearly in
their best interests to cooperate with one another, as in fact they did. The result
was that intergroup hostility gradually diminished and a number of friendships
even began to blossom between the cabins.
A similar field study was undertaken in Lebanon (Diab, 1970) and illustrates
the ease with which competition can lead to ill will, if not outright aggression.
Following similar procedures, the youngsters were “matched” and assigned
to two groups in the camp. Interestingly, each group contained roughly equal
numbers of Moslems and Christians. Friendships and camaraderie within each
group developed during the early days of the camp. However, when competition
was introduced, hostilities again erupted between the cabins. So intense was the
animosity—a knife was brandished—that Diab was required to prematurely end
the study. The battle lines were drawn between two temporary and artificially
created groups. Surprisingly, the centuries-old divisions between Moslems and
Christians played no part in the hostilities.
One might be forgiven for concluding from the Oklahoma boys camp study
that the answer to increasing liking between two competing groups lies with
having them cooperate in pursuit of a common goal. The answer is not quite
that simple. Worchel, Andreoli, and Folger (1977) reasoned that two variables,
the outcome of the cooperative endeavor and the nature of the groups’ past
interaction, would determine the level of intergroup liking. In a nutshell,
previously competing groups who failed in their combined effort experienced
less attraction for one another. However, success resulted in increased liking.
For previously cooperating groups, success and failure on the superordinate task
resulted in increased liking between the groups.
Early writers have long contended that aggression is an inherent element in
most competitions. Konrad Lorenz (1966) makes the point in noting that “sport
indubitably contains aggressive motivation, demonstrably absent in most animal
play” (p. 242). This conclusion is echoed by Caplow (1964) who observed
that “In virtually all competitive situations some degree of hostility develops
96 Aggression in the Sports World
between the competitors” (p. 318). Certainly, the summer camp studies support
such a conclusion. In addition, it was noted earlier that the trait of competi-
tiveness is strongly related to the subscales and total scores on the Aggression
Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992). However, laboratory investigations testing
the merits of a competition–aggression hypothesis have yielded mixed results.
For example, members of a competitive group were less helpful and friendly
and more verbally aggressive toward each other than were members of a coop-
erative group (Deutsch, 1949). A more direct test of the hypothesis was con-
ducted using a two-person reaction time experiment in which electric shock for
slow responses served as the measure of interpersonal aggression (Gaebelein &
Taylor, 1971). Three levels of motivation were provided subjects: high com-
petition, no shock for fastest response plus 5 cents; moderate competition, no
shock; and no competition, shock predetermined. Support for a causal associa-
tion between competition and aggression was not forthcoming. In the words of
the researchers “competition had little influence on the expression of physical
aggression” (p. 66).
A video game (Super Mario Brothers) provided the means for a further
investigation of competition and its effects on aggression (Anderson & Morrow,
1995; see also, Bartholow, Sestir, & Davis, 2005). Specifically, pairs of male and
female, university-aged participants were led through experimental instructions
to adopt either a competitive or a cooperative frame of mind. A cooperative
mind set was established for a pair by the experimenter stressing that their per-
formances were to be combined and assessed together. For pairs in the competi-
tive condition, they were told their performances would be compared at the end
of the session. The goal for both groups then, was to avoid losing the life of the
main character, that is, to advance as far as possible in each scenario.
The main characters are Mario and Luigi both of whom are controlled by
the participants. Their task is to help the character avoid “cute but deadly crea-
tures” as they navigate scenes. Participants can have their character deal with
the creatures they encounter in either of two ways, killing or avoiding them.
Jumping on top of a creature kills it as does hitting it with a fireball. Creatures
can instead be avoided by the main character taking a different path or jumping
over the creature.
The prediction that pairs assigned to the competitive condition would dis-
patch a greater number of creatures than those playing in the cooperative condi-
tion was confirmed. Competitive subjects had a 66% kill ratio in contrast to
cooperative subjects who killed only 41%. Sex differences were not in evidence,
that is, men and women had virtually the same kill ratios.
aggression: They create aggression that in the absence of guns would not exist.
It is in this sense that the trigger can pull the finger” (pp. 11–12).
This widely publicized study sparked a flurry of research activity. While
some investigations provided support for a weapons effect (e.g., Boyanowsky &
Griffiths, 1982; Frodi, 1975; Klinesmith, Kasser, & McAndrew, 2006), others
did not (e.g., Buss, Booker, & Buss, 1972). Swedish high school males served as
participants in an investigation faithful in design to the original Berkowitz and
Le Page (1967) experiment (Frodi, 1975). Once again, the confederate adminis-
tered one or seven shocks to each participant, the number representing his evalu-
ation of their essay. The procedures next called for the participants to evaluate
the confederate’s essay (always the same essay) by means of electric shock. This
was done under one of three conditions: a weapon was present next to the shock
key, a baby bottle was on the table, or no objects were present. Participants gave
a greater number of shocks when weapons were present than they did in the
other two conditions. Furthermore, the Frodi experiment supported the weap-
ons effect both for participants who were highly angered having received seven
shocks and those minimally angered, that is, one shock. It is noteworthy that
this additional finding extends the weapons effect to include individuals who are
not in an angered state.
Buss et al. (1972) conducted several experiments that include a replication of
the Berkowitz and Le Page (1967) investigation. The weapons effect was not in
evidence nor were there any effects on aggression from having fired a gun.
Two possibilities have stood out as explanations for failures to replicate the
weapons effect. The first suggestion involves demand characteristics whereby
participants discern from the experimental instructions or other cues how the
experimenter would like them to act. An indeterminate number of compliant
participants will then behave in accordance with their perceptions of the
experimenter’s hypothesis or wishes. That is, should the participants sense that
the experimenter is anticipating more shocks in the weapons-present condi-
tion, compliant behavior may result (for more on demand characteristics see
Chapter 7, pp. 205–206).
A second possibility involves evaluation apprehension. Here participants are
anxious to avoid being seen as psychologically maladjusted by the experimenter
and take steps to behave in ways they hope will avoid such an interpretation.
In this case, participants may hold back on the number of shocks to prevent a
negative evaluation from the experimenter. Thus, experimental support for the
weapons effect is most likely to be forthcoming when participants’ suspicions
are not aroused (Carlson, Marcus-Newhall, & Miller, 1990).
More recent views highlight the process of “priming” (Anderson, Benjamin,
& Bartholow, 1998). In this view, aggression-related thoughts are automatically
made more accessible to the individual upon recognizing a weapon. In a test
of a priming explanation, Anderson and his colleagues predicted that partici-
pants would require less time to recognize and pronounce aggression-related
words following exposure to a weapon concept. The prediction was confirmed.
Exposed to either a weapon name, for example, a gun, or a picture, for example,
a flower, participants’ reaction times (RT) were shorter to aggressive words than
Environmental and Situational Influences 99
threats or shoving were recorded: they need not have resulted in a penalty being
awarded.
Overall, few hostile exchanges occurred between the blue lines; nor did they
occur on open ice. As seen in Figure 3.1, confrontations were instead found to
be concentrated along the boards, behind the net, and immediately in front of
the goal. The flow of a game is relatively slow along the boards and behind
the net. Consequently, would-be attackers stand to benefit insofar as they are
presented with easier, slow-moving targets in these areas. Moreover, they can
be hit with greater effect. An initial body check drives the player on a collision
course with the boards. Also, the player frequently rebounds off the boards to be
hit yet again, that is, a multiplier effect.
The concentration of player aggression in front of the goalmouth invites a dif-
ferent explanation. This is an area of the ice in which an abundance of frustra-
tions lay in wait for both teams. Goalmouth scrambles involve an intense, often
frantic, battle for the puck with the players crowding and jostling one another.
Also, they frequently contain just the elements necessary for aggression to occur
in response to frustration. For the attacking team, a goal is close at hand and may
involve the scoring of a game-winning goal. Alternatively, the attackers may be
severely thwarted by a skillful defense on the part of their opponents. For the
defenders, a sudden game-winning goal can mean an unsuccessful outcome to
the game or perhaps the dashing of their hopes for a championship season.
permission of Elsevier.)
Environmental and Situational Influences 101
public, among others. Various sport researchers have embraced the concept to
account for the home field performance advantage whereby teams and indi-
vidual athletes excel in their home facility, for example, stadium, arena, or pool.
However, a number of more immediate, straightforward, and plausible expla-
nations are at hand (see Russell, 1993, pp. 34–41). Its usefulness as a general
explanation for even animal behavior is in serious question. As Barnett (1988)
reminds us, many species, including some herd animals, are not territorial.
Rather than reaching far down the phylogenetic scale to adopt a complex concept
and uncritically apply it to the human level to explain the outcome of baseball
games seems at best unnecessary. This seems particularly so in light of Moyer’s
(1987) conclusion, “the construct is of dubious value in understanding animals,
it may be even less useful in understanding humans” (p. 182).
As regards our present interest in aggression, a prediction drawn from the
concept of territoriality allows that the occupant(s) of a territory would be more
vigorous and savage in its defense than an intruder. The tiny cichlid fish will
with some regularity drive off a larger interloper, a virtual necessity if the
species is to survive. From this and similar observations, it is but a small step
to a prediction that athletes will more vigorously and, perhaps, savagely defend
their turf from incursions by visitors.
Canter, Comber, and Uzzell (1989) cite the example of violent British football
fans acting out in defense of their “end” a segregated area they might claim as
their own. Rival supporters have a similar area to which they also lay claim.
One of the groups will be seen to make forays in an attempt to capture the
other’s end. However, at this point any similarity between an animal’s territory
and an end rapidly fades. The taking of an opponent’s end is a matter of sym-
bolic ownership and not an attempt to obtain essential survival resources such
as food or mates.
The fact of leagues in several sports having detailed records of players’
aggression allows the possibility of testing the territorial prediction of more
aggression by teams playing at home. Russell (1981a) summarized the results of
nine archival investigations comparing the aggression of home teams with that
of visiting teams. The evidence has not been kind to a territorial defense hypoth-
esis. Across all studies, the location of a contest, home versus away, was unre-
lated to a team’s aggression. Recent studies add still further weight to the overall
conclusion (Jones, Bray, & Olivier, 2005; Sivarajasingam, Moore, & Shepherd,
2005). It is noteworthy that the finding of no relationship was based on four
sports: soccer, American football, ice hockey, and rugby played in five countries.
It is not therefore a conclusion limited to a single sport or country but one having
considerable generality. The major territorial prediction of more aggression by
home teams defending their turf against intruders appears untenable.
SUMMARY
full moon and the color pink, the remaining factors, for example, temperature,
noise, and ions, were generally shown to increase people’s aggression. Next, a
similar examination of the effects of a number of legal and illegal drugs on inter-
personal aggression was undertaken. Again, drugs such as alcohol, diazepam,
and steroids were shown to increase aggression, an exception being marijuana.
While competition is revered by sports people, it comes with a price, namely, it
increases the aggression of competitors. By contrast, cooperation was shown to
be a superior mode of human interaction across a variety of settings. Weapons in
general were shown to increase the aggression of those merely in their presence.
Finally, a review of studies failed to show any differences between the aggres-
sion of home versus visiting teams. Thus, support for a defense of territory
explanation for interpersonal aggression was not forthcoming.
Suggested Reading
Nelson, R. J. (Ed.). (2006). Biology of aggression. New York: Oxford University Press.
This edited work provides in-depth coverage of recent research by a panel of distin-
guished academics. The volume contains 18 chapters organized in five levels of analysis
starting with sections on genes, neurotransmitters, and hormones. The remaining two
sections cover developmental aspects and the psychopharmacology and psychophysiol-
ogy of aggression. It is an invaluable reference source.
4
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in the previous chapter was on sports spectators and athletes under
a number of environmental conditions, each of which was shown to potentially
effect changes in aggression. The same can be said for a number of drugs,
some of which have almost certainly been ingested by a majority of those in
attendance at major sporting events. Rarely are these events simply demon-
strations of athletic skill. Rather they are made competitive. There will be a
winner and a loser. In this climate of rivalry, ill will and hostility often come
to the fore.
In the present chapter, we shift our focus from environmental, pharm-
acological, and competitive influences to effects arising from witnessing
aggression firsthand from the stands or as part of a vast television audience.
First, we consider the more immediate effects of witnessing aggression at
close quarters and second, far reaching effects that extend well into the com-
munity following the event. Answers to several social questions surrounding
the viewing of aggressive sports are provided from the perspective of existing
research findings. For example, are the violent elements in some sports a suf-
ficient attraction to prompt fans to purchase tickets? Does a marital or romantic
partner’s all-consuming passion for sports undermine the strength of their rela-
tionship? The role of sports broadcasters and commentators’ esoteric language
in shaping the viewers’ perceptions and interpretation of events is explored.
A final section takes the reader inside the world of several quasi-sport, theatrical
presentations.
103
104 Aggression in the Sports World
MEDIA
extent of men’s involvement in sports and either the closeness of their relation-
ships (RCI) or the women’s love/liking for their partners. However, the coeds
did perceive a strengthening of their relationships as their partners were increas-
ingly involved in sports. Seemingly, the quality of their relationships stand to be
somewhat enriched by a partner’s enthusiasm for sports.
The same set of measures were also administered to older couples drawn
from communities across Western and Northern Canada. Unlike the university
coeds, the women were under no illusions that their partner’s interest in sports
was drawing them closer together, strengthening their relationship, or other-
wise increasing their liking or love for their partner (Russell & Arms, 2002).
However, quite a different view was expressed by the older sample of male par-
ticipants. Their increasing involvement in sports was seen instead to strengthen
relationships and bring the couple closer together. The weight of evidence on
this question appears to tip the scales in favor of involvement in sports generally
fostering relational harmony at the expense of conflict.
Sports Broadcasters
An important factor influencing the public’s response to media presentations of
aggressive sports is the commentary accompanying programs. Typically, com-
mentary is provided by former players/coaches whose expertise derives from their
experience and some measure of fame in the sport. Accompanied by a seasoned
sports announcer, they offer listeners historical anecdotes and opinions on the
wisdom of decisions taken by coaches and athletes. Moreover, they frequently take
sides in the case of disputed penalty calls by officials, often making inferences as
to the intent of those involved. As we recognize, the intent to injure is often the
critical element in an official’s decision to award a major aggressive penalty rather
than let it slide or see it as a minor “accidental” infraction. One likely effect of
taking sides on contentious calls is to further inflame an indeterminate number of
listeners who themselves have doubts, and others openly questioning the call.
Announcers are fully conversant with the specialized language of the sport
they cover. Listeners are thereby kept abreast of the ever-changing vocabulary of
sport as well as yearly rule changes. The jargon of many major spectator sports
has undergone a shift in recent decades. In particular, many benign descriptive
terms have been supplanted by more strident, menacing, or warlike terms. A
half century ago, Tannenbaum and Noah (1959) observed the beginnings of this
trend: “No one wins a game today. Teams rock, sock, roll, romp, stagger, swamp,
rout, decision, down, drop, eke out, topple, top, scalp, and trounce opponents,
but no one wins a game” (p. 164). The writer notes with dismay that curling,
that most peaceable, sociable but nonetheless exciting sport, has embraced more
threatening terminology. The team losing on an end of play gains the advantage
of throwing last rock on the next end. That term no longer describes simply
having the last rock on the next end; instead, they now hold the hammer!
The commentary accompanying competitive play extends well beyond sport lan-
guage, sport knowledge, and anecdotes in its effects on listeners. Much of the con-
tent of commentary serves to heighten listeners’ appreciation of the drama unfolding
106 Aggression in the Sports World
on the field of play. Violent incidents are central to that appreciation, particularly in
the case of men (e.g., Bryant, Comisky, & Zillmann, 1981; Sullivan, 1991). Many
are drawn to sport contests featuring violent clashes between opponents and seem
unperturbed by the sight of serious injuries to the combatants. Guided by commen-
tary, viewers see conflicts interpreted as an expression of the athletes’ intense deter-
mination to dominate or win over their opponents. The risk of injuries only adds to
the experience. A central proposition arising from entertainment theory allows “that
competition and conflict are the heart and soul of drama” (Bryant, 1989, p. 281).
Certainly, the liking for sports violence is far from universal (see e.g., Bryant
et al., 1981; Russell, 1986). Starting in 1977, a series of studies examined the
relationship between sports violence in the media and the viewers’ enjoyment
of such fare. In the first investigation (Comisky, Bryant, & Zillmann, 1977),
segments of a professional hockey game were chosen to represent examples of
either rough or violent play or normal, nonviolent playmaking. In a fortuitous
turn of events, the sportscasters let the rough/violent segment speak for itself.
By contrast, the announcers commenting on the nonviolent segments chose, for
whatever reasons, to enliven their commentary, stressing the roughness of play
and even raising the threat of an impending, on-ice brawl. The design of the
study was such that two important questions stood to be answered. The first
was the effect of commentary on viewers’ perceptions of the roughness of play.
Second, did the levels of roughness affect the enjoyment of play?
In answer to the first question, the analysis revealed that commentary stress-
ing the roughness of nonviolent segments led to considerably higher ratings of
perceived roughness than even the rough segments that were actually violent and
unaccompanied by commentary. Was the enjoyment of hockey action related to
the game’s roughness? Yes, although not in the way one might have predicted.
Enjoyment was directly related to viewers’ perceptions of how rough the play
appeared to be. That is, enjoyment was not the result of actual violence. Rather, it
was the sports commentary that enhanced perceptions of roughness and violence
that subsequently added to their enjoyment.
Further evidence attesting to the role of sports commentators in influencing
viewers of athletic competition has been provided by Bryant, Brown, Comisky,
and Zillmann (1982). Rather than commentary designed to enhance perceptions
of roughness in hockey play, the researchers shifted their focus to commentary
intended to establish the nature of pregame relationships between contending
athletes. The commentary accompanying a televised tennis match was carefully
altered to provide three versions of the personal relationship existing between the
two athletes. In one version, the players viewed each other in relatively neutral
terms. In a second version, the pair was described as the best of friends. However,
a third version characterized their relationship as that of bitter enemies.
Although all viewers watched the identical tennis match, those listening to
the bitter enemies’ commentary perceived the match in remarkably different
terms. In contrast to the neutral and best friends versions, they saw a highly
intense, hostile, and fiercely competitive match. Similarly, the bitter enemies’
script also led to much higher ratings of interest, excitement, and involvement
than the same program accompanied by the neutral or best friend’s versions.
Witnessing Aggression: Media and Firsthand 107
Thus, within limits, sports spectators derive enjoyment from watching interper-
sonal aggression, perhaps doubly so when the combatants are believed to have a
mutual hatred of each other.
Few would dispute the statement that sexually titillating themes have long been
a popular mainstay of commercial advertisements and television programming.
Assuming this assertion to be correct, does violent content similarly enhance the
appeal of media productions? Is violence, like sex, an important ingredient in a
successful entertainment package? Several studies have examined the question in
the context of both television programs (Diener & DeFour, 1978; Diener & Woody,
1981) and spectators’ attendance at hockey games (Jones, Ferguson, & Stewart,
1993; Russell, 1986). Television audiences have thus far not shown a preference for
violent programs. Using Nielsen television ratings as a measure of program popular-
ity, there was no relationship with the levels of violence depicted in shows over a
3-month period (Diener & DeFour, 1978). Furthermore, with violent and nonviolent
shows equated on other dimensions, that is, humor, romance, or conflict, violent
shows were found to be less liked than peaceable shows (Diener & Woody, 1981).
The popularity of television programs with violent content was further exam-
ined by Diener and DeFour (1978). They had American college students watch
one of two episodes from the long-running adventure series “Police Woman.”
However, the researchers first had all violent content skillfully edited out to cre-
ate a nonviolent version. A second version of the episode remained intact, uncut!
Not unexpectedly, the uncut episode was judged to be more violent. It was not,
however, liked more by the students.
The same question was examined in ice hockey using official records of the
Western Hockey League (WHL; Russell, 1986). The game statistics provided
attendance figures and a record of on-ice penalties for interpersonal player
108 Aggression in the Sports World
aggression. Attendance at the next home game following each team’s two most
violent games were compared to attendance following their two most peaceable
games over a full season of play. Analyses failed to yield differences in the
levels of game violence and the number of spectators pushing through the turn-
stiles. However, a subsequent investigation produced somewhat different results.
A measure of total aggressive penalty minutes was found to be positively related
to spectator attendance in the National Hockey League (NHL) franchise cities
in Canada and the United States (Jones et al., 1993). However, when penal-
ties for only the most extreme acts of on-ice aggression were examined, that
is, misconduct and major penalties, the positive relationship held only for the
American cities. The leading explanation suggests that the expansion of the
NHL to numerous U.S. cities was achieved through a vigorous marketing of
the sport based on its violent content. Little effort was made to attract fans
through showcasing the skills and traditions of the game. American spectators
then were attracted to their arenas by the promise of fights and mayhem.
What relevance do these findings have for media coverage of combatant
sports? They probably have no relevance for professional wrestling and boxing.
The horses are already out of the barn. For combatant sports with a tradition of
competitive play and interpersonal aggression held in check by effective rules,
little is likely to be lost by a return to earlier times. Rather than training the
cameras on fights and brutal body checks, later to be featured during intermis-
sions and in promotional footage, the cameras might instead highlight skillful
plays, the unfolding competition, and good sportsmanship. The evidence, thin
as it is but based on objective behavioral measures, that is, Nielsen ratings and
actual attendance figures, suggests that media interests would not as a result
suffer grievous financial losses. The sports themselves can stand alone without
the questionable benefits of added violence.
A question remains. What is the attraction, if not on-ice aggression? The
WHL records also allowed an examination of the possible effects of team suc-
cess in the win/loss column (Russell, 1986). Attendance rose significantly fol-
lowing each team’s two longest winning streaks during the season. As most
would predict, success on the ice brings success at the box office. Let me hasten
to add that obviously some sports attract spectators precisely because they are
violent, for example, professional wrestling, boxing, and roller derby. Seats at a
fight card would be empty if the boxers were not allowed to hit each other. Even
with the fanciest of footwork and the fighters skillfully feigning punches, arenas
would quickly empty and television ratings plummet. Audiences for such sports
are largely comprised of individuals who are themselves aggressive (Black &
Bevan, 1992; Fenigstein, 1979; Russell, Arms, Loof, & Dwyer, 1996).
The question asked in this heading has been extensively researched by social sci-
entists over the last five or so decades. Their efforts have yielded a wealth of data.
Witnessing Aggression: Media and Firsthand 109
While research on the central question is ongoing, other variables likely influenc-
ing the relationship between the observation of violence and viewer aggression are
being examined. For example, the role of viewer arousal in mediating the effects
of viewing violent media fare has been a topic of continuing interest to investiga-
tors. Otherwise, the question asked in the heading has generally been answered
in the affirmative by nearly all research scientists with expertise on the topic (e.g.,
Bushman & Anderson, 2001b; Geen 2001; Paik & Comstock, 1994). Simply put,
the observation of aggression serves to increase aggression in the viewer. But why
does this question continue to be argued so vigorously? Allow me to direct you
to the Bushman and Anderson (2001b) article cited as a suggested reading at the
end of this chapter. The authors have laid out the reasons in a clear-cut fashion in
assigning blame for the confusion to both parties to the debate.
The pages to follow highlight several important studies of media effects that
address the question raised above. I draw your attention to the fact that the stud-
ies chosen as examples represent quite different methodologies, that is, a field
experiment, a longitudinal study, and a laboratory experiment. Even so, they
converge on a common conclusion.
Several examples of studies examining the lead question are presented below.
The first is concerned with the effects on children of watching television vio-
lence (Josephson, 1987). Canadian second and third grade school boys (N = 396)
were shown either a nonviolent or violent, 14-min film clip. Before the start of
the experiment, the boys’ classroom teachers made ratings of each boy’s typical
level of aggression during the school day. Items on the rating scale included
“starts fights over nothing” and “says mean things.” With the boys separated
into high and low aggressive groups, they were shown either a violent or a
nonviolent film. Boys assigned to the nonviolent condition watched an exciting
competition or stunts featuring a “boy’s motocross bike racing team.” Those in
the violent film condition watched a film highlighting excessive police violence.
The partner of an officer slain by snipers joined an elite Special Weapons and
Tactics (SWAT) squad with a view to avenging the death of his fellow officer.
The team killed or knocked out all of the snipers in a manner portrayed as justi-
fied revenge and were subsequently socially rewarded. Just before the SWAT
team made their final assault, the snipers were seen talking to each other over
walkie-talkies (we will return to this point momentarily).
With the experiment ostensibly over, the boys were taken to the school gym-
nasium for what was described as a second, different study. New people, a male
referee and two judges, ran the experiment and, following rigorous procedures, were
“blind” to which film the boys had watched earlier. The boys were told they would
be playing a game of floor hockey. Before the start of play, the referee conducted
a short interview with each boy inasmuch as the observers needed a few bits of
personal information as they did a play-by-play, for example, name, class or favorite
position. Recall if you will that the snipers communicated with each other by means
of walkie-talkies. Walkie-talkies, through their earlier association with the snipers
were thought to represent a violence-related cue to the boys (e.g., Berkowitz, 1984).
During the games, the two observers recorded all acts of interpersonal aggres-
sion, for example, elbowing, tripping, name-calling, poking, pinching, hair pulling,
110 Aggression in the Sports World
and sitting on another boy. Boys rated as nonaggressive by their teachers did not
show changes in aggression as a result of watching the violent police clip. By
contrast, boys identified as high aggressives displayed increased aggression during
their floor hockey game, having earlier seen the same violent clip.
The walkie-talkie (rather than a microphone) used by the referee in inter-
viewing the boys served effectively as a violence-related cue. High aggressives
assigned to a walkie-talkie condition in addition to having seen the violent film
were also more aggressive as a result during their floor hockey game. Thus,
boys seen by their teachers as aggressive on a day-to-day basis “behaved more
aggressively if they had been exposed to violent television plus violence-related
cues than if exposed to the violent content only” (Josephson, 1987, p. 888).
A second major study involving children as participants investigated effects
on young television consumers arising from watching violent programming. This
investigation has important implications for both parenting and the study of sex
differences in media influence. Long-term exposure to television portrayals of
violence by children leads to increased aggressive behavior in their day-to-day
activities. One subset of violent television fare is that involving contact sports, for
example, ice hockey, football, boxing, and wrestling. The question to be asked
is does a regular diet of watching these sports foster aggression in girls and
boys? A large-scale, longitudinal study spanning the third and thirteenth grades
examined relationships between children’s level of viewing sports and aggression
(Lefkowitz, Walder, Eron, & Huesmann, 1973). Aggression was measured first
at the third and later at the thirteenth grades by a peer-nomination technique and
self-reports. The analysis yielded several striking sex differences.
Not surprisingly, the boys spent considerably more time than girls watching
televised sports. However, none of the five aggression measures used was found
to be related to the amount of viewing time spent watching contact sports. Rather,
it was the girls whose television viewing time was related to their aggression as
seen by peers in grades three and later in grade thirteen. Self-report measures
of their aggression and antisocial behavior were similarly related to the level of
TV viewing. Furthermore, the girls who watched the greatest amount of contact
sports were also those who had witnessed the most violence by others in their
own lives. Finally, Lefkowitz et al. (1973) used Scales 4 plus 9 of the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), a measure of the children’s potential
for delinquency. Once again, lengthy exposure to contact sports was associated
with possible delinquency for girls but not so for boys. One might draw a tenta-
tive conclusion that girls are more vulnerable to the ill effects of exposure to the
violence contained in sports. Lefkowitz et al. speculate that the results found for
both girls and boys could be the result of different child-rearing and socializa-
tion practices.
From the field experiment above, we turn to a controlled lab experiment
where the intention to inflict harm is manipulated to assess the effects aris-
ing from watching violent sports action. An influential article by Berkowitz and
Alioto (1973) illustrates the importance of the viewer’s interpretation of what
they are watching. Angered men were shown either a 6-min film clip of boxing
or an American football game. Half in each condition were told the boxers and
Witnessing Aggression: Media and Firsthand 111
football quarterback wanted to hurt their opponent for insulting remarks made
earlier in the week. The remaining half of the participants heard a statement
emphasizing that the boxers and football players were playing to win and not to
injure their opponent. Thus, two interpretations of each film clip were created,
that is, realistic aggression and fictional aggression. Following the viewing of
the film, participants were individually paired with an experimental accomplice
who had angered them earlier. Provided with an opportunity to aggress, par-
ticipants who watched clips with aggressive meaning delivered electric shocks
of longer duration to the accomplice than those watching clips of athletes moti-
vated to win but not to inflict injuries.
A second study was conducted using a documentary film depicting the cap-
ture of a Japanese island by the U.S. Marines. Participants were given either of
two introductions to the film. They were informed that it was actual footage from
the battlefield (real condition) or a Hollywood reenactment of a World War II
engagement (fictional). We see in the results evidence of stronger effects arising
from depictions of violence that is perceived to be real. Participants informed the
warfare was authentic delivered shocks of greater duration to a confederate. The
leading explanation for the above results centered on the fictional version caus-
ing its viewers to dissociate themselves from the portrayal. The actors thereby
become less effective as a stimulus and “less able to elicit aggression-enhancing
reactions in the observers” (Berkowitz & Alioto, 1973, p. 206).
The concluding example of television influence presented in this short series
is a 2-year, longitudinal field experiment (Williams, 1986). The lead investi-
gator, sociologist Tannis Macbeth Williams, became aware of a government
plan to introduce television in a small town, later given the code name Notel,
in southeastern British Columbia. The rugged mountain terrain had until then
blocked reception of a television signal to the remote valley. Williams and her
research team seized the moment and planned their groundbreaking study. Two
neighboring communities, Unitel and Multitel, were found to be equal in all
major socioeconomic aspects with Notel and were therefore chosen as compari-
son communities. Unitel was receiving the signal of the Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation (CBC) while Multitel additionally received the major U.S. networks.
A substantial portion of CBC programming featured a variety of sport shows
including televised games of the Canadian Football League and NHL. Boys at
that time, as now, experience strong peer-mandated pressure to watch and be
knowledgeable about both football and hockey.
A battery of aggression measures was administered in the three communities
in Phase 1 just prior to Notel receiving a television signal and 2 years later in
Phase 2. Included among the measures were peer and teacher ratings as well as
ratings by teams of trained observers who recorded acts of verbal and physi-
cal aggression on school playgrounds. While the investigators examined other
aspects of community life and child development, for example, leisure activi-
ties, child cognition and reading fluency, the strongest effects were found in the
area of interpersonal aggression. In comparisons with the control communities,
children in Notel exhibited increases in physical aggression with the greatest
increases being found on verbal aggression following their exposure to 2 years
112 Aggression in the Sports World
of television. An equally telling result was a 50% drop in the number of sports
events in the community of Notel. To my mind, this landmark, one of a kind
field experiment provided perhaps the best and most convincing case for the
enhancement view, that is, the observation of aggression increases aggression
in the viewer.
I must hasten to add that the studies presented in this section were hand
picked to illustrate the diversity of investigative approaches used in examining
questions of media influence. Missing from the series were some studies that
showed no effects on aggression, and a handful that showed viewer aggression
was even reduced. The research literature on a topic such as the effects of watch-
ing violent programming is massive. Simply by chance alone, some studies will
yield nonsignificant results. Be assured that across all studies there is persuasive
evidence for a causal association between the observation of aggression and
increases in viewer aggression (e.g., Bushman & Anderson, 2001b; Geen, 2001;
Paik & Comstock, 1994).
In the section to follow, social scientists have turned their attention to a
slightly different question. Is there something akin to a ripple effect whereby
major sports events with violent content have aggressive consequences for people
in the region living well beyond the stadium?
Services Child Abuse and Neglect for the year 1992. The researchers found no
evidence of an association between regular league play of the St. Louis Blues of
the NHL and male-perpetrated child abuse in the region in relation to win/loss
and home/away game records. Moreover, on the day of national end-of-season
playoff games and the following day, there was no evidence of a change in levels
of child abuse.
Sachs and Chu (2000) tallied the number of times police cars were dispatched
in response to domestic violence calls. Records of the Los Angeles County
Sheriff Department provided the data for a 3-year period during which they
received 26,051 reports of domestic violence. The period covered two seasons of
professional football during which several intriguing increases in the frequency
of dispatching were observed. For example, during the 1993–1994 season, dis-
patches on football Sundays increased 100% from the previous Wednesday.
Playoff games saw a 147% increase in the number of dispatches. During the
following 1994–1995 season, there was instead a decrease in domestic violence
calls on these same occasions.
The investigators singled out Superbowl week for a separate analysis. They
report that police units were dispatched in record numbers in 1994, a 264%
increase! However, the 1995 Superbowl was associated with a small decrease
in domestic violence calls (Sachs & Chu, 2000). It should be noted that the
differences described above, many of which admittedly are impressive, are not
statistically significant. They cannot therefore be regarded as due to anything
other than chance. Taken in total, the foregoing studies do not allow a firm con-
clusion regarding the role of combatant sports in domestic violence. However,
if we expand the focus of the question to include homicides, we can answer in
the affirmative that “yes” there is a positive relationship between the staging of
violent events and lethal violence in the broader viewing/listening community.
A test of the prediction that regional homicide rates would increase follow-
ing important major league football games was conducted by White (1989). His
analysis involved NFL playoff games including Superbowl games, from 1973 to
1979. Homicide rates in the metropolitan areas where the franchise teams were
based were tallied for the same time period. As predicted, homicides increased
significantly following the playoff games. However, the increase occurred 6 days
after the games and only in cities whose team had just been eliminated from
further competition.
White offered an intriguing explanation for the spike in homicide rates. Six
days after a playoff game takes us to the eve of the next round of competition.
Fans of last weekend’s winners will see their team play tomorrow; they are still
in the competition. By contrast, fans of last week’s losing teams cannot escape
the realization that their season is finished. There will be no game tomorrow,
only an emptiness. It seems plausible to suggest that for some fans having their
expectations so cruelly dashed, the loss represents but one more frustration in
a long line of frustrations. One result of their being severely thwarted so close
to their goal, that is, a Superbowl berth or title for their team, is interpersonal
aggression (Berkowitz, 1989). Alternatively, disputes arising from gambling
losses may also have led to lethal outcomes.
114 Aggression in the Sports World
A major media study was carried out by Phillips (1986) using data associated
with heavily televised heavyweight boxing title fights. He too predicted a rise
in homicide rates in the days immediately following the contests. Official death
certificates provided his measure of lethal aggression as well as several other
key pieces of information, that is, age, race, sex, and cause of death. Phillips
tracked homicide rates for 10 days following all title fights from 1973 to 1978.
His analysis showed that homicides rose and peaked 12.5% 3 days after the
fights and 6.6% after 4 days. Also, the most heavily televised title fights were
followed by the steepest rises.
Most interesting was the finding that the homicide victims strongly resembled
the loser of the championship bout. Fights in which a Black fighter defeated a
White opponent were followed by an increase in homicides of young, White
males. There was a corresponding increase in homicides of young Black males
following a title match in which a White boxer defeated his Black opponent.
The question unlikely to be answered is whether the perpetrators resembled the
winners thus creating a certain symmetry. However, there is a recent challenge
to the work of Phillips (1986); see Addendum at the end of this chapter.
A MATTER OF INFLUENCE
A METHODOLOGICAL EXCURSION
Sports differ widely with respect to their violent content. Golf, curling, and bil-
liards anchor one end of a continuum of aggressive content with sports such as
ice hockey and professional boxing representing the other end point. Of course
a sport such as hockey can and has been played without aggression, that is,
with players rarely drawing penalties for aggressive rule infractions. However, a
sport such as boxing is pure aggression. Notwithstanding that the sport involves
superb physical conditioning, tactics, even displays of good sportsmanship; the
unabashed purpose remains to batter one’s opponent into a state of submission
or unconsciousness. For this reason, a film clip of a boxing match can readily
serve as a violent sport but scarcely as a nonviolent control condition. That is,
a film clip of a boxing match devoid of aggression would be neither interesting
nor a boxing match. By contrast, violent and nonviolent (control) versions of an
ice hockey game can be produced in studying the effects of exposure to violent
sports.
Sport footage containing aggressive cues have been used in examining their
role in eliciting aggression in a lengthy series of investigations (e.g., Berkowitz &
Geen, 1966). A film clip of a particularly gory scene from the movie Champion
was shown to participants in conditions where they had either been angered or
not angered by an experimental accomplice. Actor Kirk Douglas plays the part
of an aging fighter who is beaten to a bloody pulp by his youthful challenger
in the final scene. The confederate was introduced to participants as either Bob
Anderson or Kirk Anderson, the later introduction providing a link with the
Hollywood actor. A nonaggressive control film condition was created by means
of an equally arousing clip of a track race of the same 5-min length. Following
exposure to the boxing film, participants administered increases in aggression
(shock) to the confederate. The largest number of shocks was administered by
participants who initially had been angered by the confederate, saw the gory
116 Aggression in the Sports World
fight scenes, and were introduced to Kirk Anderson. The simple fact of the
confederate sharing the same first name with the lead actor in the film was suf-
ficient to elicit a sharp increase in the aggression of participants.
A study using a same sport control condition in examining the effects of view-
ing sport violence leads off a series of investigations on the question (Russell
et al., 1988–1989). Two 14-min film versions of a game were created and shown
to small groups of male and female participants. One was carefully edited to
eliminate all acts of interpersonal player aggression (skill clip), whereas the
second version featured a series of player fights (fight clip) containing only brief
flashes of hockey skill. A control condition required the participants to work for
14 min on a partially completed 500-piece jigsaw puzzle depicting a peaceful
harbor scene.
The design allowed for a test of object cues versus event cues in eliciting
viewer aggression (cf. Berkowitz, 1974). The skill clip was rife with object cues,
for example, sticks, uniforms, and the presence of certain players (recruited as
enforcers by their team). The fight clip contained the same object cues but addi-
tionally included event cues, for example, several fights or brawls. Two measures
were used to assess the aggression of participants. The first was a self-report
measure of aggressive mood state, whereas the second was a measure of retal-
iatory aggression against a confederate whose earlier behavior was rude and
accusatory toward the participant. The latter measure assessed the participants’
willingness to later serve in a study by the confederate as part of his Spring
graduation requirements. Failure to complete his project would necessitate his
returning for the fall semester.
The analyses yielded several interesting findings. Both participants who were
angered by the obnoxious confederate and those treated in a neutral fashion
were higher on aggressive mood after having watched the fight film. No changes
were observed in the skill clip condition. With retaliatory aggression serving
as the dependent measure, it was the angered participants that exhibited a sharp
rise in aggression after seeing the fight clip. By contrast, participants who were
unprovoked by the confederate showed no change in retaliatory aggression fol-
lowing exposure to the skill and fight clips. Thus, sport film content that includes
event cues appears especially effective in eliciting audience aggression.
It may seem an odd question to raise. Of all the television programming pro-
duced as action entertainment, is there one that exceeds all others in violent con-
tent? Apparently, the dubious title is held by professional wrestling. The World
Wrestling Federation’s Raw and Smackdown have developed weekly viewer
followings numbering in the millions. Their audience covers the full age range
from seniors to toddlers (Tamborini et al., 2005).
Since the advent of television, viewers have been exposed to steadily increasing
levels and diversity of violence. Research investigating the effects of such expo-
sure has closely paralleled those increases over the past half century. Literally,
Witnessing Aggression: Media and Firsthand 117
volumes of research reports have drawn stimulus material, for example, film clips
from violent movies, videos, and sports, virtually none have used professional
wrestling. Moreover, sports publicly singled out for criticism generally do not
include professional wrestling. Instead, critics have targeted boxing, ice hockey,
American football, and soccer, the latter mostly for the behavior of its fans.
Perhaps, the farcical nature of professional wrestling serves to deflect criticism.
A summary of the evidence supporting wrestling’s unofficial claim to the title
of “the baddest of the bad” follows in somewhat condensed form. The evidence
emerges from a comparison of results of the National Television Violence Study
(NTVS; Smith, Nathanson, & Wilson, 2002) and an in-depth analysis of wres-
tling content (Tamborini et al., 2005). The sample of findings initially highlights
the principal differences between professional wrestling and other media genre
in terms of the amount of violence they contain. Thereafter, perpetrator char-
acteristics are compared along with the reasons for both mandated (required by
the rules) and nonmandated violence. Next, comparisons are made with respect
to the means by which violence is carried out, for example, using a gun or using
fists. Lastly, the overview provides a comparison of the presence of rewards for
violent behavior between NTVS and wrestling programming. On the other side
of the coin, similar comparisons were made between programming in which
punishments for violence were not meted out.
A look at the frequency of violent interactions in wrestling revealed 13.75
such incidents per hour, compared to 6.6 such incidents across all other media
genre, that is, drama, comedy, kids’ movies, videos, and reality. Moreover, 100%
of wrestling programs contain or are saturated with violence; the NTVS genre
scarcely approaches that seen in wrestling. Regarding extreme violence, profes-
sional wrestling exceeds by a wide margin that seen in each of the NTVS media
categories.
Characteristics of the perpetrator reveal a strong sex difference. Fully, 90%
of perpetrators in wrestling programming are male, whereas in the NTVS study
perpetrators were male in 73% of the categories. Regarding ethnicity, wrestling
perpetrators were unevenly distributed among White (72%), Black (3%), and
Hispanic (8%), essentially the same as the NTVS distribution.
The reasons for violence in the NTVS categories were primarily personal
gain (28%), protection of life (27%), and anger (27%). Among the wrestling fra-
ternity, the principal reasons for their violence were judged to be accident (19%),
mandated (58%), that is, required by the rules of wrestling, and justified (69%).
Nonmandated violence was undertaken by NTVS perpetrators for reasons of
personal gain (28%), protection of life (27%), and anger (27%). Wrestlers com-
mitted violent acts for reasons of accident (44%), justification (27%), retaliation
(16%), and amusement/mental instability (10%).
The Tamborini et al. (2005) investigators further examined the use of weapons.
The overwhelming means of inflicting harm for wrestlers was by “natural” means,
for example, fists, body slams, and drop kicks (91%). Prime-time shows instead
depicted violent interactions by natural means only 35% of the time. Script writers
for prime-time television programs armed protagonists with firearms in 37% of
violent interactions.
118 Aggression in the Sports World
Judges’ ratings of the harm done to targets of aggression and the pain they
suffered in prime-time NTVS programming and wrestling yielded a surprising
result. Extreme harm was fairly common (23%) in the NTVS study; less so with
regard to the depiction of pain (13%). The ongoing mayhem in wrestling not-
withstanding, extreme harm and pain are virtually unknown, that is, zero and
1%, respectively.
An especially important finding is that pertaining to whether violence was
rewarded or punished. Scenes of violence in prime-time programs did not dif-
fer in being rewarded (23%) from violence occurring in professional wrestling
(16%). However, a comparison of wrestling with all television genres revealed
a highly significant difference in punishments for perpetrators. Fully 94% of
wrestling scenes contained no evidence of punishments resulting from interper-
sonal violence.
The nature of aggression in professional wrestling is such that impression-
able viewers are exposed to violence characterized by elements that maximize
influence. As the investigators conclude, “violence in wrestling is not only
unremitting but is more likely to be portrayed as justified, unpunished, and
lacking extreme harm” (Tamborini et al., 2005, p. 216). Wrestling violence
then is marked by characteristics that clearly set it apart from regular media
fare. This study opens the way for studies pursuing questions related to those
differences.
again watching a stereotypical model. Not only are men wielding power over
submissive women but aggression is presented as an acceptable and a normal
means of social interaction.
PRIMING
Can the media unknowingly play a role in creating conditions conducive to con-
flict? Are some individuals “made ready” for interpersonal aggression long before
they pass through the turnstiles at a combatant sport? To begin with, fans led by
pregame publicity to believe that an upcoming meeting between two rival teams
will be a bloody affair anticipate just such a match as they enter the stadium.
Their expectations may set in motion a self-fulfilling prophecy whereby specta-
tors and athletes alike act to confirm the prediction.
Witnessing Aggression: Media and Firsthand 121
Aggressively toned, pregame publicity may set the stage for disorderly crowd
behaviors. A cognitive process called priming effects has been shown to influ-
ence our judgments regarding the social situation we find ourselves in. Stored
memories or schemas are activated by the language of publicity such that we see
others in a positive or negative light. Consider a simple illustration of how mere
words having neutral versus aggressive associations can determine how we later
perceive a stranger.
Students are asked to make sentences from lists of scrambled words. List
1 included the names of several sports generally seen to be nonaggressive, for
example, billiards, bowling, or golf. List 2 is identical except that aggressive
sport names are substituted for the nonaggressive names, for example, boxing,
football, or ice hockey. Somewhat later all students are introduced to an indi-
vidual named Cam after which they are asked to describe him. Their descrip-
tions differ sharply.
Students who had previously made sentences from the list containing nonag-
gressive sports have a generally favorable impression of Cam. By contrast, Cam
is described in hostile and menacing terms by those who were earlier “primed”
in the aggressive sport condition. In the latter case, antisocial or negatively toned
schemas are presumed to be activated and used in forming an overall impression
of Cam. How long the effects last and how subsequent behavior is influenced
remains unclear.
The case for priming takes on particular significance when we recognize
that individuals typically act on the basis of their perceptions of other people
and events. Actions are often taken solely on one’s perception of another quite
apart from any objective facts. By all accounts, Cam is seen as a warmhearted,
friendly, and gentle person by all who know him. Yet, if a media has character-
ized him as hostile and threatening, those later meeting him for the first time
will frame their impressions in similar terms. It is not unreasonable to suggest
that some fans primed to see other spectators as threatening may as a result
become confrontational or openly aggressive (Carver, Gandellen, Froming, &
Chambers, 1983).
In 1951, when Quarterback John Bright took his unbeaten Drake University
football team to play Oklahoma A & M (now Oklahoma State), the Stillwater
newspaper greeted his arrival with the headline “Bright is a Marked Man.”
Being Black, he was not a welcome presence in the Oklahoma stadium. His jaw
was intentionally broken by a defensive player during the game. Elsewhere with
Chinese–Japanese tensions running high, a Chinese headline greeted a visiting
Japanese soccer team with “Its Going to be a War.” Riots followed (Curtin,
2004). When the Edmonton Eskimos meet the Calgary Stampeders in Canadian
Football League play advance publicity describes the game as “The Battle for
Alberta.” Such media characterizations abound in the experience of nearly all
of us and can unknowingly create a hostile climate in which some spectators
will tend to see others as threatening and possibly looking to start trouble.
Pregame hyperbole featuring aggressive/violent language can create a volatile
environment, one that occasionally can contribute to interpersonal aggression or
outbursts of crowd violence.
122 Aggression in the Sports World
that is, the special case of the home team having won or lost to their visiting
rivals. Thus, following a loss, “edged out” becomes a “squeaker.” Alternatively,
“losing” may be described as having “bowed” to the visitors, giving their read-
ers the added appearance of graciousness.
PERSONAL OBSERVATION
was chosen for this purpose. The procedure followed at the football game was
repeated at the gymnastics meet, that is, men were randomly selected to com-
plete the questionnaire either before or at the conclusion of the competition.
Note how the design of the study pits the two views against each other. If
the football fans show a drop in their aggression and the gymnastics fans show
no change from before to after the game, then a cathartic view gains support.
Another possibility is the men will show an increase in aggression over the
course of the game, thereby providing support for an enhancement position. Of
course, no change would suggest that witnessing aggression has no effect on
spectators’ aggressive state.
The results were straightforward. Irrespective of which team they were root-
ing for, the men at Soldier Field showed a significant increase in aggression from
before to after the contest. No pre to postevent changes were observed at the
gymnastics competition. The researchers chose to interpret the overall increase
at Soldier Field to a general weakening of inhibitions against the expression of
aggression (Bandura, 1973). An additional factor contributing to the increase in
spectator hostility may have been heightened arousal arising from the excite-
ment of the game.
Rarely is a theoretical question fully answered to everyone’s satisfaction
by a single study. Such is the case here. What we can say at this point is the
football study yielded results that have stood up quite well since the game was
played back in the 1970s. Shortly thereafter, a follow-up study was undertaken
to rule out several rival explanations for the Philadelphia results and to test the
generality of those results, for example, a different culture, females as well as
males, the presence of alcohol, and a younger population (Arms, Russell, &
Sandilands, 1979).
The study was modeled after the Philadelphia study and conducted in
Lethbridge, Alberta, using Canadian male and female university students as
participants. Students were randomly chosen and assigned to attend one of three
sporting events, a hockey game, a professional wrestling match, or a provin-
cial swim meet. Half of those attending a sport were given the questionnaire
before the event, the other half, at the conclusion of the competition. Once again,
scores on the measures of aggression increased overall during the course of
the two sports with violent content. No changes were observed at the (control)
swim meet.
I alluded above to the role a replication can play in ruling out rival explana-
tions for the original results. Two examples will suffice. Is it not entirely reason-
able to suggest that many of the Philly fans consumed substantial amounts of
alcohol, the more so as the game wore on? By contrast, alcohol is seldom seen
at a gymnastics meet. Alcohol then could have been responsible for the increase
in fan hostility. However, the explanation becomes less plausible when one con-
siders that alcoholic beverages were unavailable at the Lethbridge venues. The
students were essentially sober throughout the study.
Consider a second example. Is it not also reasonable to suggest that the
increased hostility among the football fans arose from their watching a dull, lop-
sided contest where the outcome was scarcely in doubt (Navy 22, Army 0)? This
Witnessing Aggression: Media and Firsthand 125
too quickly fades as an explanation insofar as the outcome of the final tag-team
match on the Lethbridge card was in serious doubt until the dying seconds when
the forces of good overcame the forces of evil.
Thus far we see the evidence in these field investigations and most of what
follows is gradually building a case for the enhancement view. But for the writer
a nagging question remained, that is, what path do audience levels of aggression
follow as they rise from before to after witnessing a violent event? To answer
these questions it was necessary to take more frequent measures of audience
aggression. To this end, hockey fans completed measures before and after a
violent game (a total of 184 min in aggressive penalties) and between periods.
Levels of spectator hostility rose steadily from before the national anthem was
played peaking at the end of the second period. A wild stick-swinging brawl
had erupted just before the end of the period. What we see in these results is a
close tracking of on-ice violence by levels of audience hostility (Russell, 1981b).
I should add that a companion measure of arousal was included in the question-
naire. It too faithfully followed the course of player violence. And “yes,” the
study included another same sport control or peaceable game for comparison.
Here the measures of spectator hostility and arousal were virtually flat over the
entire course of the game.
Bidirectional Influence
The foregoing sections have featured a number of prominent studies that illus-
trate a pattern of findings consistent with a voluminous literature on the effects
of media violence. With rare exceptions, realistic or fictional depictions of
violence lead to increases in viewer aggression. The same is true of violence
witnessed firsthand from the stands. As a flood of findings pointed to a causal
association between the observation of violence and viewer aggression some
investigators shifted their attention to a slightly different question. Are the causal
effects between observing aggression and aggressive behavior bidirectional? Is it
also the case that aggressive individuals are drawn to watch media violence? A
number of studies appear to support just such relationships.
Two early studies examined television and movie choices in separate com-
munities at a time when one community was experiencing high rates of crime
(Doob & Macdonald, 1979), the other, a brutal murder (Boyanowsky, Newtson,
& Walster, 1974). People living in the community plagued by a high crime rate
watched more violent television programming than those people living nearby in
a low crime community. Boyanowsky et al. (1974) reported similar findings in the
community experiencing a murder. People coming to terms with the local murder
showed a marked increase in attendance at a violent movie whereas attendance at
a nonviolent film remained constant throughout. One plausible explanation would
suggest that the citizenry was preoccupied with aggressive thoughts and fantasies
and thereby were led to seek out media violence (Fenigstein, 1979).
Other evidence suggests that men with a strong preference for viewing violence
are themselves dispositionally more aggressive than others (e.g., Diener & DeFour,
1978). Ice hockey fans who report their reason for attending games is they “like
126 Aggression in the Sports World
brought forth a collective groan. On-ice injuries included a cut eye, several
bruised or broken hands, and a possible concussion. The winner earned a cheque
for $62,000 CDN; the second place finisher, $25,000.
(c) crossed wearing a brief revealing outfit. The design of the study also took
into account whether conditions for the motorists were comfortable (their car
was equipped with air-conditioning) or uncomfortable (no air-conditioning). In
contrast to motorists in the uncomfortable control condition, the latency of horn
honking when the light turned green was longer in the empathy, humor, and
sexual arousal conditions. In effect, all three emotional states aroused by the
female pedestrian had the predicted effect of reducing the motorists’ aggression.
With respect to sexual arousal, the men watching the scantily attired girl pass
in front of their car were subsequently less aggressive, that is, took longer to
honk their horn once the light turned green. A lab study (Baron & Bell, 1977)
confirmed the aggression-reducing effects of mild erotica and further confirmed
earlier findings that explicit highly arousing materials tended instead, to increase
male aggression.
To sum up these findings, support was found for the incompatible response
hypothesis. Mild, sexually titillating displays decrease aggression. Explicit
highly arousing displays, for example, heterosexual acts, tend to increase the
aggression of males (see review, Zillmann, 1984, pp. 127–134).
Getting back to our cheerleaders, it must be said that they are a positive influ-
ence in a stadium or arena performing in front of crowds that have all too often
turned hostile. I would be remiss if I did not also mention that women react to
mild sexual erotica, for example, beefcake pictures, in a similar fashion to men
(e.g., Baron, 1979).
Smoke seized us by the throat and quarrels broke out . . . a lubricious gleam came
to the eyes of old gentlemen when two furious women flung themselves at each
other like modern bacchantes—hair flying, breasts bared, indecent, and foam-
ing at the mouth. Everyone screamed, applauded, and stamped his feet (cited in
Guttmann, 1991, p. 100).
What are the effects on those witnessing these erotically enriched quasi-
sporting events? Do men and women differ emotionally and attitudinally in their
reactions to these spectacles? Given the limited amount of research on these
questions, the few answers available should be regarded as tentative.
An exploratory study of these and other questions exposed male participants
to film clips of women wrestlers in action (Russell, Horn, & Huddle, 1988). The
first was a clip of professional lady wrestlers taken from the 1981 MGM movie
All the Marbles. The second, equal-length clip featured ladies mud wrestling
(topless) edited from a 1983 MEGA film Daddy’s Little Girls. In contrast to men
assigned to a no-film control condition, those viewing All the Marbles and the
mud wrestling clips experienced negative changes in mood states. That is, they
underwent an increase in aggressive mood and a decrease in social affection.
However, exposure to the films failed to produce predicted increases on scales
measuring sexual callousness toward women, rape myth acceptance, and a less-
ening of support for issues of special interest to women, for example, provision
of nationwide day care facilities for children.
A further study investigated the effects on aggressive mood of observing
female boxers (Russell, 1992a). Participants were randomly assigned to view
one of three, 14-min film segments. They watched either a fast-paced, exciting
ski film White Winter Heat (control), Buxom Boxers (BB), or Battling Amazons
(BA). Attractive bikini-clad women in BB wore oversized gloves and protective
headgear. However, during the second round they inexplicably lost their tops.
Throughout the film the ring announcer offered sexually suggestive comments
intended to amuse the all-male audience. The second film (BA) was more seri-
ous. It featured equally attractive fighters using regulation gloves and no head-
gear. The rules, such as they were, allowed the women to kick their opponent.
Their costumes remained intact. This contest was especially brutal with one
fighter being knocked unconscious by a kick to the head.
Female participants watching BB and BA did not differ in their levels of
aggression. Both boxing films produced more aggressive mood than the control
film. Levels of aggressive mood for male participants remained constant across
the three film conditions. Yet in the foregoing Russell et al. (1988) study, expo-
sure to ladies’ mud wrestling resulted in an increase in men’s aggressive mood
as well as a decrease in social affection.
SUMMARY
This chapter opened with an examination of several questions regarding the part
played by the media in possibly creating serious conflicts in ongoing marital
and romantic relationships. A discussion followed in which the violent elements
Witnessing Aggression: Media and Firsthand 131
ADDENDUM
Suggested Readings
Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public:
Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist, 56, 477–489.
As this article and a variety of other sources make clear, exposure to media por-
trayals of violence lead generally to an increase in aggression on the part of viewers.
132 Aggression in the Sports World
Yet, confusion on the question reigns in the public mind. On the one hand, we hear
from aggression researchers stressing that the negative effects on viewers as a result of
watching violent programming are well established. At the same time, those represent-
ing the entertainment industry dismiss or minimize suggestions of harmful effects to the
viewing public. This article effectively lays out the reasons for the discontinuity between
media reports and scientific knowledge on this critical question.
Goldstein, J. H. (Ed.). (1998). Why we watch: The attractions of violent entertainment.
New York: Oxford University Press.
The author has assembled a diverse set of eminent scholars, each expert address-
ing the question from the perspective of their respective disciplines. The fundamental
question of why we are drawn to violence is explored in a variety of settings that range
from children’s toys and literature to religion, media, and sports. It is the starting point
for those who ask why and those students of aggression who would seek to answer the
question.
Palmer, C. T. (2006). “Shit happens”: The selling of risk in extreme sport. The Australian
Journal of Anthropology, 13, 323–336.
This scholarly article is recommended for those even toying with the idea of buying
a media-promoted “adventure package” that involves any one of a number of extreme
sports, for example, mountain climbing, extreme skiing, white water rafting, paragliding,
or bungy jumping. Sports magazines, television promotions, and media advertising extol
the thrills and chills of extreme sporting adventures while all but ignoring mention of
the real presence of substantial risks, that is, injury or death. Ill-trained, inexperienced,
and often physically unfit individuals seek peak experiences for a hefty fee. The Everest
(1996) and Interlaken canyonning (1999) disasters serve to illustrate the dark underbelly
of this burgeoning industry.
5
INTRODUCTION
Sporting events have seen rioting with disquieting regularity throughout history
and on six continents. Few sports have remained untouched. Whenever people
assemble to witness sports or, for that matter, attend other events, for example,
union meeting, rock concert, or beach party, there is an ever-present risk of a
physical disturbance. The consequences of sports riots can be costly exacting an
appalling toll of property damage, injuries, and, on singular occasions, deaths.
Other hidden costs can include those associated with policing events, “hooligan-
proofing” stadia, and declining attendance.
For me, news of a riot brings forth images not unlike a barroom brawl with
hard-bitten gunslingers swinging wildly at each other smashing furniture and
glassware, the sheriff and his deputy expected to arrive momentarily. Admittedly,
my view of riots has been shaped by countless Saturday afternoon Hollywood
westerns. To be sure, my childhood memories are a distortion of historical real-
ity in terms of their frequency and destructiveness. For the most part, the good
citizens of small frontier towns had little cause for concern.
Today’s newspapers and other media outlets are quick to feature and give
extended coverage to riots, often pushing more important but less newswor-
thy topics to the back pages. An opening question in this chapter is whether
media audiences have developed a distorted impression of riots in regard to their
destructiveness and frequency of occurrence. Have our estimates of the frequency
of rioting at sports events been inflated much as was my childhood estimate of
barroom brawls? In short, is crowd violence in sports as “serious” a problem
as media coverage would seem to imply or is it overblown? The question will
be explored in the opening section with particular reference to crowd disorders
associated with football (soccer).
133
134 Aggression in the Sports World
A Moral Panic?
The thrust of this chapter is on spectator violence as a social problem, an
approach that attempts to identify the causes of fan violence. However, in assess-
ing the severity of the problem we must first separate the public’s view from the
evidence provided by records of the phenomenon. The two are not necessarily
in agreement. In the case of riotous football behaviors, the public’s view of its
severity may be artificially high, that is, a moral panic. In a moral panic, fan
violence is seen in menacing terms, a phenomenon that threatens social values
and interests and about which a belief is fostered that something must be done.
As Ward (2002) notes, moral panics involve “rapid and intense emotional fervor
toward an issue that the media and other social control agents call to public
attention” (p. 464). Examples include school shootings (Burns & Crawford, 1999)
and child molestation (Goode, 2000). To be sure, there may in fact be a problem
of sorts but its seriousness and the threat it poses to the public is overblown by
hyperbole and media exaggeration (Cohen, 1973). The resulting hysteria prompts
an official reaction that is typically more Draconian than the facts warrant.
Moorhouse (1991) presents the case for hooligan violence in British football
qualifying as a moral panic.
The sober truth is that football violence is not a particularly large segment of
all recorded violence and that one theoretically puzzling issue is why, given a
high value on masculinity norms, heavy drinking, and preexisting social antago-
nisms in British society, football “hooligans” have not been a lot more violent.
Certainly, we have cause to wonder why policy makers, funding bodies, and
yes, academics and students are so interested in it because on figures alone it is
difficult to claim that it really is exceptional or even an important indicator of
the “well-being” of society (p. 493).
DEFINITIONS
A wide variety of definitions are to be found in the social science literature. Their
diversity can be seen in the following examples. McPhail (1994) defines a riot as
Violent Sports Crowds 135
“the judgment that one or more persons, part of a larger gathering, are engaged in
violence against person or property or threaten to so engage and are judged capable
of enacting that threat” (p. 2). Other definitions describe riots as “aimless behavior
involving disturbances or turmoil” (Darrow & Lowinger, 1968, p. 2) and “relatively
spontaneous group violence contrary to traditional norms” (Marx, 1972, p. 50).
Bohstedt (1994) specifies a requisite number of participants for a disorder to achieve
riot status as does Lewis (1982a) in establishing a minimum of five persons as nec-
essary to “serious disorders.” Lewis later adopted 10 as the number necessary for
a violent incident to qualify as a riot. Bohstedt suggests a riot involves “crowd vio-
lence, hostile collective action by a group of about 50 or more people who physically
assault persons or property or coerce someone to perform an action” (Bohstedt,
1994, p. 259). Simmons and Taylor have developed a definition specifically in the
context of sports. They propose that sports riots represent “purposive destructive or
injurious behavior by partisan spectators of a sporting event that may be caused by
personal, social, economic or competitive factors” (Simons & Taylor, 1992, p. 213).
It is clear from the above that there is little approaching a consensus on the
matter of definition. The number of participants necessary for a riot is seen to
vary from 1 (McPhail, 1994) to 50 (Bohstedt, 1994). Some specify the causes of
riots (Simons & Taylor, 1992), others do not. It is the writer’s view that sports
riots do not constitute a special case with unique origins. The same underlying
causal factors are common to riots in the broader social context and in sport
settings. As noted elsewhere, “religious, social, ethnic and economic conflicts,
even competitive outcomes broadly defined, can be shown to have been at the
heart of riots in both settings” (Russell, 2004, p. 355).
INCIDENCE OF RIOTS
Table 5.1 is presented as background to this chapter. Several points deserve men-
tion. As noted in the introduction, every major continent has seen riots associ-
ated with the world’s most popular sport, that is, football. The table suggests
an increase in the frequency of riots over the past 100 years. However, at this
point it would certainly be premature to draw a conclusion regarding trends.
A fair number of tragedies generally described as riots involved a major com-
ponent of panic, for example, Heysel in 1985 (Dunand, 1986), Bradford in 1985
(Lewis & Veneman, 1987), and Hillsboro in 1989 (Wright, Binney, & Kunkler,
1994). Adding to the confusion, the descriptive labels “stampede” and “panic”
are often used interchangeably. All too often, distinctions between these phenom-
ena are blurred in media reports of these tragedies. For example, the incidence
of riots in general is vastly underreported (Russell, 2004). It would further seem
likely that a considerably larger number of riots occurred in the first half of the
last century and went unreported or were reported only locally. This is in sharp
contrast to those reported by means of the instant and far-reaching communica-
tion capabilities available to news gathering organizations today. It seems to the
writer that the actual number of football riots occurring in the first half of the
20th century is woefully underestimated in the table as are the numbers overall.
136 Aggression in the Sports World
Precise estimates of the frequency of riots are difficult to come by. Several fac-
tors are at play to produce estimates considerably below the actual figures. The table
lists only reports of major football riots that have found their way into Western print
media. For example, riotous behaviors judged by media staff to be “newsworthy” are
given coverage, whereas those with less reader appeal are passed over. Moreover, an
untold number of riots take place beyond the view of police and as a consequence do
not find their way into the public record (Roversi, 1991). For example, it is common
practice for police at Scottish football matches to eject rowdy spectators rather than
make arrests (Coalter, 1985). Overall, these practices effectively act as a filter result-
ing in “official” records of fan misconduct that understate the reality.
With the foregoing in mind plus the results of several studies, riots must be
regarded as common occurrences. A study of 306 football matches in Belgium
Violent Sports Crowds 137
revealed that 31% involved minor outbursts, while 9.5% involved serious crowd
disturbances (Van Limbergen, Colaers, & Walgrave, 1989). Elsewhere, 25 brawls
erupted during the Stuttgart Football Club’s 17 home games. The fighting involved
a total of 140 fans, 35 of whom suffered treatable injuries (Pilz et al., 1981, cited
in Smith, 1983, p. 135). Marsh, Fox, Carnibella, McCann, and Marsh (1996)
estimated that fan violence typically erupts at 10% of matches played in coun-
tries with a history of disorders, for example, Britain, Italy, and the Netherlands.
Crowd disturbances then, are far from a rarity.
A number of authors, the writer included, have described sports riots as rare
(e.g., Russell, 1993, p. 254), very rare (e.g., specifically at football matches, Stott
& Adang, 2004), relatively rare (e.g., Mann & Pearce, 1978, p. 191; Ward, 2002,
p. 457), or infrequent in the case of “genuine” riots (Smith 1983, p. 152). Lewis
(1975) voiced a dissenting opinion based on the results of his archival investiga-
tion of U.S. sports riots. Simply put, he concluded that “sports riots are not
[italics added] rare” (p. 2). The sample of definitions presented earlier show
little agreement particularly with regard to the requisite number of participants.
Clearly, a crowd disturbance can involve a single or several combatants, that is,
a scuffle, a fracas, or a brawl. Equally clear, our estimates of rarity depend on
where the line is drawn on a continuum of events ranging in size from perhaps
two individuals fighting to hundreds engaged in widespread violence over an
extended period of time. Thus, if we adopt a definition similar to that proposed
by McPhail (1994), that is, “one or more persons,” riots are commonplace. By
contrast, if an unruly crowd event is judged by Bohstedt’s (1994) definition,
that is, “50 or more people,” then riots are a relatively infrequent occurrence.
Moreover, the decision as to where to draw the line is made more problematic
by a tendency to take into account the number of injuries, deaths, and property
damage, when judging an event’s severity. Where death and destruction occur,
a disorder normally described as a brawl may instead be labeled a riot. In sum,
there is little by way of a consensus where that line should be drawn. One
theorist’s riot is another theorist’s scuffle.
Given the intense media coverage given to football in Europe and Latin America,
it is not surprising that there is an exceptionally strong association in the public’s
mind between riotous behaviors and the sport. Some years ago, the writer was
passing through British Customs at Gatwick Airport on his way to the meetings
of the International Society for Research on Aggression (ISRA). Members of the
society have research interests as varied as spousal violence, animal aggression,
pharmacological effects, and environmental and media influences. The customs
officer asked me the purpose of my visit. I said I was attending a conference in
Wales. He then asked what the conference was about. I said it was a conference
on aggression to which he immediately replied: “You’ve come about our football
then?” Without another word being spoken, he waved me through.
any one of a number of sports events, given the right circumstances and actors,
disorders can erupt. Certainly, European football has witnessed more than its
share of unwanted publicity. However, other sports have not escaped untar-
nished. There is evidence to suggest that fan violence can erupt at virtually any
spectator sport, even sports devoid of violent content. Three studies conducted
in the United States show a pattern of disorderly crowd behavior occurring at
levels comparable to those seen in European football.
Sociologist Jerry Lewis (1975) has tallied the number of riots occurring in the
United States at sports events. Seven major Eastern U.S. newspapers (e.g., New
York Times or Cleveland Plain Dealer) were examined for reports of sports riots
during the years 1960–1972. Stories of 245 riots (an average of 20 per year) were
of sufficient importance to be published in the papers. The sports that experienced
rioting were (in decreasing order): American football, 61; baseball, 58; basketball,
46; ice hockey, 29; boxing, 19; horse racing, 9; motorcycle/car racing, 7; soccer, 6;
golf, 3; air sports, 2; track, 2; wrestling, 1; tennis, 1, and polo, 1. Lewis (1982b)
expanded his earlier survey identifying more than 300 sports riots involving 10
or more people during the period 1962–1982. Baseball had surpassed football as
the sport experiencing the greatest number of violent incidents among fans. In a
third study, spectators attending football and basketball games were observed by
the investigators. Fighting broke out among fans at 9 of 24 basketball games and
9 of 14 football games (Bryan & Horton, 1976).
In light of the foregoing, describing riot frequency as “relatively rare” even
when holding to a conservative definition requiring a minimum of say 15–20
participants is lacking support. Describing the frequency of their occurrence
as “fairly commonplace” is more accurate, more consistent with the sports
literature.
Riot Severity
Several measures have been developed to assess the severity of a crowd
disturbance. They may be useful in helping researchers decide if a particular
disturbance has reached riot proportions. One such measure has been developed
by Eisinger (1973). Called the Riot Intensity Index, it assesses a disturbance
along three intuitively derived dimensions, that is, duration, number of sites,
and the number of participants. The rater(s) assign from 1 to 3 points on each of
the three dimensions. As examples, the duration of the disturbance is assigned
1 point if it was confined to 1 day; 2 points, 2 days, and 3 points, 3 or more
days. The number of different locations is assigned 1 point if it was confined to
a single location, 2 points, for two sites, and 3 points, for three or more sites.
Lastly, Eisinger would assign 1 point if the number of participants was 5–75, 2
points, 76–200, and 3 points if 201+ were involved. Note that Eisinger appears
to have set 5 as the minimum number of participants for a crowd disturbance to
qualify as a riot.
The Eisinger index represents a useful first step in the development of a riot
severity measure. Refinements might involve the use of factor analysis or multidi-
mensional scaling procedures (e.g., Russell, 1972) to more fully map the dimensions
Violent Sports Crowds 139
underlying the domain of crowd disorders. Furthermore, it seems to the writer that
the toll of deaths, injuries, and property destruction is absolutely central to people’s
judgments of riot severity. With the dimensions empirically identified, ratings can
be combined to produce an overall weighted figure indicative of the severity of a
disorder. Finally, the term “participants” should be specifically defined. As we see
later in this chapter, a crowd disturbance is typically made up of individuals who
assume quite different roles. The percentage of people actually throwing punches
is quite small as is the number of others egging them on from the sidelines. Are
these not participants? Within the remaining large majority of crowd members,
many are attempting to restore order. Should they also be counted as participants?
The largest percentage of all are standing idly by watching events unfold while
still others choose to leave. Refinements along these lines would provide research-
ers with a valuable means of assessing unruly crowds, at the same time furthering
our understanding of violent collective behaviors.
THEORY
A Note on Causes
There is no shortage of theories, models, taxonomies, or explanations for crowd
violence in sport settings (see reviews by Smith, 1975; Stott, Hutchinson, &
Drury, 2001; Ward, 2002; ‘t Hart & Pijnenburg, 1988). What follows are several
viewpoints that I believe you will find interesting and perhaps offer a fresh way
of looking at sports riots. On a further note, full-scale riots are exceedingly
complex social events. In addition to taking a variety of forms, riots differ in
their scale, are geographically scattered, and are largely unpredictable. Adding
to the difficulty of understanding the origin of riots is that they are typically
caused by multiple factors. Moreover, the factors necessary to a riot must be
present and unfold in a particular sequence. In consequence, answers regarding
the cause of a riot(s) are tentative at best.
researchers (Van Limbergen et al., 1989) seeking to explain the motives of their
homegrown hooligans reached a similar conclusion. That is, “To interrupt their
monotonous lives, they look for the excitement of a war game, which they find
around the terraces” (p. 10). Excitement initially builds as hooligans reminisce
about earlier exploits and plan their next engagement. “The excitement reaches
its peak during violent actions and hooliganism, when the siders feel stronger,
faster and more clever in relation to other sides and the police” (p. 9).
To the rioter’s mind, the odds of being injured or apprehended in a disorderly
crowd are slight. Despite feeling safe, there is always the possibility that the
individual bent on trouble has misjudged his situation. That is, he may stray too
close to what Apter calls “the dangerous edge.” One misstep and he falls into
the “trauma zone” where he is apt to suffer grievous consequences, for example,
injuries or arrest. To be sure, individuals occasionally miscalculate their margin
of safety. Unaware of nearby surveillance cameras, a rioter is surprised a few
days later when the police come calling at his door.
The next few pages provide little more than a thumbnail sketch of reversal
theory. A more detailed and extended description of the theory, including its
application to sports, is available in Kerr (2005a). In addition, two case studies
provide explanations using reversal theory in accounting for the motives under-
lying separate incidents in which a player suddenly attacks a rival. The first is
the notorious Zidane–Matarazzi head butt at the 2006 Football World Cup Final
(Kerr, 2007). Equally shocking to the ice hockey world was the savage attack on
Steve Moore (Colorado Avalanche) who was blind-sided by power forward Todd
Bertuzzi of the NHL Vancouver Canucks (Kerr, 2006).
Reversal theory includes the concepts of paratelic protective frames and
parapathic emotions. These protective frames are dependent on the individual’s
assessment and interpretation of his circumstances. Positive paratelic emotions
can be enjoyed to the fullest within a protective frame. In addition, normally
negative telic emotions, for example, anger, uncharacteristically are experi-
enced as pleasant in the paratelic state, that is, as parapathic emotions. Within
a protective frame, the troublemaker feels relatively secure and unlikely to be
injured or taken into custody by police. Still, violence must continue to be a
regular occurrence along with injuries, often serious, if a sense of danger is to
be maintained.
Reversal theory highlights the complexity and inconsistency of an individual’s
behavior. The interpretation and structure of an individual’s motives are facilitated
by means of four sets of paired mental states, that is, telic–paratelic, negativistic–
conformist, sympathy–mastery, and autic–alloic. Collectively, they are referred
to as metamotivational states. Reversals are regarded as involuntary. However, a
reversal can be brought about by personal or environmental change, frustration, or
satiation. Frustration arising from one pair of states not meeting the individual’s
needs is a condition likely to trigger a change. Similarly, a reversal is increasingly
likely to occur the longer a person stays in one metamotivation state.
The behavior of an individual in the telic state is one of seriousness accom-
panied by low levels of arousal. By contrast, behavior in the paratelic state is
characterized as spontaneous, playful, and exhibiting a preference for highly
Violent Sports Crowds 141
He continues.
Every night during the week we go round town looking for trouble. Before a
match we go round looking respectable . . . then if we see someone who looks like
the enemy, we ask him the time. If he answers in a foreign accent, we do him over,
and if he’s got any money on him we roll him as well (Harrison, 1974, p. 604).
Why did the confrontation not take place in the stadium? In recent years,
police in the Netherlands (and England) have developed a variety of control
measures to restrict the occurrence and scale of hooligan behavior in football
stadia. For example, tactics include a heavy police presence, segregated areas
for rival fans, undercover agents, and police escorts to and from transportation
terminals all of which serve to encourage hooligans to conduct their activities
elsewhere. The overall effect has been to change the nature of the “game.”
Now the game has become one of outflanking police tactics. Within a need for
excitement framework, Kerr and de Kock (2002) note that “outwitting the police
provides extra challenge, excitement and fun” (p. 6). In consequence, the new
challenge was met with careful planning and preparation for confrontation at a
time and location of their choosing. Cell phone technology allowed the battle
plans to be easily drawn up and last minute details arranged in secrecy.
Did the death of a veteran leader diminish subsequent hooligan activities.
Seemingly the fatal stabbing and severe injuries that occurred in the car park at
Beverwijk would dampen the enthusiasm for future violence. This did not happen.
Rather there was continued violence involving Feijenoord hooligans when their club
played Manchester United in the Fall. At an earlier time, the dreadful disasters at
Heysel, Belgium (1985), and Hillsboro, England (1989), were also followed by hoo-
ligan violence at subsequent matches. To echo the conclusion of Kerr and de Kock
(2002) “knowledge of the death and injuries would have been likely to enhance the
challenge, danger and excitement associated with hooligan fighting” (p. 8).
I trust the foregoing has allowed the reader to glimpse something of the
complexity and social dynamics often involved in riots. In the next section we
turn to an example of a system that provides for the classification of sports riots
according to their presumed origins. Brief accounts of real-life riots represent-
ing each category are introduced.
the Forum were damaged and looted, as were 50 businesses along an adjacent
street in a riot that lasted until 3:00 a.m. the next morning (Lang & Lang, 1961).
Outlawry riots involve antagonistic elements that clash at or near the sporting
venue. The event merely provides a site where the rival groups can do battle.
Groups of predominantly young men can often be found in the vicinity of European
football matches eager to do battle before, during, or after the match. Media
attention is guaranteed for these hooligans as is the presence of rival supporters.
Dutch psychologist, Jeffrey Goldstein provides a firsthand, inside account of
an outlawry riot in which he and his wife found themselves engulfed by rioters
during a visit to Cannes in the summer of 2004.
Gerda and I were in France in July and got caught in the middle, well, on the
fringe of football violence. We were in a cafe in Cannes, of all places, and noticed
several groups of young men. We just received our drinks when a group of guys
walking toward the cafe began throwing chairs and fighting. Everyone retreated
into the cafe, but so did the football fans, destroying the place. We got out through
a side exit and from what we hoped was a safe distance watched the 30 or 40 guys
charge and retreat in waves. Gerda found an opening and ran into the cafe to pay
for our drinks!
A tip was out of the question. It took 5 minutes before the police came. We
later found out it was a game between Paris St. Germain and a team from Lyons
played on neutral ground. Our reaction to witnessing this real violence was of a
totally different order (and not just magnitude) than seeing mock violence in films
or video games. It felt like a flight or fight response with a long recovery time
(J. H. Goldstein, personal communication, September 20, 2004).
An outlawry riot broke out in a downtown Stockholm pub when 60 soccer hooli-
gans from two rival clubs clashed. Supporters of Djurgarden and Hammarby clubs
smashed furniture and windows in a brawl that left six hooligans injured and two
police officers with cuts and bruises. The police made 25 arrests charging the
supporters with the offenses of rioting, vandalism, assault and resisting arrest.
The police were caught off guard because the Swedish soccer season had not even
started (March 27, 2005).
Celtic supporters in a rivalry that has its roots in the political and economic
history of Northern Ireland (Moorhouse, 1984).
A recent confrontation riot occurred in the aftermath of Japan’s 3–1 defeat of
China in the final match of the Asia Cup. Violence erupted outside of Beijing’s
soccer stadium as Chinese supporters surrounded the Japanese team bus. Despite
the presence of 6,000 riot police and security personnel, fans burnt the Japanese
flag, hurled bottles, and shouted obscenities at the Japanese contingent. The
riot provides a good illustration of how long-standing grievances can emerge in
violent actions after laying dormant for decades.
Tensions were heightened by Chinese protesters who by their actions brought
bygone, sensitive issues to the fore. Banners carried by protesters during earlier
matches in the competition created a politically charged environment. One read
“Look at history and apologize to the people of China,” a reference to Japan’s
invasion and occupation of Chinese territory from 1931 to 1945 when tens of
millions died. Another banner read “Return the Diaoyutai Islands,” a potentially
oil-rich chain of islands at the heart of a sovereignty dispute between the two
nations. Tensions were further raised as a leader of the protest shouted to his
followers “Kill the Japanese.” In a similar vein, the stage was set for violence
when a television station further inflamed emotions declaring “It is going to be
a war” (see Priming Effects, Chapter 4). To their credit, politicians at the highest
levels of both governments had pleaded for calm in the days leading up to the
match. Obviously, to no avail (Curtin, 2004).
Expressive riots are described as occurring in the aftermath of an event. These
postevent riots originate with highly aroused fans whose team has just triumphed or,
equally, with fans who have just witnessed their team suffer an agonizing defeat.
At this point, I should sound a note of caution. The cause of a riot is not
always what it seems. For example, the widespread rioting that erupted fol-
lowing the Chicago Bulls’ 1992 National Basketball Association championship
victory had the appearance of an expressive riot. Whereas many celebrated the
achievement, others took to the streets for entirely different reasons. Rosenfeld
(1997) makes a convincing case in attributing the cause to massive welfare cuts
and intense media coverage of the earlier Los Angeles (LA) riots. The LA riots
followed the jury decision to acquit police officers charged with beating Rodney
King. Both events had occurred 6 and 8 weeks earlier, respectively. The Chicago
riot nicely illustrates the folly of a rush to judgment in attributing the source of
a disorder to a single cause. People caught up in a riot are not necessarily of one
mind. Their motives for joining in may differ and/or reflect different agendum.
before the match was to begin, Liverpool fans broke through the steel fencing
that separated them from the Italian supporters. These ritualized charges into
areas set aside for rival fans is known as “the taking of the ends” (e.g., Marsh,
Rosser, & Harré, 1978). The result was panic among the Italians who were
routed and sent scurrying for safety. Many were pushed up against a 6-foot-high
retaining wall. The wall collapsed. Thirty-nine spectators were crushed to death
and a further 470 were injured (Dunand, 1986). Television production crews
recorded the horrific disaster for millions of viewers worldwide.
Parenthetically, officials typically look to psychological and/or sociological
explanations in the aftermath of such disasters. However, in the Heysel case we
might ask if an engineering variable, that is, shoddy construction, was not in
large part responsible for the tragedy. Had the wall not given way, the incident
likely would have been reported as another example of English hooligans on yet
another rampage. The incident would scarcely be worth a headline.
Those charged with responsibility for determining the cause of riots generally
seek answers at an individual or situational level. Thus, an athlete may attack
a fan, excessive drinking, a series of “bad” calls by an official any or all may
be seen by investigators as the cause of a particular disorder. A third theoreti-
cal approach to understanding the dynamics of riots draws heavily on Normal
Accidents Theory (NAT) proposed by Perrow (1984) to explain various manmade
disasters, for example, Bhopal (India), Tsjernobyl (USSR), and Challenger explo-
sion (Florida). ‘t Hart and Pijnenburg (1988) have drawn directly from Perrow’s
work in applying a systems analysis to explain the Heysel stadium tragedy.
NAT recognizes that some technological systems are so complex and
tightly coupled or compressed in time that accidents are almost unavoidable.
Consequently, they should be regarded as normal occurrences. In addition, most
high-risk situations contain toxic or explosive dangers that add to the certainty
of accidents. In any of these technological systems, be it a nuclear power plant,
a supertanker, or a biological laboratory, two or more failures may occur within
the excessively large array of components. The failures interact in ways not
anticipated at the time of the system’s design, and hence, provisions were not
made for their correction.
Consider a technological example that illustrates Perrow’s term interactive
complexity. Not in anyone’s wildest dreams could it happen but it did. Two
unexpected system failures occurred. The first started a fire, whereas the second
failure shut down the fire alarm. In retrospect, installing a backup alarm and
adding a second sprinkler system might have been a wise precaution. However,
in Perrow’s view, this might lead to other unanticipated interactions among
future failures. This interactive complexity of a technological system is not a
feature of the operator but a characteristic of the system itself.
With quick action following a system failure, the situation might yet be saved.
However, there is tight coupling in many high-risk systems. That is, there is
insufficient time to stop the process nor is there time to isolate the failed com-
ponents. The situation rapidly worsens and cannot be stopped. What otherwise
would have been an incident becomes an accident or catastrophe. While system
accidents are rare, they are nonetheless inevitable.
146 Aggression in the Sports World
The extension of NAT to account for accidents in social systems, for example,
a Cup final, highlights the work of ‘t Hart and Pijnenburg (1988). From their
perspective, the Heysel disaster resulted from a faulty organizational structure
and policy decisions. Included among the organizational failings before the Cup
final were the following.
• Responsibility for maintaining public order and safety at Heysel was
unclear as were the lines of authority. The roles of various state and
municipal leaders were vague. That is, the local and state police, the
minister of internal affairs, the governor, and the burgomaster were
unclear on the matter of their responsibilities. Finally, the match orga-
nizers along with the international and Belgian football unions lacked a
clear understanding of their responsibilities.
• The regulations covering safety and order in preparing for the Cup
final were often overlapping and noncommittal. Indeed, they frequently
contained omissions and contradictions.
• Key organizations, for example, fire brigade and health services, were
not invited to the planning sessions in advance of the event. Important
decisions were never taken regarding renovations to the dilapidated
stadium, the availability of alcohol, and how to manage drunken fans.
• Some of the organizational elements were inefficient in their operations.
For example, the Belgian football union lacked control in the selling of
tickets to the match. As a result, supporters of Juventus and Liverpool
were not totally separated from each other. At the same time, the
organizational resources of the state police were stretched in having to
prepare for a Papal visit that coincided with the Cup final.
No single one of the organizational weaknesses was sufficient to cause the
tragedy. As noted above, any error inducing system is marked by the combina-
tion of interactive complexity and tight coupling. Errors occur and contribute
to other errors in a causal chain leading to the eventual disaster. The following
illustrates one such series of flawed developments.
1. The sale of tickets by the Belgian football union resulted in the Juventus
and Liverpool supporters being in close proximity to each other.
2. Only a small number of state policemen were stationed in the passage-
way separating the two groups.
3. These officers had inadequate instruction and did not know how to
respond.
4. The police commanders were outside the stadium effectively leav-
ing their officers without leaders. Finally, faulty communications
prevented them from calling in reinforcements. As one observer put it,
“Out of this confluence of errors, the Heizel drama was born” (Rabbie,
1989, p. 55).
The foregoing gives us a glimpse of the internal dynamics of a developing riot.
Moreover, it provides us with another means of explanation in addition to per-
sonalized accounts, that is, human error.
Violent Sports Crowds 147
THE RIOTERS
A Small Minority?
How many in a crowd of predominantly male spectators are poised to do battle
or perhaps incite others to violence? They are typically described as a “small
minority” of troublemakers in the aftermath of a disturbance. Figure 5.1 suggests
that they are indeed a small percentage of those in attendance. Among Finnish
(Russell & Mustonen, 1998) and Canadian (Russell & Arms, 1998) ice hockey
fans, 2.4% and 2.7%, respectively, would join a crowd disturbance that erupted
nearby. In a sample of American university students, 4.0% expressed a willing-
ness to enter the fray. Small percentages “yes” but in absolute terms, quite large
148 Aggression in the Sports World
100
Finland (N = 129)
60
40
20
0
Watch Intervene Fight Incite Leave
Responses
Who Riots?
What is known about this most basic of questions? That is, who among a crowd
of spectators are likely to initiate or involve themselves in a disturbance? What
personal characteristics or traits predispose some elements in a crowd to resort to
Violent Sports Crowds 149
Hooligans
How much do we know about those individuals in a sports crowd or its environs
who are likely to involve themselves in a disturbance? Nearly a half century
of research by European sociologists attempting to understand the behavior of
football hooligans has given us a good start. A combination of observational,
questionnaire, and interview techniques enabled them to develop a social profile
of those causing disturbances in and around football grounds. First, however, I
want to be specific about the type of violence that occurs in conjunction with
a football match. There is a spontaneous form of violence that originates with
incidents occurring in the highly charged atmosphere of on-field competition,
for example, a bad call by the referee. The second type of violence is premedi-
tated and organized. It typically has little or nothing to do with the contest itself
(Van Limbergen et al., 1989). It is primarily in the latter type of violence that
hooligans involve themselves.
Traditionally, there has been fairly good agreement among European
researchers that hooligans in general are young, single males who are irregularly
employed at low paying jobs. They were further seen to be socially margin-
alized and disaffected. That is, in many ways they have been shunted to the
sidelines and find themselves dissociated from their culture’s traditional interests
and norms of behavior (e.g., Roversi, 1991; Van Limbergen et al., 1989).
Regarding the matter of employment and social status, the traditional picture
of the hooligan is further reinforced by the findings of Trivizas’ (1980) archival
investigation of those charged with offenses committed in conjunction with foot-
ball crowd events. Fully, 68% of those arrested were employed at semiskilled
jobs (apprentices), whereas a further 12% were unemployed. Lastly, schoolboys
accounted for 10% of those with a date in court. Until recently, there have been
only a few challenges to this stereotypical profile of European hooligans, for
example, “Most of the hooligans are neither poor, socially marginalized nor
unemployed. It rather seems that they are people like all others” (Salvini, 1988,
as cited in Zani & Kirchler, 1991).
There is little disagreement among researchers that youngsters were a promi-
nent force, and continue to be so, within hooligan ranks. As examples, Trivizas
(1980) reports the median age of British fans arrested for offenses was 18 with
the youngest being 10 years of age and the oldest, 55. Among Italian fans, 65%
of those admitting to acts of hooliganism were less than 21 years of age (Roversi,
1991). Furthermore, a comparison of supporters clubs from Bologna, that is,
“moderates” and the more extreme “fanatics” showed sharp age differences. The
150 Aggression in the Sports World
mean age of the moderates was 36.2 years, whereas that of the violence-prone
fanatics was 20.6 years (Zani & Kirchler, 1991). Especially troubling is the
involvement of young children in football-related violence.
Consider the disturbing case of a child charged with violent disorder. The
10-year-old boy was caught throwing stones at police in violence that erupted
after a soccer match. The youngster was barely tall enough to see the district
judge over the clerk’s desk at Portsmouth Magistrates Court. He attended the
derby match between Portsmouth and Southampton with a friend, a 14-year-old
girl. Asked by the judge why he had taken part in the violence, the boy replied
“I was egged on by older people.” The boy was sentenced to a 9-month referral
order and banned from attending any matches in the United Kingdom for 3
years. Among others charged with violent disorder were three 17-year olds and
one aged 16 who were given 8 months detention and banned from attending
matches for 6 years. Two others aged 16 and 18 were jailed. The match was
followed by a major riot involving more than 300 fans. Police made more than
30 arrests and were expecting to arrest a further 80 individuals. Damage was
considerable. Police were pelted with bricks and stones, cars were damaged,
and shops looted. The judge observed that the area looked like a battlefield with
rubble, damaged vehicles, broken windows, and extensive looting (“Boy, 10,”
2004).
Superhooligans
The figures provided by Trivizas (1980), Roversi (1991), and Zani and Kirchler
(1991) show evidence of a group of aging hooligans who have not chosen the
“retirement” option. The result has been the emergence of growing numbers of
affluent, well-educated, middle-class, semiskilled workers and others employed
in professional occupations (Kerr, 2005b).
The early 1980s witnessed the emergence of the British superhooligan, an
upscale version of the traditional hooligan, that has captured European head-
lines for over four decades (Williams, Dunning, & Murphy, 1986). This new
breed of hooligan adopted names such as the “Inter City Firm” (ICF), “Gooners
of Arsenal,” “Bushwackers of Millwall,” and the “Headhunters of Chelsea.” For
the most part, their memberships numbered in the 150–200 range. A distinctive
feature of the superhooligan groups is their ability to avoid being noticed or
apprehended by the police. For example, gangs such as the ICF were among
the first to adopt the tactic of using British Rail’s “Inter City” service in trav-
eling first class to matches rather than “football special” trains. Their attire
was stylish but casual with no displays of club colors. The fashion conscious
Chelsea Headhunters carried the trend a bit further wearing Armani pullovers
and designer clothes. The gangs spent substantial sums of money on trips to the
continent to attend important games. For example, ICF members stayed at a
5-star hotel in Bologna during the 1990 World Cup Finals (Haley, 2001).
A journalist for The Guardian newspaper offers a short profile of the superhoo-
ligan. Typically in their late twenties and involved in hooliganism since their teen
years, superhooligans frequently have a lengthy record of conviction for violence.
Violent Sports Crowds 151
Moreover, they are frequently family men with mortgages, whereas some hold
professional jobs or attend university. They further appear to have superior orga-
nizational and planning skills. Most interesting, they rarely consume alcohol
before a game, recognizing the need to be in full command of their faculties
when fighting. Oddly, a few members keep a diary or scrapbook of their exploits
(Keating, 1982, as cited in Haley, 2001). While this brief sketch describes the
major actors involved in football violence, it leaves unanswered questions of the
psychological makeup of those engaged in confrontations occurring in sports
generally.
Personality
Perhaps the first question to ask is if sport fans differ from the general public.
Are those who follow sports more volatile, more likely to become verbally or
physically aggressive in their day-to-day activities? Such evidence as we have
suggests the answer is inconclusive.
Measures of physical assault and antisocial tendencies were administered to a
select sample of Dutchmen with virtually no interest in sports and male support-
ers of FC Utrecht. While there were no differences in assault, the club supporters
scored higher on antisocial tendencies. Their behavior is marked by impulsivity,
weak behavioral controls, and excitement seeking. It may be that the last trait
in the syndrome draws them to matches where spirited and sometimes overly
aggressive competition can be witnessed in a volatile environment (Russell &
Goldstein, 1995). However, if we look within the followers of a sport, we find
sharp differences between the small minority of people involved in disturbances
and those who stay clear of any involvement.
A set of personality measures was administered to convicted hooligans and
a sample of other football supporters. No differences were in evidence (Walshe-
Brennan, 1975). By contrast, other studies reveal important differences among
spectators who typically attend sports events. A study by Miller (1976) showed
that American football fans described as “dedicated” were more assaultive and
verbally aggressive than men with somewhat less dedication to the sport. By
contrast, women identified as avid fans scored higher than other women on a
scale measuring sensation-seeking needs.
A more recent series of Canadian studies sought answers from men found
in attendance at ice hockey games (Arms & Russell, 1997; Russell & Arms,
1995). Trained interviewers went into the stands and approached adult men
following a random procedure and asked them to complete a short question-
naire. The key question asked of the men was their estimate of the likelihood
they would join in a fight or other disturbance were one to erupt nearby in
the stands. Because of the rather limited time available between periods the
battery of personality and other measures was administered piecemeal over the
course of approximately 10 studies. In each case there was reason to believe
that the men’s scores on the personality measures would be associated with
their expressed willingness to escalate a crowd disturbance. For the most part,
this proved to be the case.
152 Aggression in the Sports World
Foremost among the list of personality traits indicative of men likely to widen
the scope of a disturbance is anger and physical assault. That angry men and
those with assaultive tendencies are among those most eager to do battle hardly
comes as a surprise. What is more enlightening are the additional findings that
those with an antisocial personality, a tendency to be impulsive, or sensation
seeking in nature also appear more than willing to jump into a fight. Sample
items from these last three scales will hopefully give you a feel for the trait
being measured. The following will serve as examples: “I often do things just
for the hell of it” (psychopath scale), “Do you look for excitement?” (impulsiv-
ity), “I would (not) like to try surf board riding” (sensation seeking).
When researchers dug into the background of the men, they found several
additional factors that set rioters apart from other members of a sports audience.
Would-be rioters not only had a history of fighting in the past year but also had
fought quite recently. Further, they state that their only reason for attending
hockey games is they like to watch the fights. A final distinguishing characteris-
tic of rioters is they run in packs, that is, they strongly prefer to attend sporting
events in the company of others.
Two features of the series should be noted. First, the personality scales used
were generally significantly interrelated, for example, subjects scoring high on
anger tended also to be physically aggressive. Although all measures were related
to the expressed willingness to join a disturbance, there was particular interest in
knowing which measure(s) bore the strongest relationship. One study (Arms &
Russell, 1997) will serve to illustrate the important role of personality in the series.
Following the interview protocol described above, males attending a hockey game
completed a measure of impulsivity along with their history of fighting, age, their
enjoyment of watching player brawls, and the number of friends with whom they
attend games. Impulsivity emerged as the single best predictor.
Impulsive individuals tend to act rather suddenly without giving due thought
to their circumstances or the consequences of their actions. Moreover, they
appear unable to exert control over their thoughts and actions, displaying a hair-
trigger temperament (Bettencourt et al., 2006). For present purposes one feature
of their makeup stands out, that is, the ease with which they are influenced by
peers to aggress (Wheeler & Caggiula, 1966). Standing in a crowd with friends
when a disturbance erupts and a mate says “Let’s have a go!”; little wonder
impulsives become embroiled.
In an overarching lab study (Russell & Arms, 1998), two biographical factors
emerged as the strongest predictors of involvement in a crowd disorder. These
were the amount of elapsed time since the respondents’ last serious fight with
another man and the extent to which they rated “I like to watch the fights” as a
reason for their attendance at a hockey match. While the remaining personal-
ity and biographical measures, for example, age, number of fights, and so on,
were significantly related to escalating a disturbance, they were overshadowed
or subsumed in importance by the recency of a respondent’s last fight and his
enjoyment of witnessing player brawls.
The second point to note is that the battery of personality measures had gen-
erally stronger associations with the likelihood of involvement measure than
Violent Sports Crowds 153
Groups in Crowds
the strength of the wolf is in the pack
Old adage
Group Size
The crowd attending a sports event is largely comprised of social groups, for
example, family members, friends, supporter club members, or youth gangs.
Among self-styled hockey fans, only one participant reported attending games
alone (Russell & Arms, 1998). However, other studies suggest that sporting
events have a considerably less sociable following. Aveni (1977) interviewed
204 students celebrating an Ohio State University victory over the University
of Michigan. Fully 26% were alone. Elsewhere, spectators attending Australian
Football League games in Adelaide were interviewed, with approximately 20%
found to be alone at the games (Mann, 1977). Group members influence one
another and, in turn, those of other groups. Sometimes that influence is for the
better, other times, for the worse.
It has become clear that crowd disturbances are typically caused by young
men who run in packs (see Mustonen, Arms, & Russell, 1996 for an exception).
An official report into football hooliganism concluded that “most misbehaviour
at soccer matches involves small or large groups; rarely does it involve a single
spectator” (Harrington, 1968, as cited in Mann & Pearce, 1978, p. 182). This
view is echoed by Mann and Pearce (1978) in noting that “exhibitionism and
displays of bravado will be found virtually only among those who are part of
a group, and not among solitary spectators” (p. 182). Whether we look to lab
findings (e.g., Mathes & Kahn, 1975; Russell & Arms, 1998), archival studies
(Mullen, 1986), or field investigations involving sport spectators (Arms & Russell,
1997; Mann, 1977; Zani & Kirchler, 1991), a strong relationship emerges. With
increases in the number and size of groups, there is a corresponding increase in
the likelihood of interpersonal aggression.
Consider the following. Mullen (1986) examined records of 60 lynchings in
the United States for the period 1899–1946. His analysis yielded results con-
sistent with a group size–violence relationship. Whether due to deindividuation
154 Aggression in the Sports World
and/or a loss of self-awareness, as the size of mobs increased so too did the extent
of atrocities committed on the victim, for example, lacerating or dismembering.
with the foregoing, those cheering for the winning side saw the outcome as
due to good play (internal attribution), whereas fans supporting the losing team
attributed the loss to bad luck and poor officiating (external). Importantly, sup-
porters of the losing side also saw dirtier play by their opponents. They also
felt the winning side was helped by penalties and poor officiating. Their bitter
reactions may be a forerunner of hostile outbursts occurring in Mann’s (1989)
expressive riots category.
A similar finding is seen in Italian football. The more young Italian fans
attributed their disorderly conduct to external factors, that is, violence in society
and political turmoil, the greater the likelihood they had participated in distur-
bances (Zani & Kirchler, 1991). From their perspective, violence is seen as a
legitimate and understandable response to external forces that are largely beyond
their ability to control. Consequently, they see themselves as having little choice
but to behave as they do.
THE PEACEMAKERS
Introduction
Fights among spectators or between factions typically break out suddenly, often
with little warning. The attention of spectators turns from the field of play to the dis-
turbance. Those in the vicinity of the disorder can be seen to assume various roles,
from mere observers to baiting/encouraging the protagonists to leaving the facility;
still others join in the fray. However, there is a fifth category, that is, peacemakers.
Particularly in film footage, these individuals can often be seen stepping forward
attempting to verbally and/or physically dissuade those engaged in combat.
156 Aggression in the Sports World
to the disorder. Moreover, being in close proximity, they are often in a position to
snuff out a disturbance in its earliest stages. Indeed, peacemakers can sometimes
be observed working behind the scenes in volatile crowds to head off trouble
before it starts. In the words of a Scottish football fan “We’ve also got very good
at self-policing over the years. There’s more older guys who go, and they can take
the young boys aside and have a wee word to quieten them down” (Giulianotti,
1995, p. 195).
The actions of peacemakers, while commendable, unfortunately can have
serious personal consequences, both physical and legal. Those who intervene
to assist others and/or quell a disorder can suffer minor or severe injuries and
on rare occasions, death (Skelton, 1969). Furthermore, they are often exposed to
legal repercussions. Lacking any official status or designation as control agents,
they face the possibility of arrest for their involvement. Police and security
personnel called upon to restore order are virtually unable to distinguish the
motives and status of those embroiled in a riot (Stott & Reicher, 1998). Any
behavioral differences that might exist between peacemakers and those bent on
violence cannot be observed during the confusion and fast pace of events in a
riot. Sadly for peacemakers, many are apt to find themselves standing alongside
rioters facing an unsympathetic judge.
Characteristics of Peacemakers
It was noted earlier that those who involve themselves in riotous behaviors can
readily be predicted on the bases of personality, biographical, and demographical
factors. Several studies have sought to achieve a similar objective with respect
to peacemaking behaviors. In an initial field study (Russell & Mustonen, 1998),
129 male spectators attending a Finnish hockey game were intercepted in the
stands and asked to complete a short questionnaire. The key, forced-choice item
asked them to check off their response to a fight breaking out nearby in the
stands. Choices included “watch,” “join in,” “applaud and encourage others to
join in,” “intervene and attempt to stop the fight,” and “leave the arena.” Only
the first four categories were involved in the analysis with “join in” and “applaud
and encourage others to join in” combined in a “troublemakers” category.
In a comparison of categories, peacemakers were found to be less physically
aggressive, less angry, and less impulsive than troublemakers. Moreover, peace-
makers were also less aggressive than those choosing to stand by and watch.
Perhaps understandably, peacemakers were of greater stature being taller than
those joining in or inciting others. Lastly, a question asking spectators how long
it had been since they were last involved in a fight failed to discriminate between
peacemakers and troublemakers.
A second correlational study involved Canadian university males, self-described
as avid sport spectators (Russell et al., 1999). Rather than a comparison of
categories, the aim was to identify the variables predicting the subjects’ self-
reported likelihood of intervening to stop a crowd disturbance. Foremost among
five major factors were attitudes toward law and order, the false consensus effect
(Ross, Greene, & House, 1977), and body mass. Thus, spectators who are large
158 Aggression in the Sports World
in stature and hold favorable attitudes toward the police are among those most
likely to step forward to quell a disturbance. In addition, those indicating a
strong likelihood of entering the fray as peacemakers scored lower on a measure
of sensation seeking and expressed more anger than others.
A third investigation was a systematic replication intended to build on the
earlier Russell et al. (1999) study. University men again provided the data with
analyses yielding three strong predictors: previous experience as a peacemaker,
the false consensus effect, and attitudes toward law and order (Russell & Arms,
2001). In the two studies described above, the Law and Order scale (LOS) was
strongly related to peacemaking. Recent data make clear that the scale is also
strongly related (negatively) to joining in or inciting others to riot, r(89) = –.47,
p < .005 (Russell, Wann, & Russell, 2007). Two aspects of “previous experi-
ence” should be noted. Both how recent the experience was and the perceived
success of the respondents’ interventions in crowd disorders strongly predicted
peacemaking actions. Furthermore, the false consensus effect (Ross et al., 1977)
has proven robust being a strong predictor of those who would riot (e.g., Russell
& Arms, 1998) as well as others likely to intervene as peacemakers (Russell et
al., 1999). Parenthetically, unlike rioters whom I have earlier characterized as run-
ning in packs, the same does not appear to be true of peacemakers. There was no
evidence to suggest they attend events in larger groups (Russell & Arms, 2001).
It is something of a truism to suggest that what people will do in the future
can be largely determined by what they have done in the past. Regarding
peacemakers, there may be some truth in the statement. Men who report hav-
ing been involved in recent and/or what they see as “successful” interventions
in an altercation are considerably more likely to step forward as peacemakers.
In addition, the false consensus effect has been shown to predict peacemaking
behavior (Russell & Arms, 2001). Applied to peacemaking, the false consensus
effect involves the tendency for peacemakers to judge that a disproportionately
larger number of others in the crowd are similarly poised to intervene to quell a
hostile outburst than those not inclined to intervene.
Finally, an attitudinal measure assessing one’s belief in the sanctity of law
and order is similarly predictive of peacemaking activities (Russell & Arms,
2001; Russell et al., 1999). The 11-item LOS (Russell et al., 2007) is presented
in Table 5.2.
Items are grouped in the scale and represent three dimensions underlying
attitudes toward law and order. The major factor reflects Citizen Responsibility
and the behaviors expected of exemplary citizens. A second factor has been
labeled Regard for Police. This aspect of one’s attitude involves respect and
regard for officers and the system in which they perform their duties. The third
dimension is Career Path representing a respondent’s personal endorsement of
police work as a career choice. While the scale is a good predictor of peace-
making activities, it may also be suited to the investigation of other forms of
interpersonal aggression. Recent evidence suggests the scale may also be related
to honesty and in predicting those who intervene to assist victims of bullying
(Russell et al., 2007). Returning a lost wallet to its rightful owner and assist-
ing a bullied victim were positively related to LOS scores, r(89) = .364 and
Violent Sports Crowds 159
I. Citizen responsibilities
4. I get angry when I see people deliberately breaking the law.
1. People should obey the law regardless of the circumstances.
2. The police need all the help they can get from the public.
8. Private citizens should report crimes they see being committed and not leave it to
someone else.
7. The public should assist police in their investigations whenever possible.
Introduction
I have brought together a small set of suggestions that appear in the writings of
investigators who have researched the topic of riots. Their recommendations are
made with reference to preemptive or mitigating tactics that stand to reduce the
incidence or scale of crowd violence. For the most part there are substantial research
findings that underlie their suggestions, whereas others may be fairly speculative.
Still other recommendations may be entirely self-evident, for example, barring
spectators from witnessing an event that has been plagued by crowd violence.
The historical record has shown riots to be an all-too-frequent and unwel-
come accompaniment to sporting and other events. Books and innumerable
scientific and nonscientific articles have been written covering riots in a variety
of political, entertainment, and social settings. The focus of these investigations
has ranged from attempts to identify the fundamental “causes” to factors that
facilitate their occurrence, to the rioters themselves, that is, their demograph-
ics, motivations, and personality. An underlying assumption of these endeavors
was that from research on riots and rioters would come understanding and with
understanding the prospect of finding solutions.
Attempts to avert or control riotous behaviors have thus far relied heavily
on force or the threat of force and legislative initiatives. Some countries have
enacted measures to prevent their homegrown troublemakers from traveling
abroad by temporarily suspending their passports for the duration of major inter-
national football tournaments. Other approaches to reducing crowd disorders
have involved stepped up security and surveillance, restrictions on the availabil-
ity of alcohol, and media programs to “educate” the public. Noticeably few in
numbers are tactics based on findings from the social science literature, tactics
that can potentially limit the incidence and/or scale of spectator violence.
It is important to note that in drawing upon the social–experimental literature,
one is for the most part identifying more immediate, facilitative factors, some
of which lend themselves to real world applications. Broad accompanying social
factors such as unemployment and racial discrimination (Guttmann, 1983) are
related to group conflicts in sports. However, they along with a goodly number
of immediate factors, for example, temperature, the false consensus effect, sex,
and age, do not easily lend themselves to real world applications.
Crowd Composition
Peacemakers
A generally unrecognized and untapped force for crowd control is that provided
by peacemakers, that is, individuals who step forward and attempt to dissuade
or restrain those bent on violence. Their numbers in a crowd are impressive.
A survey of Detroit area residents (N = 393) in the aftermath of rioting reveals
that approximately 16% were active as “counter rioters” (Report of the National
Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1968). As mentioned previously,
impressive numbers of spectators attending ice hockey games in Finland (26%)
Violent Sports Crowds 161
and Canada (18%) would intervene to quell a disturbance as would U.S. college
males (15%; Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001, pp. 145–147).
Peacemakers enjoy a tactical advantage over external security forces when
trouble erupts. They are already on the scene, often know the instigators, and
are likely knowledgeable about the events leading up to the disturbance. Thus,
peacemakers are often ideally positioned to dampen or even snuff out a distur-
bance before it escalates. Moreover, preemptive efforts to head off trouble before
it starts can also be seen in volatile crowds. As noted earlier, these behind the
scene activities often take place in Scottish football whereby older men exert a
calming effect on the young boys all too eager to do battle (Giulianotti, 1995).
Other personal attributes lend support to their being accorded a more offi-
cial role in controlling crowds. For example, they hold strong, positive attitudes
toward law and order. These attitudes reflect citizen responsibilities to support
police agencies and express a high regard for police personnel (Russell & Arms,
2001; Russell et al., 1999; Russell et al., 2006). Lastly, peacemakers have inter-
vened in conflict situations on previous occasions and generally reported their
interventions to have been “successful” (Russell & Arms, 2001).
Peacemakers seemingly have the best of intentions. However, at present when
they attempt to do the “right thing” they expose themselves to significant physi-
cal and legal risks, a result arising from their ambiguous status within a crowd.
In the dangerous and highly charged atmosphere surrounding a riot, even highly
trained officers perceive crowd members as homogeneous. Seemingly, police do
not distinguish the various actors and the roles they play in a disturbance. From
the officers’ perspectives “it is impossible to distinguish crowd members from
each other behaviourally or physically” (Stott & Reicher, 1998, p. 522).
Parenthetically, police perceptions are subject to change. Turner and Killian
(1972) credited a preparatory program with playing a major role in averting crowd
violence. In describing preparations for a biker rally, they note that “one of the
most significant preparations for the weekend was the ‘education’ of the police to
view the anticipated crowd as a heterogeneous collection of human beings, with
the rights of citizens, rather than as an undifferentiated mob of outlaws” (p. 167).
Some level of official recognition and means of identifying the role of peace-
makers in a disturbance would seem a necessary first step in implementing
this tactic. During the riot-torn decade of the sixties peacemakers, or counter-
rioters, were sanctioned in varying degrees. For example, police in Cincinnati
expressed total opposition to counterrioters, whereas officials in Detroit and
Dayton engaged in close cooperation. In other cities counterrioters were simply
condoned. Elsewhere, distinctive insignia were issued, for example, white hel-
mets in Tampa and Dayton and armbands in Elizabeth and Newark (Report of
the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1968).
Russell & Arms, 1998). Foremost among the traits predictive of spectators’ involve-
ment in crowd disorders are impulsivity, sensation-seeking, physical aggression,
anger, and antisocial tendencies. The trait of impulsivity has an especially strong
association with the likelihood of spectators joining in a disturbance (Arms &
Russell, 1997). Consequently, it will serve to illustrate the potential role of traits
in minimizing the frequency of outbursts of crowd violence.
As noted earlier, impulsive individuals tend to act suddenly without giving
thought to the consequences of their behavior. They can be further character-
ized as more aggressive than low-impulsive individuals under conditions where
they see aggressive models. They also have weaker inhibitions against violating
social norms, the result of which makes them susceptible to influence by peers
to act on any deviant impulses (Wheeler & Caggiula, 1966).
The presence of impulsive individuals in the front line of a control force nec-
essarily creates a lower response threshold potentially leading to an indetermi-
nate number of disturbances that otherwise might not have occurred. Selection
procedures for police, military, and other control agencies typically involve an
extended period of assessment of candidates. Included among the procedures
is a battery of clinical/psychological tests. A measure of impulsivity or other
relevant personality traits would allow impulsives to be deployed other than in
a front line capacity.
To be clear at the outset, the composition of a crowd of demonstrators is a
given and generally not subject to change. By contrast, those in the vanguard of
a control force have previously been “selected” and trained for their role. It is
the selection criteria used for deploying members specifically to the front line
that may determine whether a confrontation erupts in violence or passes rela-
tively uneventfully. For example, consider a cordon of police facing a group of
angry demonstrators. In this hypothetical scenario the demonstrators hurl insults
and/or physically incite the officers. The overall command urges restraint by
officers in response to the provocations of demonstrators. Yet a flash point may
be prematurely reached at which a violent police response is triggered. Thus,
the intensity of demonstrator provocations ebb and flow yet may fall short of the
threshold at which an aggressive police response is clearly indicated. Indeed,
the intensity of crowd actions may eventually diminish with the purposes of the
demonstrators having been served. The threshold for police action is subjec-
tively determined by the on-scene commander. However, precipitous actions by
even one impulsive officer may trigger an early response by the entire cordon, a
response that may not have otherwise occurred.
Cognitive Influences
Hostile Attributional Bias
Changes in the composition of front line control personnel might also be made
with regard to individuals exhibiting a hostile attributional bias. This cognitive
phenomenon involves individuals who tend “to perceive hostile intent on the part
of others even when it is really lacking” (Baron & Richardson, 1994, p. 210).
Violent Sports Crowds 163
Several features of this perceptual bias have direct relevance for the choice of
front line control personnel. First, the bias is particularly in evidence in ambigu-
ous social situations, for example, when a control force first confronts protesters
in the initial stage of a potential disturbance. Second, those subject to the bias
tend to react strongly to even mild provocations. Finally, the mere perception
of hostile intentions in others can result in as much if not more aggression than
actual attacks (Greenwell & Dengerink, 1973). Thus, personnel exhibiting a hos-
tile attributional bias are seemingly more likely than others to react prematurely
to protesters and to react with greater force. Once a member(s) of the control
force responds with violence there is often no turning back. Others follow the
lead and a riot is underway. There is a fine line between taking action and
standing firm. As with impulsive individuals, those with a hostile attributional
bias would better serve the interests of a peaceful resolution in a rear guard
capacity.
Priming
Threat affecting those witnessing an event can arise from a variety of sources.
For example, media characterizations of an upcoming contest often invoke
aggressive, warlike imagery, for example, battle, clash, with similar aggressively
toned language reserved for the visiting team. This has the effect of evoking
aggressive imagery or schema among spectators through a process of priming
(Wann & Branscombe, 1990; see discussion and example in Chapter 4). One
effect of priming is that spectators come to see others as more hostile and
threatening than those exposed to neutral characterizations. Not surprisingly,
threat itself is a powerful factor that can lead to more aggression than might
otherwise have occurred (Greenwell & Dengerink, 1973). A responsible media
is in a position to play a role by toning down violent rhetoric, especially in
advance of high-risk sporting events.
Alcohol
Alcohol is frequently a part of the entertainment package at many sports events.
On those occasions when violence erupts among the spectators, those seeking
explanations are quick to blame alcohol. Their singling out of alcohol as the likely
culprit has a better-than-average probability of being correct. Its role in increas-
ing the likelihood of interpersonal aggression is well established (Bushman &
Cooper, 1990; Hoaken & Stewart, 2003). However, several alcohol-related fac-
tors should be noted for present purposes, that is, means of minimizing crowd
disorders.
At least two factors mediate the threat to public order brought about by the
consumption of alcohol. As noted in Chapter 4, distilled beverages, for example,
bourbon, vodka, or whiskey, produce more aggression than equivalent amounts
of brewed beverages, for example, beer or wine (Gustafson, 1999). Further,
interpersonal aggression increases as the intoxicated individual feels increas-
ingly threatened (Taylor et al., 1976). Managers of sport facilities and sport
164 Aggression in the Sports World
Incompatible Responses
The findings of researchers investigating the role of incompatible responses in
reducing interpersonal aggression holds promise as a control tactic. As a field
experiment by Baron (1976) illustrates, the induction of mild sexual arousal
can effectively reduce the aggression of individuals. That is, sexually titillating
themes are incompatible with a state of heightened anger.
There are diverse means by which mild sexual arousal can be introduced
to a setting, for example, cheerleaders, gymnastic displays, or electronic board
images. In some instances sexual themes may be regularized as part of an enter-
tainment package or, alternatively, introduced only at high-risk events. Taylor
Field, home of the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League,
is the site of a further example. An oversized hot tub is positioned on the side-
lines at field level. Weather permitting, a bevy of bikini-clad women frolic in the
water during part of each home game.
Parenthetically, humor devoid of hostile or aggressive content can similarly
be induced to achieve a reduction in aggression (Baron, 1978; Coates, 1972).
Humor should be used sparingly, perhaps being reserved for those occasions
when the risk of conflict is high. To be sure, the choice of a humorous event/
incident requires forethought and consideration of crowd composition. Cultural
differences, age, male/female ratio, and class differences may be critical in
determining the success of an event designed to induce humor.
A novel means of introducing mild humor arousal is described by Ward
(2002). Spectators attending basketball games are apparently “captivated” by
dance routines performed at half time by sport officials. They “portray them-
selves not as clowns or buffoons, but as sharing in the fun with fans” (p. 467).
Used judiciously, it is a low-cost and promising suggestion. Again, the introduc-
tion of humor should be carefully thought through well in advance.
Organizational Factors
Postgame Events
Comparatively little attention has been paid to the postevent phase of sports
events. It is a period during which highly aroused spectators leave en masse
with jubilant supporters of the winning team in close proximity to other,
not-so-happy fans. It would be preferable to provide postgame concerts or other
forms of entertainment that would have the effect of stringing out the departure
of spectators (Goldstein, 1989, p. 295). However, the content of postgame events
should include elements that have sufficient appeal to hold large numbers of
Violent Sports Crowds 165
spectators in their seats and at the same time not further heighten any residual
hostilities.
In some countries, it is traditional to play the national anthem before play
gets underway. Played instead at the conclusion, the effect would be to delay
or stagger an emptying of the stadium. In addition, there is recent evidence to
suggest that prominently displaying the national flag during the anthem may
contribute to a lessening of hostility toward outgroups (Butz, Plant, & Doerr,
2007). This effect would be especially pronounced for individuals who are
highly nationalistic. Butz et al. reasoned that included among numerous concepts
associated with the U.S. flag are the strong American values of equality and
justice. Consequently, subliminal exposure to the flag was predicted to activate
numerous egalitarian concepts. These in turn would reduce negative attitudes
held by highly nationalistic participants toward outgroups, in this case Arabs
and Muslims. Their prediction was confirmed.
To be effective, any implementation of the suggestion requires careful plan-
ning regarding the choice of country, its flag, and the outgroup present. For
example, the Italian flag is associated with matters of character, that is, hope,
charity, and faith. The response of Italians to their flag may be somewhat differ-
ent, for example, a greater expressed willingness to help others.
Increasing Respect
A. P. Goldstein (1996) suggests that leagues plagued by player violence take
steps to encourage more respect and positive interactions between teams. As an
example, he proposes that opposing players should shake hands after the game
ends. Done in full view of the spectators may have the further effect of signaling
to rival fans that there is less animosity between the teams than appearances and
the media might suggest.
Training of Officials
Disruptive behavior by fans and athletes can often be traced back to the actions of
game officials. There is an ever-present danger that contentious calls by umpires
or referees can spark outrage among fans, coaches, or athletes. On relatively
rare occasions that outrage can turn to violence. Additional training to increase
skilled officiating can serve to minimize the frequency of disputed calls.
Coaches are ideally positioned to influence upcoming events on the field of
play. Their locker room rhetoric has the capacity to inspire athletes to a superior
performance. Just as readily, their words can further inflame existing animosi-
ties. Training programs for the certification of coaches should include a scientifi-
cally based component on athletic motivation.
Sakhnin matches. The IFA further fined the club and deducted two league points.
On other occasions, the risk of spectator violence has been such that games have
been televised without a live audience in the stadium (A. P. Goldstein, 1996,
pp. 96–97).
It was just 6 months after the Israeli experience that a full-scale riot broke
out on the Italian island of Sicily. A match between Catania and a visiting team
from Palermo was temporarily suspended during the second half when Catania
fans “ambushed” Palermo supporters and police. The police suffered the great-
est number of casualties with one death and 61 of the 70 people injured being
police officers.
In the aftermath of the violence, the Italian Soccer Federation banned
Catania’s home ground for the rest of the season. Future matches would have
to be played on neutral ground behind closed doors. The Italian government’s
response to the riot was a demand that stadiums comply with a 2005 secu-
rity law introduced as part of a crackdown on hooliganism. The requirements
include the installation of video surveillance and lighting to help in spotting
troublemakers, barriers with which stewards and police can establish security
cordons, and turnstiles with electronic ticket checks. Further government action
stiffened penalties for hooliganism, banned the sale of tickets in blocks to visit-
ing fans, and disallowed evening kickoffs.
Admission Charges
The introduction of higher ticket prices at Lords cricket matches in the 1970s
was a seemingly successful attempt to exclude those from the lower classes who
were blamed for earlier unruly behavior (Sandiford, 1982). Similar motives were
behind the introduction of admission charges at football matches from 1890
onwards (Hutchinson, 1975, as cited in Murphy, Williams, & Dunning, 1990).
A further exclusionary practice has been that of barring or ejecting known
troublemakers from the sports facility. The practice was commonplace in earlier
eras. However, with an alert media and today’s well-informed public the result
is likely to be more rather than less unruly behavior. Exclusionary practices do
not sit well with those shut out.
response to set in place for fans attending an upcoming event where disorderly
behavior is a possibility. Their task is one of deploying sufficient police officers
and resources to match their assessment of the risk of violence. Those plan-
ning for the event generally have the benefit of previous experience and advance
knowledge of the composition of the crowd likely to attend. They also have
the benefit of an on-going research program that examines the planning for the
possibility of crowd violence in the context of European football (e.g., Stott &
Adang, 2004; Stott, Adang, Livingstone, & Schreiber, 2007).
Risk Assessment
The chief method of data collection has been by means of field observations
at numerous matches and structured interviews both inside stadia and beyond
in the surrounding community (Adang & Cuvelier, as cited in Stott & Adang,
2004). The investigators first incorporated two traditional factors in their five-
factor classification of risk. The first considers the history of the fan group.
Previous clashes with the local or host police, while an important consideration,
unfortunately tends to result in the fan group being judged as “high risk” irre-
spective of the actual risk they pose. The second traditional means of assessing
the level of risk involves categorizing individuals throughout the wider fan base,
that is, as A, B, or C. Its validity is also reduced insofar as the categorization is
occasionally applied differently by different forces creating confusion over the
deployment of control personnel.
Stott and Adang have identified three additional factors that more fully map
the dimensions underlying the risk of violence. The first additional factor of
culture reflects the extent to which operational resources have been expended
in an effort to understand the culture and norms of visiting fans. The second
additional factor is called the perceived appropriateness of police deployments
in light of the risk seen to exist. Also to be taken into account in this regard are
the fans’ perceptions of risk levels and whether the police deployments are an
appropriate response to that risk. Lastly, any heightened risk arising from the
policing of foreign nationals may be offset by international police cooperation.
For example, a contingent of police officers from the country of the visiting
team may be effective in reducing risk in the host community.
The authors caution that their use of the concept “risk” is not meant to imply
a static state. Rather, risk levels can rise or decline during an event (Adang &
Stott, 2004; Adang & Cuvelier, as cited in Stott and Adang, 2004). As exam-
ples, self-policing among fans and the hospitality shown by host fans can effect
changes in the overall level of risk.
SUMMARY
Not for a moment should one minimize the complexity and diversity of settings
in which riots occur. This complexity necessarily precludes a general application
of tactics and preventive measures. Rather, any implementation of a measure
should be preceded by the most careful consideration of the setting, culture, and
persons for whom it is intended. For the most part, the effects of steps taken
to curb riotous behavior will not be easily assessed. Certainly, the riot that did
not happen may not have happened in the absence of the preventive steps being
implemented.
As most readers are undoubtedly aware, there are other crowd phenomena
that can bring death and injury to those involved. While the foregoing has
focused on riots, a far less common but equally deadly phenomenon is panic. As
we will see in the next chapter, anecdotal accounts are plentiful but controlled
investigations of the topic are few. However, such investigations as exist will be
examined along with a number of theories, definitions and several case stud-
ies. An “applied” section will again conclude the chapter and involve proposals
developed by researchers and others to avert or minimize the tragic outcomes
arising from panics.
Suggested Readings
Panics
INTRODUCTION
Panics are a universal phenomenon that occur on an irregular basis. Death and
injury are an all-too-frequent accompaniment to their occurrence. A distinguish-
ing feature of panics is the relative ease with which investigators can determine
their cause. Retrospective analyses of these events nearly always reveal they
could have been prevented with advanced planning and decisions taken with an
eye to the possibility of their occurrence. Still, unlike riots, panics remain a rare
event. Indeed, Johnson (1987b) observed in reference to panics of acquisition and
escape that “documented cases of either form of panic are surprisingly scarce in
the literature” concluding that “panic occurs very infrequently” (p. 371).
It is further to be noted that panic behavior is sometimes embedded within or
can arise within a larger event. As mentioned earlier, such was the case during
the 1985 European Cup final in Belgium’s Heysel Stadium, an event that left
39 fans dead and 470 injured (Dunand, 1986). The Italian Juventus supporters
were sent scurrying for cover when England’s Liverpool fans broke through
steel fencing and charged their rivals. The flight of the Italians was impeded
by a concrete wall that gave way under their weight. What began as a riot was
suddenly transformed into a panic situation.
Several limitations of the present chapter should be noted. In confining myself to
panics at sport and entertainment sites, I am excluding coverage of other collective
phenomena that often contain elements of panic, for example, bank runs, natural
disasters, fires, or airplane/boat disasters (Russell, 1972). Furthermore, the topic of
panic in organized groups, for example, a military unit, will only be touched upon.
While some athletic teams may meet the definition of organized groups, I am hard
pressed to think of even a single example of panic in this context. Rather, panics
occurring in sports have almost invariably involved large assemblages of fans
171
172 Aggression in the Sports World
and/or the general public. Inasmuch as the aim of the present chapter is to examine
panics against the background of sports, the focus will necessarily be on the vast
audiences that pass through the turnstiles to witness sporting events.
Definitions
A variety of definitions appear in the social science literature. One of the earliest
attempts to formally define the concept of panic was that of Park and Burgess
(1924) in their introductory textbook. Succinctly put, “panic is the crowd in
dissolution” (p. 876). As examples, two early theorists (Cantril, 1943; Janis,
1951) place a heavy emphasis on the internal emotional state of individuals in
their conception of panic. That is, such persons are described as terror stricken
and experiencing an intense state of fear. Moreover, this position makes no
requirement that the extreme emotional state be followed by flight behavior. In
incorporating the element of flight, Smelser (1963) defines a panic as “collective
flight based on a hysterical belief” (p. 131). Quarantelli (1954) expands on this
view in proposing that panic is “an acute fear reaction marked by a loss of self-
control which is followed by nonsocial and non rational flight behavior” (p. 272).
Goldenson (1984) offers a summary of these early views in characterizing pan-
ics as including a “reaction involving terror, confusion and irrational behavior,
precipitated by a threatening situation” (as cited in Johnson, 1987a).
In extending his definition to organized groups, Schultz (1964b) further
stipulated that “flight behavior must lead to the destruction of the group, as a
psychological group” and further “the flight behavior must be nonadaptive for
the physical survival of the group members” (p. 6). Both conditions imply a total
disregard for the well-being of others in the group.
It is timely at this juncture to clarify a common misunderstanding regarding
the nature of panic. Many mid-20th century theorists have characterized panic as
terror stricken, irrational, flight behavior where the rule is “every man for him-
self.” La Pierre (1938) captured the spirit of this view in describing the behavior of
a theater audience on seeing the first signs of fire. A previously passive audience
is suddenly transformed “into a shrieking, milling mass which clogs the aisles and
jams the exits” (p. 437). The general public holds to a strong and pervasive belief
that irrational flight is at the heart of panic behavior. However, actual events in
which people have fled from danger in a helter-skelter fashion are extremely rare.
In point of fact, leading researchers in this field rejected the irrational-flight ver-
sion of panic several decades ago (Keating, 1982; Mintz, 1951; Sime, 1980).
Experimental Investigations
Writing in 1964, Schultz observed “in the entire literature relating to the non-
adaptive behavior of panic, there have been only two empirical investigations of
the problem: French (1944) and Mintz (1951). Other aspects of social psychology
have generated an ever-increasing body of experimental research but the problem
of panic has been virtually avoided” (p. 4; see also, French, 1941). Writing in the
first decade of the 21st century, I would say the picture is only somewhat improved.
By my tally, investigations in the empirical tradition mentioned by Schultz now
Panics 173
number in the region of 10. These investigations will be traced forward from the
earliest study and described in sufficient detail to illuminate the obvious meth-
odological challenges faced by these researchers and the means by which those
challenges were addressed. The studies share a common experimental paradigm
in which the investigator can determine the type of threat, for example, electric
shock, introduce varying degrees of threat, limit the time necessary to effect an
escape, or set the penalties for participants who fail to escape. It should be noted
that some investigators chose to focus on only a part of the overall paradigm, for
example, the time taken to summon help. We begin with an account of French’s
(1944) experiment. I have pieced together an outline of his design and results
from several sources, principally Brown (1965) and Schultz (1964a).
by slowly injecting smoke into the room through a wall vent. Students working
alone were quick to notice the smoke, usually within 5 s. Students working with
the two passive confederates paid less attention to their circumstances and took
approximately 20 s just to notice the smoke.
The time taken to respond appropriately by going to the door to report the
emergency followed a similar pattern. Students who worked alone were quickest
to respond; 75% went to the door to report the smoke. Of those in the company
of the passive confederates, only 10% went to the door to report the problem.
Lastly, in another condition in which a group of three naive subjects was set the
questionnaire task, 38% attempted to report the incident to someone in charge.
Of particular interest are the behaviors of those remaining in the room as the
6-min experimental trials drew to a close. Observed through a one-way mirror,
the men were seen to be rubbing their eyes, coughing, and straining to see through
the dense smoke. Despite their obvious distress, the number of participants in
groups who took the action of reporting the emergency could be counted on one
hand. Equally intriguing is the subjects’ interpretations or explanations for the
cause or source of the smoke. Students offered a wide range of interpretations
for the patently ambiguous situation in which they found themselves. Among a
lengthy list of interpretations were “steampipes,” “chemistry labs,” “a leak in the
air conditioning,” and “truth gas.” Not a single participant said “fire!”
What can account for the inaction of those students set the task of working with
the confederates in a group situation? Latané and Darley (1968) chose to interpret
their findings as best representing social influence processes. It could be argued that
responsibility for the inaction of those in groups lies with the presence of strang-
ers. Consider the plight of a participant finding himself in a room with two other
students dutifully filling out a questionnaire while smoke is seeping into the room.
The ambiguity in the situation calls out for an interpretation for which he looks to
the reactions of two confederate strangers. Seeing that they are unresponsive to an
apparent danger prompts an interpretation that there is no cause for concern. Action
on his part is not required. Thus, in emergency situations that are ambiguous there
is reason to suggest that groups of people will be slow to notice a threat and even
slower to implement a course of action to possibly ensure their safety.
The definition of panic offered by Mintz (1951) represents a sharp departure
from the prevailing views of the day in characterizing panics as largely arising
from the perceived reward structure present in a social situation. He assigned
minimal importance to the role of “violent emotional excitement,” that is terror
or fear (p. 150). Indeed, he all but discounts the importance of intense emotional
excitement as requisite for nonadaptive group behavior. Mintz observes its pres-
ence among spectators witnessing sports events and among athletes just before
competition. Yet, he notes there is little evidence of nonadaptive crowd behavior
developing as a result.
The following will illustrate the view of Mintz. Should a fire break out under
the stands at a British football match, the response of spectators would be one
of extreme emotional arousal. Individuals taking stock of their situation and the
dangers they face, slowly come to decide their next step, a decision often based
on what others are doing. If others around you are moving in an orderly manner
Panics 175
to a nearby exit then your safety is all but guaranteed. Others close to the site of
the fire may not be as fortunate. Should the spectators behind you push forward
some may be trampled. At this point, your best chance, though slim, is to also
press forward (one hopes the exits are not blocked). That is, nonadaptive behav-
ior originates with a breakdown in cooperation at which point flight is seen to be
adaptive from the perspective of individuals. In Mintz’s view, the extreme fear
and threat posed by the encroaching flames are not a necessary condition for
panic. Rather, it is the unstable reward structure in a situation that is essential
in order for panic to occur.
Simulations
For obvious practical and ethical reasons, early researchers adopted simulations
as their means of investigating questions associated with panics. First, I would
like to say a word about simulations. Simulations have been with us for a long
time. Chess is an early representation of warfare between kingdoms, represent-
ing as it does some of the key elements of battle. In other contexts, pilots can be
trained or studied in flight simulators, for example, link trainers, that include the
major components necessary for flying an aircraft. Even the exceedingly com-
plex relationships among nations have been investigated by means of internation
simulations. The point to note is that the success of a simulation is dependent
upon the designer having made valid representations of just those underlying
elements or factors that account for the dynamics of the phenomenon being
investigated. Incidentally, any readers interested in developing a panic simula-
tion along the lines pioneered by Mintz (1951) will find an article by Gilmour
(1988) to be a valuable starting point. We turn now to a description of Mintz’s
laboratory representation of panic.
the bottle. However, in another condition of the experiment the matter of rewards,
fines, and rising water were not mentioned. The participants were simply told
to draw their cones from the bottle. They did so with no major jams, even
though several participants were asked to make noise and create a panic-like
atmosphere.
assessing the effects on two variables representing panic behavior. The two
dependent variables of interest were (a) the percentage of successful escapes
occurring in the allotted time and (b) the degree of jamming occurring during
escapes. Two experimental conditions were created: the first of which involved
a high monetary reward being given to participants who avoided jamming the
exit versus a low reward condition in which a paltry sum was offered for letting
others escape ahead. The second experimental condition involved creating a
high versus low threat situation. With electrodes attached to her fingers, each
participant was told that failure to escape would be penalized by a series of
electric shocks described as “somewhat intense and unpleasant” (p. 458). A mild
shock was administered as a sample. For participants assigned to the low threat
condition, no mention was made of shock nor were electrodes introduced.
The experiment produced a number of important findings. Whether measured
by jamming or percentage of escapes, panics decreased under high threat when
substantial monetary incentives were offered to participants for delaying their
escape. In addition, low incentives to delay combined with increased threat
resulted in an increase in panic behavior thus replicating the finding of Kelley
et al. (1965).
To provide the reader with a sense of the influence of reward and especially
threat, I can offer a few figures starting with the mean number of “jam sessions.”
Under high-reward high-threat conditions 4.19 jams occurred across all trials,
whereas under low-reward high-threat conditions 9.39 jams occurred. Panic
viewed as the mean percentage of successful escapes produced a similar pattern.
Under high-reward high-threat conditions, 46.6 successful escapes were made,
while under low-reward high-threat conditions, only 16.3 escapes were effected.
Another study following this line of research sought to determine the merits
of two plausible explanations for panic or incoordination phenomena (Gross,
Kelley, Kruglanski, & Patch, 1972). In the first of two experiments, UCLA
female undergraduates served as participants following procedures similar to
those outlined above. In the first experiment participants were informed that
the aforementioned “intense and unpleasant” electric shock would be adminis-
tered as a penalty for not escaping (contingent condition). Those assigned to a
noncontingent condition were told their success in escaping had nothing to do
with whether or not they were shocked. It had already been randomly deter-
mined who was to get a shock. In a control condition no mention was made of
shock. The experimental conditions involved 10 groups of 5 randomly assigned
to each of the three conditions, that is contingent, noncontingent, and control.
A principal finding was that jamming steadily increased from the control to
noncontingent to contingent conditions.
Regarding the rational evaluation and emotional arousal hypotheses suggested
as explanations for incoordination, the results showed neither emerged as the
sole, dominant explanation. Support was forthcoming for the rational evaluation
hypothesis by which panic behavior can result from a rational perception of
the interdependence which in particular circumstances calls for individualistic
behavior. Support was also forthcoming for an emotional arousal hypothesis.
Here incoordination is seen to be the result of response interference from
178 Aggression in the Sports World
arousal created by the anticipation of task outcome. With respect to the relative
importance of the two hypotheses, the researchers conclude that “the obtained
pattern of results suggests that the increase in incoordination with possible future
outcomes of increasing importance is jointly determined by the participants’
rational evaluations and by their emotional arousal” (Gross et al., 1972, p. 376).
The Kelley et al. (1965) experiment established that the greater the degree
of physical danger facing a crowd, the greater the likelihood that their response
to the danger will be unorganized or chaotic. Guten and Allen (1972) extended
these findings in an experiment that further examined the likelihood of success-
fully escaping from a dangerous situation and the intensity with which crowd
members made efforts to reach safety. In addition, they represented the degree
of danger or threat in the design of their experiment.
Whereas there were no differences in the intensity of participants’ efforts
to escape across the three levels of danger or threat, there were significant dif-
ferences in relation to the likelihood of successfully escaping the danger. The
result was a curvilinear relationship between the two factors. That is, under both
high and low likelihood of escape, the intensity of participants’ efforts to escape
was low. However, their efforts intensified dramatically when the likelihood
of effecting a successful escape to safety was in the middle range. Guten and
Allen drew a parallel between their results and well-known accounts of miners
trapped underground. Under the most extreme conditions where danger is high,
for example, mine gas or rock falls, and with little hope of being reached by
rescue teams, panic does not occur (Quarantelli, 1954, 2001).
influence from the leader to followers and is not necessarily accepted, a more
precise term is “headship” (Russell, 1993).
A second factor relates to the leader’s style of leadership, a distinction Klein
identifies as either a “me-first” or a “me-last” style. In the first instance, the leader
intends to lead his followers out of harm’s way. By contrast, the “me-last” leader
is more of a martyr who if necessary volunteers to “go down with the ship.” In
adopting the latter style of leadership he obviously assumes a greater risk of
being unable to safely exit the building or stadium. Two additional factors were
included in the design of his experiment. These were the level of stress present
in the situation (e.g., level of shock versus the loss of money) and whether the
group was ultimately successful in reaching safety or met with failure.
A panic simulator was developed to represent the key features present in a real-
life panic situation. Its design was similar to the apparatus constructed by Mintz
(1951) with several modifications. While participants were still required to pull
their cones one at a time through a narrow opening, the modified design allowed
for an additional penalty for group failure, ostensibly a painful shock as well as the
loss of a small sum of money. The rising water that visually informed participants
of the time remaining to remove their cones was replaced by an experimenter-
controlled buzzer that would sound when the escape time had elapsed. Participants
were given no indication of the length of their escape time. This feature allowed the
experimenter to control the success or failure of the participant’s efforts to escape
from danger. A number of important findings emerged from this investigation.
Criticisms of the early Mintz methodology have tended to focus on the experi-
mental representation of “threat” in his simulation (e.g., Kelley et al., 1965).
Levels of stress were imposed on participants by the promise of small monetary
rewards, for example, 10¢–25¢, for successfully escaping the rising water. Failure
to do so brought fines of 1¢–10¢. The point of the criticism was that the pitifully
small monetary loss for failure bears little resemblance to a threatened real world
loss of life or limb. The factor of stress represented in the panic simulator by
shock was shown to produce panic-like behavior whereas a monetary reward
structure was shown to be of a totally different order. Klein (1976) comments
further, recommending future investigations of panic behavior “use as high a
level of perceived threat as ethically possible” (p. 1153). The reader will recall the
almost indifferent responses by students to smoke seeping into the room.
As noted earlier, the investigation also examined the effects of leaders on the
success of groups in achieving a safe exit from danger. Klein’s use of the panic
simulator demonstrates first and foremost that as stress increases so too does
panic-like behavior, a finding also reported by Kelley et al. (1965). The presence
of a leader in these circumstances was found to be effective in reducing the
levels of panic within the crowd. Their apparent effectiveness arises from the
finding that leaders are seen as increasingly competent as stress levels rise.
The competence of elected leaders was seen to be greater than that ascribed
to appointed leaders. Also, they were credited with more responsibility for the
outcome. However, this result was only found under low levels of stress. With
increasingly higher levels the difference shrinks and actually reverses. Curiously,
despite the fact that the “me-first” leader uses his authority to ultimately improve
180 Aggression in the Sports World
his own safety, he was regarded more positively in all respects than the martyr-
style leader.
These are but a few highlights from Klein’s experiment. He has set the
groundwork for future investigations and identified several key factors at play in
a panic. It is an important beginning but unfortunately his lead has not been fol-
lowed in the decades since. This study and the series of experiments before rep-
resent a high point of investigations of panic through the second half of this last
century. Ethical concerns associated with Milgram’s (1974) obedience research
has largely curtailed experimental investigations of panic requiring research-
ers to turn to other paradigms often having somewhat less external validity.
However, more recently some researchers have turned to computer simulations
thereby bypassing the need for human subjects and the associated ethical con-
cerns in pursuing questions of panic behavior.
Sources of Data
Those investigating panics have historically relied heavily on archival sources.
Anecdotal accounts, media and investigative interviews with survivors, film/
video footage, and reports of official government inquiries have provided
researchers and students of collective behavior with basic data for developing
models and identifying causal factors. Organized emergency drills (e.g., fire,
explosion, gas) conducted in the field can also provide data and insights into
people’s likely behaviors during the early stages of an actual emergency (Proulx,
2002). Following from a suggestion in the previous chapter on riots, the creation
of a comprehensive international data bank of panic and near panic events would
similarly allow the testing of innumerable hypotheses.
As a source of tactics or action to avoid a repetition of panics, government
reports and official inquiries often contain recommendations that are self-evident
and scarcely require testing, for example, avoid overcrowding and keeping exits
unlocked. Yet, as simple as these precautions are to implement, the lessons of
previous panics are all but ignored. All too frequently, crowds are allowed to
exceed a stadium’s capacity and emergency exits are locked. Other less obvious
measures to avoid similar tragedies remain largely untested and they too often
suffer the same fate.
A further distinction should be noted at this juncture, that between escape
and entry panics (Mann, 1979). Escape or exit panics occur with considerably
greater frequency than entry panics. They also appear more deadly. They typi-
cally occur within an enclosed facility when a major threat arises, for example a
fire or an explosion. Exits are narrow or too few in numbers to accommodate a
hurried evacuation. At the same time, people ignore a universal norm of taking
turns, and in a frantic attempt to exit people stumble further clogging the exits.
Escape Panics
Some 15 years ago the writer was contacted by a Louisiana law firm and
asked to serve as an expert witness. The firm was representing Ms. Dolores del
Panics 181
Lucas who had sustained a serious neck injury while attending a professional
wrestling match in St. Bernard county, Louisiana. The featured match on the
card involved two heavyweight villains who used a scaled-down version of a
flame thrower in their act. Yes, a flame thrower. Their thinly veiled strategy was
to shoot jets of flaming napalm at their opponents at critical points in the match.
A wild melee erupted as Ms. del Lucas sat several rows from ringside. Missiles,
including chairs and benches were hurled at the tag team as they left the arena
to escape the wrath of their opponents and the crowd. As the pair made their
way to the dressing rooms, they directed a number of flaming jets at the crowd.
A panic ensued with fans scrambling and falling over benches to avoid the
flames. During the pandemonium, Ms. del Lucas was struck on the neck by an
airborne chair.
Negligence on the part of the wrestling commission was charged in the suit.
Among other failings, chairs and benches were not secured to the arena floor
allowing them to be used as weapons. Also, two off-duty police officers hired as
security personnel were outside the arena proper guarding a nearby coffee coun-
ter. There is a happy ending of sorts to this story. An out-of-court settlement was
reached between the parties with Ms. del Lucas receiving a generous settlement.
At last report, she had opened a small boutique. However, you may be shaking
your head in disbelief, as I did, when I later learned the tag team continued to
use the flame thrower in its matches.
It is hard to know what adjective(s) to use in describing the actions of offi-
cials in Louisiana, that is “unthinking,” “irresponsible,” or “uncaring.” We see
a further example of a similar decision taken by someone in authority half way
around the globe. In this example, the scale of the tragedy far exceeded that
which occurred in Belgium’s Heysel stadium panic.
The football stadium in Katmandu, Nepal was the scene of a horrific exit panic.
Ninety-three fans were killed and over a hundred were injured as they attempted
to flee from the stadium when a hailstorm was seen to be fast approaching. The
30,000 spectators streamed toward a single exit; the remaining seven exit gates
had been locked by stadium officials (“Nepalese look,” 1988).
Entry Panics
Entry panics typically occur when fans find themselves competing for access to a
prized commodity or goal, for example entry to the sports facility or ticket wicket.
A few in the crowd become impatient and abandon the queue principle of taking
turns. Feeling they might miss out, some fans may push forward or try to jump the
queue. Matters may be further compounded by the stadium design. Too few or too
narrow entrances cannot accommodate other than an orderly flow of spectators
arriving in a timely fashion. In addition, the number of fans streaming into the
stadium may come to exceed its capacity. With the buildup of large crowds, the for-
ward crush of people results in those at the turnstiles or entrances being trampled.
Accounts of individuals stepping forward to calm the fears of audiences are
relatively common. Mann (1989) was on-scene at a narrowly averted panic in
Boston and offers this account.
182 Aggression in the Sports World
I too was witness to a near panic at Boston Garden in 1969 when tickets for the
National Hockey League playoffs went on sale. Because of an absence of barriers,
the crowd surged around the ticket windows, and there was no way for people
who had obtained their tickets to work their way free. The Boston police with true
initiative plunged into the crowd and formed a human chain, picking up customers
as they received their tickets and passing them bodily overhead from policeman to
policeman until they were safely ejected out of the crowd (p. 312).
Panic Dynamics
The following section is the first in a series of three attempts to first item-
ize the basic features that are essential in a situation for an escape panic to
Panics 183
occur. The second summary highlights the researchers’ view of the prominent
characteristics common to escape panics. Lastly, a three-stage model summariz-
ing crowd behavior in emergency situations is presented. Although the latter
model is illustrated with reference to the Bradford stadium fire, it is intended
to be a fair representation of the stages in all emergencies thus far reported.
We begin with an article that incorporates a number of international viewpoints
with regard to panics.
Early Views
An early review of the literature on the causal factors underlying panics was
published by Anselm Strauss in 1944 (see also, Quarantelli, 2001). It provides
the views of 17 international scholars both with regard to causal factors and
“prophylactic” methods, that is stopping or preventing panics.
The first factor cited by experts of the day pertains to the physical and mental
state of individuals. People who are fatigued, intoxicated, in bad health, or phys-
ically depressed, that is conditions that physically weaken men, are especially
susceptible to panic. A second, important factor frequently mentioned is a con-
dition labeled lessened mental ability. This factor includes confusion, doubt and
uncertainty, noise and distraction, and a lack of critical ability. Their effect is to
impair people’s capacity to engage in rational mental activity. Strauss identified
a third factor that he called high emotional tension and heightened imagination.
Underlying this category are the concepts of anxiety, emotional tension, sharp-
ened imagination, and hallucination. These are described as central causative
factors that play a crucial role in creating the conditions for panic (p. 318). For
example, the latter factor is described as facilitating impulsive behavior at the
expense of rationality. Writers at the time made only vague references to the
specific processes by which these factors work to weaken people’s ability to
engage in rational mental activity. The foregoing predispositional factors are
not directly related to panic in a causal sense but rather render individuals and
ultimately the group more susceptible to panic.
Additional external sets of social factors emerged as important causative
influences in the Strauss review. These serve as precipitating mechanisms that
prompt panic behavior on the part of those who in a sense were made highly
suggestible in sets one through three. The fourth set of mechanisms that trigger
actual flight include suggestion, collective imitation, and rapid mental contagion.
It was believed to be the highly suggestible elements in a crowd that acted indis-
criminately to suggestions or were quick to imitate the actions of others nearby.
Strauss has also identified a breakdown of faith in the leader as an important
causative theme running through the writings of early panic scholars. A lack
of confidence in a leader of organized groups was thought to make individuals
more suggestible and open to influence from others. The sixth and final factor
is a recognition by individuals that they are in extreme danger of losing life or
limb. The Strauss review (1944) marked an important point in the investigation
of panic behavior. It was in the same year that formal laboratory studies of panic
were undertaken first by French (1944) and shortly thereafter by Mintz (1951).
184 Aggression in the Sports World
An Example
In describing what he calls “action crowds,” Young (1946) distinguishes between
an attack–rage and fear–flight types. Given that the organized group has a com-
mon focus of attention, the actions that follow involve the release of deep-seated,
underlying attitudes and emotions, for example, rage, aggression, or fear. He
chose to illustrate a fear–flight reaction by citing a military action during the
battle at Adowa, Abyssinia (now Ethiopia), in 1896.
A relatively small Italian force of 15,000 well-equipped troops faced an esti-
mated 100,000 native Abyssinians. The Italian unit was advancing up a narrow,
steep-sided mountain pass when they were suddenly attacked by a small force
of native troops. “almost at the first brush the Italians turned tail and fled in
disorder” (p. 390).
Young singled out rumors of the natives’ violence and cruelty to prisoners
as the major cause of the panic. Wild rumors had been circulating among the
Italian troops in the weeks before the action. Their fears were sharply intensified
by terrifying stories of how the natives castrated and tortured their captives.
Their emotional state at the time of the attack was such that their officers were
unable to check the chaotic flight that followed.
Panics 185
A Three-Stage Model
As evident above, there appear to be distinct stages in the behavior of those
responding to an impending threat to their well-being. Canter et al. (1989)
188 Aggression in the Sports World
suggest three stages can be identified in the case of the Bradford fire, indeed, “in
all the emergencies that have been studied” (p. 98). Several behaviors and events
will illustrate the nature of the stages that I have chosen to label, ambiguity-
questioning, decision-formation, and action phase.
Ambiguity-Questioning
At the outset, something or someone gets the attention of those nearby, for
example the smell of smoke or a shout of “fire.” This initial stage is one of look-
ing for answers, asking others for information, or listening to those in authority.
It takes valuable time for individuals to resolve the ambiguity before deciding
on their best course of action. The spectators at Bradford did little in the first
few minutes. Those close to the origin of the fire moved away then turned to
watch. One man went to get an extinguisher while another poured the contents
of his coffee cup on the flames. The man searching for the extinguisher alerted
police who returned with him to inspect the situation. They then called the fire
brigade. With precious seconds ticking away, a senior police officer walked the
entire length of the pitch to examine the situation, only then ordering spectators
to leave the stands for the safety of the playing field.
Decision-Formation
As the ambiguity surrounding the situation is gradually clarified with informa-
tion about the situation and that provided by people nearby, individuals choose a
course of action. Previous training or experience in emergencies (e.g., military,
police, medical), personality traits (e.g., empathy, altruism), physical status
(e.g., youthful–elderly) or one’s location in the facility in relation to the source
of danger (e.g., proximal–distal) may to an important degree determine the
response of individuals to the threat. Some may assist others, some may fight the
fire, some may look for the nearest available exit, while still other individuals
may search for friends and relatives (see Johnson, 1987a).
The decision we make in an emergency is in several important respects unlike
any other we are called upon to make. One’s choice of a marriage partner, the
purchase of a new home, taking early retirement are all important decisions
with long- term implications for the decision maker and those close to him/her.
Yet, they differ sharply from a decision made when we hear a shout of “FIRE”
coming from under the stands at a dilapidated stadium (Proulx, 1993, 2002).
The decision taken could be the difference between life and death outcomes.
The very survival of the decision maker and those closest to him/her may be at
stake. Also, there is limited time available in which to gather information, weigh
options, and think through the decision. Moreover, the list of critical options
may be rapidly shrinking with each passing minute. Staying with the stadium
fire example, several exits open a few minutes earlier may now be clogged with
escaping fans. Lastly, decisions taken in emergencies are necessarily based on
incomplete information. Such information as is available is typically sketchy,
ambiguous, and possibly misleading. Still, a decision must be taken.
Panics 189
Action Phase
Time is the critical factor in the third stage. For example, a fire does not invari-
ably increase in scale and intensity in a linear fashion. Depending on conditions
at the time, a fire can literally explode in a matter of seconds. At this late date,
a large throng of people attempting to hurriedly leave by their chosen route
are left with little room for error. If one person trips or stumbles the result can
be tragic. If their escape route leads to exits that are locked, as they were at
Bradford, the toll of deaths and injuries is apt to be horrific.
decision maker and the distance to be traveled to safety are less well understood
with respect to their impact (Bryan, 2002, as cited in Proulx, 2002).
flight to escape from danger. The overriding motive of a crowd is seen as one of
self-preservation; it is a case of every man for himself.
A contrasting position is represented by a people view. Rather than seeing a
crowd as acting on a primitive instinct to flee from danger in a chaotic fashion,
there is a recognition that the crowd is heterogeneous, made up of families and
friends interacting with each other. As Johnson (1987a, 1987b) observed, there is
social order among those seeking safety. The strong among the crowd help the
less able. That is, adults help children, men help women, while others help the
infirm. The common analogy of ball bearings rolling along a corridor scarcely
provides an adequate representation of panic behavior.
Both the engineering and people models have merit in furthering our under-
standing of panic. In a similar vein, both models can develop effective proce-
dures or recommend legislation to maximize the safe egress of people when
emergencies arise. As an example, adequate information may be conveyed by a
public address system during the early stages as people are milling about seek-
ing information and direction. As noted above, it is during that time (t1) that
considerable minutes of critical time are often lost and a safe exit imperiled.
Unambiguous public announcements at that time may prove invaluable. The
work of Sime (1995) in examining a series of evacuation exercises prompted
him to conclude that “evacuation times were reduced by at least 1/2 or even
2/3 . . . . by reducing the time for people to start to move.” This was achieved “by
altering the information available to people about a potential danger” (p. 9). He
further notes that a major problem in disasters arises from delays in warning the
crowd of a threat, be it a fire or a bomb.
Summary
The foregoing highlights two models of crowd behavior that in many ways
determine the approach taken by each to maximize the safe egress of a crowd
during an emergency. The engineering model stresses the importance of the
physical environment and the ways in which that environment can be tailored
to allow a crowd to move unimpeded to safety. The second overlapping model
places the emphasis on the social dynamics of the crowd in recognizing the
existence of familial and affiliative bonds that influence the crowd’s response to
an emergency. The people model further emphasizes the need for early warn-
ings of a potential danger combined with clear directions regarding the actions
to be taken. A comprehensive strategy in planning for a disaster would wisely
embrace both models.
Simulations
Computer simulations of crowd behavior during escape panics are becoming
increasingly sophisticated and represent a sharp departure from earlier models.
In addition to representing both physical and social psychological factors, more
recent simulations have included a larger number of variables represented in
Panics 193
(A) (B)
Figure 6.1 Ants escaping under normal and panic conditions. (From E. Altshuler,
O. Ramos, Y. Nunez, J. Fernandez, A. J. Batista-Leyva, & C. Noda. Symmetry breaking
in escaping ants. The American Naturalist. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2005,
pp. 643–649. By permission of the University of Chicago Press.)
limited—unless the assumption is made that the character of animal and human
panic is essentially the same” (p. 326).
To their credit, Altshuler et al. (2005) have eliminated several rival expla-
nations for their findings. For example, across all high-panic trials, the ants
showed no preference for right versus left exits. They jammed up right versus
left exits with equal frequencies. Moreover, they followed up their experiment
with additional trials in which ants from different nests were combined. The
results were the same, supporting the researchers’ contention that genetic rela-
tionships among the ants are not a plausible explanation for the effect.
Introduction
The concluding section of this chapter brings together a set of formal and infor-
mal suggestions that have been put forward by individuals who are familiar
with panics. For the most part they are people who have conducted research
on the topic and have made recommendations regarding the prevention and/or
mitigation of panics.
The suggestions described on the pages to follow represent an incomplete list-
ing. Furthermore, unlike the suggestions regarding riots in the previous chapter,
research supportive of recommendations on panic is often thin or nonexistent.
The general lack of empirical evidence that might otherwise support recom-
mendations is an unfortunate consequence of the current state of panic research.
Despite some promising beginnings, we know far less about panics than almost
any other social group phenomena. However, the merits of a considerable number
of the suggestions will be seen as self-evident. That is, we can scarcely argue
196 Aggression in the Sports World
Engineering/Design Considerations
Seated Versus Standing
The question of whether seating or standing areas are more conducive to out-
bursts of riotous behavior was addressed by Mann (1989). He suggested that riots
were more likely to originate on the terraces and for most of the same reasons,
extended his view to include panics. He notes that in a crush a standing crowd
“is more likely to sway and fall, causing wholesale panic” (p. 307). Two late to
mid-20th century riots in the United Kingdom are cited to bolster his view. Both
resulted in a considerable number of deaths and occurred on the terrace areas of
the stadium. However, in the absence of hard evidence, for example an archival
study, views on the issue remain speculative.
Antipanic Leadership
Writing in 1938, La Pierre suggested that “regimental” behavior on the part
of a leader and his audience may be effective in averting or minimizing the
consequences of a panic response. He proposed that two factors underlie the
occurrence of a panic. First, it requires an unusual crisis, for example the smell
of smoke and/or the sight of flames, that is perceived by the crowd as dangerous.
The second factor is the absence of regimental leadership. In such circumstances
the likelihood of panic is greatly increased.
For La Pierre, “regimental behavior is essentially a means by which the
enforcement of an individual solution to a collective crisis problem is assured”
(p. 437). The audience or crowd has already received at least a smattering of train-
ing in regimental behavior albeit by unintended and informal means. Western
Panics 197
cultures, for example, have already instilled a tradition of “women and children
first” that most of us recognize as normative behavior in emergency situations.
Regimental leadership involves an individual capturing the attention of the audi-
ence who find themselves in danger, quickly bringing a measure of calm and order
to any panic-like actions they might otherwise take. However, antipanic leadership
is unable to stem panic behavior once it is underway (for a detailed description of
antipanic leadership see a 1938 article by Malamud, as cited in La Pierre, 1938).
I believe La Pierre would not be unhappy with my choice of a real life
example of antipanic leadership and a regimented crowd. The example involves
the actions of a quick thinking few who forestalled an entry panic in its forma-
tive stages. A leadership initiative intended to avert panicky behavior was found
effective in a European example.
Chakotin (1941) recounts a memorable incident in a crowd seeking to gain
entrance to a Paris stadium.
The neighborhood of the Velodrome d’Hiver (Winter Sports Stadium) was densely
crowded for a big race. There were two narrow entrances, and no police to be
seen. The crowd rushed to the entrances, and the pressure seemed to be threaten-
ing suffocation for many victims. But suddenly some of the crowd began to shout
rhythmically, “Don’t push! Don’t push!” and the shout was taken up and chanted
in chorus by the whole multitude. The result was marvelous: Order was restored,
the pressure reduced; a collective inhibition had spread through the minds of the
whole throng (pp. 43–44).
The chanting of a few spread rapidly until the entire crowd was of one mind. In
all likelihood, a tragedy was averted. One or more individuals initially caught the
attention of others nearby who joined in the rhythmic shout “don’t push!” As with
“women and children first,” there is a cultural tradition of “don’t push” when we are
being jostled or squashed in a crowd. Antipanic leadership in a regimented crowd
by a few unknown individuals was exhibited that day at the Paris Velodrome.
people who go crazy the moment they hear the word. The crowd was beginning
to surge toward the doors and already showing signs of a stampede. Those on the
lower floor were not so badly frightened as those in the more dangerous balcony
and gallery. Up there they were falling into panic.
I began shouting at the top of my voice, “Don’t get excited. There’s no danger.
Take it easy!” And to Dillea, the orchestra leader, “Play, start an overture-anything!
But play!” Some of his musicians were fleeing, but a few, and especially a fat little
violinist, stuck nobly.
I stood perfectly still, hoping my apparent calm would have an equally calm-
ing effect on the crowd. Those on the lower floor heard me and seemed somewhat
reassured. But up above, and especially in the gallery, they had gone mad (Foy &
Harlow, 1928).
Foy’s actions were apparently successful in reducing the toll on that dreadful
afternoon. In eight minutes, 602 theatergoers perished; many more were injured.
La Pierre informs us that in the aftermath of the Iroquois theater disaster
the fundamental rule of show biz was “the show must go on, come hell or high
water” (p. 454). He notes that later veteran show people fondly recounted sto-
ries of having themselves performed well while firemen extinguished flames
backstage.
A final antipanic tactic, described by La Pierre (1938) as “remarkably effec-
tive,” is the playing of a country’s national anthem. Following a series of deadly
theater panics, it became an established British custom to play the national
anthem at the end of every performance at which time the audience rose to
attention as one.
With disheartening regularity, we see in the aftermath of panics that the
most obvious of construction design failures has resulted in excessive casual-
ties. Ushers were untrained; exit doors opened “inwards;” the theater was over-
crowded; doors were locked; there was overcrowding; stairwells were steep,
narrow, and reversible; and exits were poorly lit and lacked adequate directional
signage. Faintly reminiscent of the 1915 Titanic disaster, the new theater was
believed by authorities to be fireproof.
The failures evident in the Iroquois theater fire remain with us today, a
century later. Consider the words of Mr. Foy:
There were thirty exits, but few of them were marked by lights; some had heavy
portieres over the doors, and some of the doors were locked or fastened with levers
which no one knew how to work.
. . . some of the exit doors leading from the upper tiers onto the fi re escapes
on the alley . . . were either rusted or frozen. They fi nally burst open, but
precious moments had been lost—moments which meant death for many behind
those doors. The fi re-escape ladders could not accommodate the crowd, and
many fell or jumped to death on the pavement below. In places on the stairway,
particularly where a turn caused a jam, bodies were piled seven or eight
feet deep.
off the seats. But when a fire chief thrust his head through a side exit and shouted,
‘Is anybody alive in here?’ no one answered (Foy & Harlow, 1928).
It was further noted that the theater itself was never burned. By one account,
performances could have been resumed in a couple of days. The Iroquois
Theater fire stands as an archetypical example of shortcomings in design that
can magnify the scale of a tragedy many times over. The examples noted above
point to the role of individuals, themselves caught in a potential panic situation,
who informally emerge as control agents. In many ways, these individuals are
the counterpart to the peacemakers described in the context of riots. Shouts of
“remain calm,” “don’t push,” heard above the confusion have undoubtedly been
effective in minimizing or averting human disasters. While individual members
of the public are under no obligation to assume such roles—their emergence is
pretty much a matter of chance—others with formal responsibilities, for example
security personnel, ushers, ticket takers, can be given specific training in provid-
ing instructions and direction to exits for those fleeing a facility.
SUMMARY
Suggested Readings
Proulx, G. (2002). Cool under fire. Fire Protection Engineering, 16, 23–25.
This reader-friendly article provides a concise review of the current state of
research on panics. Furthermore, it dispels some of the myths surrounding people’s
200 Aggression in the Sports World
INTRODUCTION
201
202 Aggression in the Sports World
in preceding chapters. The concluding sections of this final chapter feature over-
views of a sample of those theories. Lastly, cathartic theory and its variants are
traced forward from earlier times and evaluated in the light of recent research.
At this juncture you might ask why a background in research methodology
might be valuable to the reader. In addition to developing a more critical eye and
a deeper understanding of sport science research, the reader will likely be better
positioned to evaluate claims made for new products, new sport programs, or
training regimens. For example, the media may be flooded with ads proclaiming
the benefits to athletes of a new sports drink, that is, “Burst.” Among the claims
made for Burst are greater strength and endurance, better concentration, and
increased energy, all adding up to an improved athletic performance. Hinting
at the drink’s scientific pedigree, we are told it is the creation of Dr. Mooz
and associates at the Institute of Power Sports. Lest doubters remain, we are
further informed that Burst has been scientifically “proven” to increase athletic
performance. What evidence is offered as proof of the claims? Most often the
evidence takes the form of testimonials, in many cases provided by commercially
minded celebrity athletes. Now it must be said that testimonials are virtually
worthless as evidence that a particular product is both effective and safe.
Pseudo-science practitioners making bogus claims and presenting those claims
as scientific fact abound in modern society, as they have throughout history. The
best defense against their misleading, generally unsubstantiated, claims is an
informed public. As for Burst, a cup of coffee before the big race or marathon is
likely a more effective (and cheaper) performance-enhancing tactic (see Pasman,
van Baak, Jeukendrup, & Haan, 1995).
Hypothetically, let us say that the mean levels of electric shock delivered by
the participants were 60.2 V (no noise), 71.7 V (medium noise), and 84.1 V (high
levels of noise), respectively. Should a statistical analysis reveal that these mean
values are significantly different from each other, that is not due simply to chance,
the experimenter’s hypothesis would be confirmed. Assuming the experiment was
competently carried out and was methodologically sound, support for a causal
relationship between noise and aggression is established.
The researcher in our fictitious experiment is now in a good position to cau-
tiously generalize the findings further afield to real world phenomena. One might,
for example, answer a reporter’s query by saying “Yes, the very high levels of
crowd noise created in a stadium or arena is a factor (among several factors)
that contributes to the likelihood of fan violence erupting.” I would like to add
a word about our rude confederate. At no time was he zapped by electric shock.
Despite appearances, he was not hooked up to the shock apparatus. As you will
see momentarily, ethical considerations generally preclude treatment that is inju-
rious to those involved in aggression research. Equally important for the reader
to know, the deception and other details of the experiment were revealed to each
participant in a debriefing session following their participation.
Ethical Comment
The fictional experiment described above for illustrative purposes raises several
ethical questions. Lab experiments in particular have ethical safeguards in place
to ensure that participants generally are not subjected to treatment that is harmful
to their well-being. Researchers undertaking a research program are generally
required to submit a detailed proposal to an ethics review committee comprised
of qualified peers who evaluate its merits on ethical grounds. Above all, the task
of the committee is to ensure that no harm comes to the participants.
Social scientists have the further obligation of ensuring that participants are,
as fully as possible, informed in advance of what they will be doing in the
experimental session. Equally important to obtaining informed consent is the
further obligation to fully debrief participants in a post experimental debriefing
session. Here all questions are answered and any deception is revealed along
with the hypothesis being tested. Lastly, a summary of the results, that is “how
it all came out,” is typically made available to the subjects at an early date.
This feedback signals to the participant that research is something of a partner-
ship in which their contribution is invaluable and the topic being investigated is
important and was deserving of their time and effort.
Introduction
It is often the case that human errors are nonrandom; they point in a particular
direction. Consequently, they tend to bias the results of social psychological
investigations. That is, the validity of an experiment is put into question insofar
204 Aggression in the Sports World
as the bias tends to be in a single direction. Doubts are thereby raised regarding
conclusions drawn from the study or the implications of the experimenter’s find-
ings. The pages to follow briefly describe three sources of bias, one originating
with the experimenter and two with participants.
Experimenter-Expectancy Effects
This source of experimental bias has also been referred to as the self-fulfilling
prophecy. The investigator of a topic proposes one or more hypotheses that
represent her judgment of the direction and difference she expects will result from
an experimental test. Typically, the investigator predicts a difference in average
scores between a treatment or experimental group and a control group. When she
assumes the role of experimenter, her personal expectations regarding the outcome
of the experiment can increase the likelihood the hypothesis will be confirmed.
Despite her best efforts to remain neutral, she subtly conveys her expectations to the
participants thus eliciting behaviors that confirm her predictions. The experimenter
is unwittingly involved in an interactive influence process wherein minute changes
in her behavior, for example, gestures, postural changes, or voice inflections, lead to
changes in the participants’ behaviors that are supportive of the hypothesis.
Examples
We see clear evidence of expectancy effects at play in a field experiment con-
ducted at a summer camp for boys and girls aged 7–14 (Burnham, 1968). The
results of a bogus personality test were shared with the swimming instructors at
the start of the 2-week program. The test “results” identified one of two randomly
chosen groups of beginning swimmers as “swimming-ready.” Thus, expecta-
tions of their likely success were planted in the minds of the instructors. Being
randomly assigned, children in both groups, that is those “swimming ready” and
those not identified as such, can be regarded as having equal potential to develop
into good swimmers. Even so, the youngsters for whom the instructors held
expectations of swimming success developed into decidedly more accomplished
swimmers over the weeks of daily instruction.
You might ask how the children’s ability level was measured at the end of
the program, that is, what was the dependent measure of performance? It was
their performance on 21 graduated tests of specific swimming skills, that is,
the means by which one earns a Red Cross beginning swimmers card. Keep in
mind that the instructors did not consciously favor any of the children. Rather,
they interacted in subtly different ways with those from whom they anticipated
success. The instructors unwittingly gave encouragement and reinforced the
“swimming-ready” students as they gradually acquired the elements of a swim-
ming stroke. The young students responded in kind.
Demand Characteristics
Demand characteristics arise in the context of the experimental setting and
involve an array of obvious and not-so-obvious cues. These cues influence the
participant’s perception of what is expected of him as well as the experimenter’s
hypothesis. However, these participant perceptions may or may not be accurate.
The further point to note is that participants generally make every effort to
be seen as a “good participant” often going to extremes to play that role. The
behavior they exhibit in the lab is unusual and does not resemble their day-to-day
behavior in other situations. Two motives appear to underlie their lab behavior,
the first a desire to “look good,” to be cooperative and docile, and second, to
behave in ways that support their perception of the experimenter’s hypothesis.
Examples
Two early studies clearly illustrate the strength of the participant’s desire to
cooperate even in the face of all-but-certain harm (Orne, 1962; Orne & Evans,
1965). Martin Orne was interested in testing the limits of cooperation. To this
end, he devised a set of meaningless, mind-numbing and utterly boring tasks.
The experimenter asked subjects to complete a page full of simple sums then
fold the answer sheets several times and rip it into 32 pieces and then repeat the
process. Participants continued with this task for over 5 hr until Orne finally
gave up. Throughout, they worked at a constant pace with few errors and few
signs of hostility. In a second study (Orne & Evans, 1965), participants were
instructed to handle a snake earlier described as poisonous and were later asked
to reach barehanded into a beaker of fuming nitric acid. In both instances, par-
ticipants fearlessly complied. Of course, the snake was not poisonous nor was
the nitric acid what it appeared.
the experimental treatment reduces the potential for bias (see, e.g., Campbell &
Stanley, 1963; Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1996).
Volunteer Effects
Many of my readers will recall having volunteered to answer a survey or partici-
pate in a study or, perhaps, a formal experiment at some time in their past. For
a variety of reasons, others will recall having refused some or all such requests.
Even at this early stage of an investigation, the researcher has something of a
problem. The investigator would like to communicate his findings to his col-
leagues and in so doing generalize his findings to the immediate community
and perhaps beyond. However, the experimental participants may not resemble
those who did not volunteer, let alone the general public. That is, volunteers dif-
fer from nonvolunteers in important ways, often in ways that are central to the
topic under investigation. Consequently, in some instances generalizing becomes
problematic.
The importance of taking volunteer status into account has been ably docu-
mented by Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975). These authors summarized a con-
siderable literature on volunteer bias and provide a rough ranking of relevant
differences between volunteer participants and individuals who choose not to
participate. A handful of examples (in descending order of confidence) will
suffice to illustrate the bases of differences.
• Volunteers are generally better educated and are of higher social class
than nonvolunteers.
• Volunteers have a generally higher need for social approval and are
more sociable than nonvolunteers.
• In general, women are more likely than men to volunteer. However, if
the research is physically or emotionally demanding, for example elec-
tric shock is administered or sexual behavior is discussed, men are more
likely to volunteer.
• Volunteers tend to be less authoritarian than those who do not volunteer.
Control of Volunteer Bias
One means of minimizing a volunteer bias is to increase the rate of participation
in a study to more closely resemble the background population from which the
volunteers were drawn. Several steps have been proposed to increase the response
rate from a participant pool. One effective suggestion has been to emphasize the
positive aspects of the participant experience. Moreover, stressing that volunteers
will find the study interesting will tend to increase the number of volunteers as
will efforts to allay participants’ fears of being negatively evaluated.
The three sources of bias noted above are but a small sample of a longer
list. Hopefully, the sample is sufficient to sensitize consumers of social science
findings to the importance of developing a critical eye with respect to the design
of studies and the stock they can place in the conclusions. We turn now to
Methods, Measures, and Views of Sports Aggression 207
MEASUREMENT OPTIONS
This section is intended to acquaint the reader with the range of measurement
options available in the study of sport aggression. Passing reference will be made
to the psychometric properties of some measures. However, this section is not a
substitute for the detailed evaluations offered in other sources (e.g., Anastasi &
Urbina, 1998; Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightsman, 1991).
Laboratory Investigations
Laboratory investigations of aggression have been a mainstay of aggression
research in recent decades and have provided much of what we know about inter-
personal aggression. The essence of these investigations involves three versions of
an aggression device or procedure by which researchers can study actual physical
aggression usually with minimal, if any, discomfort to participants. Each has its
variants and each seems suited to the investigation of certain topics, less so to
other topics. The first of these is the Buss (1961) “aggression machine.”
Berkowitz Procedure
Another paradigm by which investigators can study physical aggression in a
laboratory setting was developed by Leonard Berkowitz (1962). Similar to
the Buss procedures, shock is delivered to another person in the context of a
problem-solving task. The participant along with a confederate participant is
informed that the study is an investigation of the effects of stress on problem-
solving ability. Their task will be to provide a written solution to a problem pre-
sented by the experimenter. The participant’s solution is then evaluated by the
(confederate) participant with his impression of its worth represented by electric
shocks. A solution judged to be excellent would see the confederate delivering
one or two shocks to the participant whereas one judged to be totally inadequate
might involve seven to a maximum of 10 shocks. Typically, the interest of the
researcher is in creating a condition in which half of the participants are aroused
or angered. To this end, the number of shocks delivered to the participant is
predetermined to be either two or seven.
At this point the participant watches either a nonviolent (exciting competition)
or a violent (boxing) film clip (e.g., Berkowitz & Geen, 1966). The final stage
involves a reversal of circumstances, that is, the true participant now has the
opportunity to evaluate the confederate’s essay. Note that the participant, previ-
ously unprovoked or provoked, now has control only over the number of shocks
(occasionally, the duration) though not its intensity. He too now has the option of
delivering up to 10 shocks, the researcher’s measure of physical aggression.
threshold, while button number 8 is set at 90% of that value and so on down to
button number 1. Lights provide feedback to the participant informing them of
the shock level set for them by their opponent. Note that it has been preset by the
experimenter whether they won or lost on each reaction time trial. As you saw in
foregoing chapters, the Taylor procedure has been extremely useful in furthering
our understanding of various factors thought to influence behaviors, for example,
the presence of an audience (Borden & Taylor, 1973), threat (Taylor, Gammon,
& Capasso, 1976), competition (Gaebelein & Taylor, 1971), and the effects of
various drugs (Ben-Porath & Taylor, 2002).
they are told they can have anywhere from one to five shots at the target. Having
given answers to the number of shots and power of the gun, the experimenter
continues but is interrupted by the assistant asking “Excuse me professor but
which condition is_______in?” The experimenter replies “You mean you haven’t
done that?” (the bungled part) to which the assistant says “No, I thought you
were going to” (the experimenter emits an audible groan). A fumbling exchange
ensues during which they realize that it is still not too late to randomly assign
the participant to the experimental or control condition. The assistant retrieves a
fishbowl from under a side table and the participant is asked to draw a slip. The
participant discovers he is in the control group and will not be required to shoot
at the target person. The “control” group participant is then escorted to a nearby
room to complete several measures that sought opinions on his experience as a
participant in the experiment.
A number of variables of interest can be examined within the general para-
digm. For example, the sex or race of the participant vis-á-vis the target person
can be varied as can the level of provocation initiated by the target. The pro-
cedure provides two measures of aggression, that is, the power of the gun and
the number of shots the participant elects to take. As predicted, the measures
were positively related to both the Anger and Physical Aggression scales of the
Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992; Russell et al., 2007).
Summary
Brief descriptions of lab apparatus and procedures used by social scientists in
their investigations of human aggression were provided in the foregoing sec-
tions. The first set has been used extensively for decades and generally found
to be psychometrically sound. Moreover, they have been suited to the investiga-
tion of a full range of aggression topics from the effects of various drugs to
the acquisition of aggressive behaviors to the role of violent media portrayals.
Although they are sometimes modified to meet particular requirements of the
212 Aggression in the Sports World
researcher, they remain true to the essential features of the apparatus and lab
procedures.
The second set of four aggression measures are of more recent vintage.
Evidence of their psychometric properties is somewhat limited but such as exists
is generally favorable, for example, validity or reliability. A recent critical review
of the measures exposes some of the weaknesses in the procedures along with
their strengths. The same article also provides a critique of the earlier set of tra-
ditional means of investigating aggressive behavior (Ritter & Eslea, 2005). The
task for the aggression researcher is one of choosing the paradigm best suited to
investigating their topic of interest. None are without shortcomings. However, a
critical review of earlier aggression paradigms by Tedeschi and Quigley (1996)
provides additional background for an easier and more informed choice.
Projective Measures
The assumption underlying this class of measures is that as the test materials
(e.g., pictures, ink blots) are increasingly unstructured, ambiguous, or vague,
respondents, when prompted, are as a consequence better able to reveal more
of their innermost selves. Extensive supervised training is required in the
administration and scoring of protocols with measures of this sort. For present
purposes, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) will serve to illustrate a projec-
tive measure occasionally used in assessing aggression.
Self-Reports
Are words matched by deeds? It is entirely reasonable to ask whether people
answering a questionnaire or being interviewed regarding their behavior answer
truthfully. Understandably, one’s skepticism might increase if the answer impli-
cates the respondent in possibly illegal or immoral practices. As examples, would
you “break the leg of the star player of the rival team?” (Wann et al., p. 409),
“describe your most vicious fight” (Farrington, Berkowitz, & West, 1982) or
“If a fight or other disturbance were to break out in the stands that was started
by the ‘visiting fans,’ what are the chances that you would join in?” (Russell
& Arms, 1998, p. 222). One might expect distortion to perhaps minimize the
seriousness or illegality of their actions. Alternatively, male respondents might
exaggerate in a spirit of bravado, a form of impression management.
Reassuring in this regard is Elliott and Agetons’ (1980) observation that
self-reports of major acts of delinquency closely correspond to official police
records. Similarly, West and Farrington (1977) asked delinquents questions
about their past that could be verified, for example, court appearances, and
found their answers to be “generally accurate.” In addition, they asked a question
that virtually invites exaggeration from young males, that is “tell me about the
most vicious fight in which you have ever been involved”? (paraphrased by the
author). The investigators concluded “The youths clearly did not exaggerate their
accounts of fights leading to police intervention” (p. 24). Further, a comparison
of the youngsters’ accounts of the fights that led to their convictions was made
with official criminal records. The researchers found “that their reports tended,
if anything, to play down these events” (p. 24). Seemingly, self-report data has
much to recommend it as an investigative tool and appears somewhat more
resistant to deliberate bias by respondents than generally believed.
As with any type of measure, there are strengths and weaknesses associated
with their use. Reliance on a single measure of the dependent variable always
involves an element of risk. That risk can be minimized by including a second
dependent measure in the design. Preferably, the measures chosen would repre-
sent different categories, for example, the Aggression Questionnaire and police
records of the participants’ past assaultive behaviors. Should the researchers’
analyses yield the same result with both divergent measures of aggression, then
our confidence in their conclusion is greatly increased.
It replaces the outdated Buss and Durkee Hostility Inventory in use since 1957.
The scale consists of four subscales that assess Physical Aggression, Verbal
Aggression, Anger, and Hostility. A sample item from the Physical Aggression
subscale is: “I get into fights a little more often than the average person.” Equally
straightforward, the Verbal Aggression scale is reflected by the item “When
people annoy me, I may tell them what I think of them.” The Anger component
includes physiological arousal and the emotional aspect of behavior. The item
“I have trouble controlling my temper” captures this aspect of aggression. Lastly,
a cognitive aspect of behavior reflecting ill will and resentment underlies the
Hostility scale. A sample item is “At times I feel I have gotten a raw deal out of
life.” Test–retest reliability of the scales over a 9-week period was calculated to
be Total score, .80; Physical Aggression, .80; Verbal Aggression, .76; Hostility,
.72; and Anger, .72. These correlations demonstrate adequate consistency.
While men scored considerably higher than women on Physical Aggression,
they scored only slightly higher on Verbal Aggression and Hostility. Sex dif-
ferences on Anger were not apparent. Furthermore, two personality traits in
particular, for example, competitiveness and impulsivity, showed strong positive
correlations with all subscales and the total score. In my view, the Aggression
Questionnaire appears psychometrically sound and suited to the investigation of
a full range of topics within the sports world.
Response Biases
The reader should be alert to a number of potential response biases when con-
sidering the results of various personality and other paper-and-pencil measures.
It is often the case that some items in a personality inventory are transparent
with respect to what they were designed to measure. An inventory spotted with
items such as “I occasionally fly into a rage” or “I have punched a wall when
I was angry,” is clearly open to distortion intended to create a positive self-image.
Can there be any doubt in the minds of respondents completing this inventory
that aggression, possibly pathology is being assessed? Despite the experimenter’s
request to answer truthfully and even with assurances of anonymity, is it not
reasonable to suggest that some respondents will alter their answers to appear in
a better light, that is, as less aggressive than is actually the case?
Early on, a scale was developed specifically to measure this source of syste-
matic error, that is, the 33-item, Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability (MCSD)
Scale. It is this tendency for some to answer personality and other scales in
such a way that they will be evaluated more positively than might otherwise be
the case that underlies a need for social approval (Crowne & Marlowe, 1964;
Robinson et al., 1991). However, before long it became apparent the scale was
also likely measuring a personality trait. Indeed, subsequent research revealed
that those scoring high on the MCSD were generally more conforming and more
open to social influence than other respondents.
While the MCSD has been used extensively in investigations of social
approval as a personality test, the scale serves another important function. The
scale is often administered as part of a battery of measures in the construction
Methods, Measures, and Views of Sports Aggression 215
of a new test, for example, a measure of sport hostility. For the test developer,
it is important to know if the new test is related to the MCSD. If a correlational
analysis yields a significant relationship between the new hostility test and
the MCSD, then some of what is being measured is the respondents’ need for
approval rather than their hostile impulses. Published reports of a new test often
include comments on its association with the MCSD.
Other sources of systematic error also lie in wait for the unwary researcher.
Some individuals called “yea-sayers” exhibit a bias whereby they agree with
inventory statements regardless of the direction or content of the items. For exam-
ple, pairs of items such as “I enjoy watching a good fight at a hockey game” and
“The sight of players fighting in a game disgusts me” are consistently answered
in the affirmative. This source of bias is called the acquiescent response set and
is seen to be operating when a respondent consistently expresses agreement with
both pro and con sides of an issue. The problem is typically corrected with the
removal of these respondents from the sample.
Archival Investigations
Officials in most sports keep meticulous, detailed records of nearly all aspects
of individual and team performances. They often include weather conditions,
time of day, attendance, team rosters, and for present purposes, rule infrac-
tions, for example, fighting and the penalties awarded by game officials, such
as a British football referee showing a player a red card. Sports records are
compiled by individuals with no association or knowledge of their use in a
study. Consequently, archival studies are relatively free of distortion arising
from actions of the researcher, that is, experimenter bias. The quality of sports
records almost totally lies with the official record keeper, that is, his/her dedica-
tion, attention to detail, and accuracy.
In many major sports, rule infractions reflect unacceptable aggressive conduct
by athletes. Moreover, they occur with sufficient frequency to provide data for
testing a variety of aggression-related hypotheses. Note should also be taken of
the fact that the researcher’s data has already been collected and lies in a dusty
drawer at the league’s head office. It remains for the investigator to organize
and analyze the raw data with respect to her initial hypotheses. Note too, that
participants are unaware of having been subjects in a study, a fact that further
eliminates any concern with subject effects, for example, demand characteristics
or volunteer effects (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1996). In effect, measures of aggres-
sion developed from archival records provide the researcher with a behavioral
criterion of interpersonal aggression occurring in a naturalistic setting.
Measures of sport aggression derived from game/contest records are well
suited to testing a variety of hypotheses. The structure of some sports is such
that interpersonal aggression occurs with considerable frequency under the
watchful eyes of contest officials. It is only when the aggression violates the
rules of play in its intensity and/or form that the contest is stopped and a penalty
awarded, for example, a low blow in boxing, the ever-popular fist fight in hockey,
shoving a baseball umpire. Thus, as Zillmann (1979) notes “The infliction of
216 Aggression in the Sports World
On Generalizing
This concluding section examines a question that should be of considerable
interest to consumers of scientific research, including researchers themselves. It
concerns the matter of generalizing the results of a study further afield to other
groups of people and other situations. How confident can we be that the results
of our study are also true of other persons and situations far removed from
where our investigation was conducted?
Generally speaking, a controlled lab experiment is a powerful means of
establishing a causal relationship between two variables. It complements other
investigative approaches and in turn, is itself complemented. Yet from time to
time students, colleagues, and others express misgivings regarding the artifi-
ciality of the laboratory setting and question how lab results can possibly be
generalized to the “real world.” In effect, the critic is challenging the external
validity of lab studies in suggesting the results cannot be generalized to other
populations or settings in the real world (Anderson & Bushman, 1997).
To answer the question of external validity with respect to a particular lab
study, it is first necessary to assess its internal validity. High internal validity
is said to exist when the design and structure of an experiment are such that
changes in the dependent variable were clearly caused by changes in the inde-
pendent variable. By contrast, if the results of a lab study leave us with a number
of plausible rival explanations for the tested relationship, then the study can be
described as having low internal validity. Thus, the number of plausible rival
explanations is determined by the design and structure of the study. Therefore,
if a lab study is low on internal validity, it is very unlikely to be high on external
validity and consequently its results cannot be readily generalized.
A formal definition of external validity is offered by Anderson and Bushman
(1997). Typically, it “refers to the generalizability of the results of a study to
other (usually real world) settings or populations” (p. 21). Thus, the similarity
between (a) the sample, (b) the setting, and (c) the means by which the variables
are represented (operationalized) in the lab and, the same variable attributes in
the target investigation determines the external validity.
A key question remains. Is there good evidence that “trivial” laboratory experi-
ments can lay claim to external validity? Anderson and Bushman carried out a
sophisticated analysis (meta-analysis) examining five situational variables and
three individual differences variables in real world settings and aggression studies
conducted in the lab. Situational variables included provocation, violent media,
alcohol, anonymity, and high temperature. The category of individual differences
was represented by sex, Type A personality, and trait aggression. As to outcome, in
the words of the authors “results strongly supported the external validity of trivial
laboratory studies” (p. 19). In more specific terms, Anderson and Bushman sum-
marize the requisite conditions for findings to generalize. “When careful conceptual
analyses of both types of situations are conducted, and when empirical research
methods are used, findings about the relations between conceptual variables will
generalize from the laboratory to the real world, and vice versa” (p. 35).
218 Aggression in the Sports World
THEORIES OF AGGRESSION
dangerous levels. While aggressive behavior may result, these aggressive urges
may instead be displaced onto scapegoats or be channeled into socially accept-
able activities.
The popular and influential writings of ethologist, Konrad Lorenz (e.g., 1966)
produced continuing support for instinct theory. On the basis of his study of
animal behavior, Lorenz proposed that humans as well as other species share
in the inheritance of a fighting instinct. Unlike Freud, Lorenz sees aggression
as being generally adaptive. For example, in evolutionary terms the strongest
and healthiest will have reproductive success thereby increasing the prospects
for survival of their species. However, similar to Freud, Lorenz sees a constant
welling up of aggressive energy that requires periodic discharge lest it builds to
dangerous levels. Further discussion of the feasibility of relying on a cathartic
discharge of aggression to avoid violent outbursts will be made later in this
chapter.
Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis
Spectators witnessing a hockey player being blind-sided by a vicious premedi-
tated attack almost immediately begin to look for answers. What could possibly
have prompted the illegal assault? Is the attacker known to be violent and this
is but another notch in his belt or was there something about the situation itself
that triggered the attack? Sportscasters and spectators alike who are witnessing
the incident feel compelled to offer an explanation. It is a virtual certainty that
many will raise the likelihood that the instigator was in some way “frustrated”
and his violent action was not totally unexpected. Ever mindful of the numer-
ous frustrations we all encounter every day, most have few reservations about
accepting the explanation as an insightful analysis of behavior. The attacker
acted out of frustration, for example, his team was losing and facing elimination,
the attacker just moments earlier mishandled a pass and failed to score, or rumor
has it that he is facing relegation to a farm team.
The notion that frustration leads to aggression was given formal expression by
a group of Yale psychologists in what has been called the frustration–aggression
hypothesis (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939). The main thrust
of the hypothesis is that any blocking or thwarting of a person’s behavior in
pursuit of a goal will result in aggression. In turn, any act of aggression was
preceded by, or can be traced back to, an earlier state of frustration. For a time,
it appeared that this simple, straightforward explanation accounted for much
of human aggression. However, cracks began to appear in the explanation.
Critics pointed out that many people simply make a greater effort when they
are thwarted. Others encountering obstacles in their path regress or revert to
behaviors more typical of an earlier stage of their development, for example, pout
or sulk. Still others meet frustrations with humor. Aggression, then, was seen as
but one of several responses to frustration (Berkowitz, 1989, 1993).
On the aggression side of the frustration = aggression equation, it is evident that
aggression is frequently the result of factors other than frustration. An altercation
can readily be sparked by an insult, verbal threat, or a shove. Furthermore, the
220 Aggression in the Sports World
hockey enforcer who assaults the star player on the opposing team on instructions
of his coach may never have been frustrated in his own play. Rather, he is simply
following orders.
Clearly, a revision of the frustration–aggression hypothesis was called for, one
that took into account several of the shortcomings noted above and elsewhere.
A subsequent revision held that “frustration produces instigations to a number
of different types of response, one of which is an instigation to some form of
aggression” (Miller, 1941, p. 338). Other nonaggressive responses to frustration
can also occur. However, it is stipulated that the most likely or dominant response
to frustration remains aggression.
As noted above, all of us encounter frustrations on a daily basis. Yet, rarely
do we fly into a rage when our favorite team fails to make the playoffs or a
television network blacks out the “big game” in our viewing area. Are there
particular conditions that increase the likelihood of people responding aggres-
sively to frustration? There are indeed.
One set of such situational factors will be identified with a view to high-
lighting its role in facilitating an aggressive response following frustration.
The first is the importance of the goal to the individual. Being blocked from
attaining a goal that matters little is unlikely to bring an aggressive response.
Additional factors include the magnitude of the frustration and the degree to
which the blocking is arbitrary or justified. Thus, the closer one is to achieving
an important goal when thwarted, the greater is the frustration and the aggres-
sive response (Berkowitz, 1993; Harris, 1974). Two examples follow: one, a
study using archival data, and the second, an account of crowd violence at an
American high school football game.
The first example highlights the effects of severity of thwarting on aggres-
sion. The records of a full season of play in an Alberta senior men’s hockey
league provided a measure of team aggression, that is, aggressive penalties.
Throughout the season, teams occupying first place showed very little aggres-
sion in their games. However, when teams found themselves in second place
(the most severely thwarted) on-ice aggression soared with levels steadily
declining thereafter as teams occupied third place on down to sixth in the
league standings (Russell & Drewry, 1976). The greatest amount of aggression,
then, was exhibited by teams in contention but falling just short of the mark for
a championship title.
In a second example, we see how the frustration–aggression model might
explain an outburst of violent crowd behavior.
More than 100 people rush the field and five adults are charged with assault for
attacking a high school football official as the crew leaves the field following a
state playoff game. The crowd became angry when the officials called back an
apparent game-winning touchdown due to a holding penalty with four seconds
remaining. (Ohio, November 2000)
The points to note are the importance of the game, the disallowing of the
game-winning touchdown (severe thwarting), and the team’s proximity to their
goal of a playoff win. The hopes and dreams of fans so suddenly dashed!
Methods, Measures, and Views of Sports Aggression 221
Acquisition
Although people can learn aggressive behaviors through direct instruction
or trial-and-error, the vast majority of such learning takes place through the
observation of others, that is, by vicariously observing models. Models may be
drawn from any walk of life, for example, relatives, historical figures, media,
and sports stars. Those models most closely attended to are further assumed to
exert the greatest amount of influence. Indeed, their influence on admirers may
be considerable with a roughly equal likelihood of the influence being positive
or negative in its effects.
Let me describe one in a series of the well-known Bobo doll experiments
that illustrates the influence of a model on young children (Bandura, Ross, &
Ross, 1961). The youngsters were at play designing pictures with colorful stick-
ers as either an adult male or female teacher was escorted to the opposite end
of the room. The furnishings in this area included a table and chair, mallet,
Tinker Toys, and a five-foot inflated Bobo doll. In one experimental condition,
the model calmly assembled the Tinker Toys; in the other she was seen to attack
the Bobo doll for a 10-min period. In the attack condition she both physically
assaulted (e.g., kicking, hitting) and verbally assailed the doll with utterances
such as “pow,” “kick him,” and “sock him in the nose.” Next, the child was
taken to a new location where he was mildly frustrated, that is, his favorite toy
had ostensibly been reserved for another child. The child was then told that he
could play with any of the other toys. Those available for play included those that
can be described as having “aggression potential,” that is, mallet and pegboard,
dart guns, tether ball with a painted face, and a Bobo doll. Nonaggressive toys
included crayons, tea set, toy bears, plastic farm animals, and cars/trucks.
The principal measures of aggression were the extent of the children’s imitation
of the adult’s physical and verbal aggression. The powerful influence of a relevant
model on the behavior of children is evident in the results. For example, girls
watching the aggressive model averaged 18.0 aggressive acts with the mallet.
Over the same time period, girls watching the peaceable model averaged 0.5. Nor
Methods, Measures, and Views of Sports Aggression 223
should we assume these newly acquired responses are short lived or fade rapidly
over time. Hicks (1968) reported that children still retained approximately 40%
of modeled aggressive responses 8 months after their participation in this type
of experiment.
At this juncture, an important distinction should be made between the
vicarious learning of an aggressive behavior and the actual performance of the
aggressive behavior itself. Aggression displayed by the model under the watch-
ful eye of the observer may not be performed by the learner. This does not mean
that the lesson was not learned. Rather, the lesson may have been encoded but
the observer judges it to be unwise to display his/her newly acquired skills in
the present circumstances.
Instigating Conditions
For the most part, instigators have been acquired through previous learning.
Included on a long list of instigators are the presence of one’s enemies/rivals,
threatening utterances or gestures, threats to one’s reputation, physical assault, and
emotional arousal. An aggressive response will occur if past experience has taught
the individual that his aggression will in all likelihood meet with success.
Consider the results of Eisenberg’s experiment (as cited in Geen, 1990).
Children witnessing the violent actions of a television character in the presence
of an approving adult later expressed more verbal aggression than children in
the presence of an adult who was disapproving. That is, the children paired
with the approving adult learn that their aggression is unlikely to meet with
criticism. Parenthetically, children who watched the violent programming alone
later showed the same level of verbal aggression as those accompanied by adults
expressing their disapproval. It is generally recommended that parents watch
violent programs with their youngsters, the hope being that the parents’ disap-
proval will somehow insulate the child from unwanted influences.
A further instigating condition likely to lead to an aggressive response is an
obedience situation. We saw earlier in a series of investigations (e.g., Milgram,
1974) that participants not necessarily given to aggression become so when such
actions are demanded of them by an individual perceived to be in a position of
authority.
Catharsis Theory
Introduction
A letter to the editor of The European newspaper captures the major points
and corollaries of the cathartic view (Huarte-Mendicoa, 1993). In the letter
headed “Hooligans Who Need an Outlet,” Eneko Huarte-Mendicoa of Barcelona
writes:
Violence is something we have always had to live with, whether organized by
individuals or groups. Young people invariably want to feel part of the team or the
gang and they feel frustrated with their lot. They often have problems at home, at
school or at work and they need some outlet for their energy.
Sport provides a release for much of this frustration, either as a participant or
as an observer. Football violence is nothing special. It is simply part of human
nature. We are reading a lot about football hooligans and the problem is being
blown out of all proportion. Most of these “hooligans” are simply blowing off a
necessary bit of steam.
Origins
The idea of catharsis had its origins in early philosophical thought likely begin-
ning with Aristotle. He proposed that those observing the expression of emo-
tions, for example, pity or fear, displayed in the Greek tragic theater are purged
of these same emotions. Although there was no specific mention of aggression,
it is generally assumed that he would have agreed with its being included.
In more recent times, catharsis resurfaced as a major concept in the Freudian
view. A death instinct was proposed in which destructive impulses were con-
tinuously building up in individuals. As a consequence, the outlook for mankind
was bleak with the prospect of a future marked by a continuing pattern of
wars and terror. However, the Freudian position allows a glimmer of hope to
the extent that we are somehow able to redirect our aggression into relatively
safe channels. Competition in its many forms, including sports, provides the
means to safely drain our aggression and thereby avoid a buildup of destructive
impulses with the potential for exploding in an aggressive rage.
The notion of a cathartic mechanism formed an important part of the original
formulation of the frustration–aggression hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1939). A
corollary appended to the frustration–aggression model stated: “The expression
of any act of aggression is a catharsis that reduces the instigation to all others
acts of aggression” (p. 53). However, the prediction of a reduction in the likeli-
hood of aggression applies to the near term. Over an extended period of time
the effects may instead contribute to an increased likelihood of aggression by
means of learning. As Dollard et al. observed, “presumably this reduction is
more or less temporary, and the instigation to aggression will build up again if
226 Aggression in the Sports World
the original frustration persists. Also, the repetition of a mode of release may
produce learning of it” (p. 50).
A resurgence of public interest in catharsis came with the publication of
Konrad Lorenz’s (1966) On Aggression. The book was written in an engaging
style, a bestseller that presented the views of ethology. Simply stated, ethology
represents a European tradition of scientific inquiry in which the focus is on the
systematic observation of lower organisms functioning unrestricted in their natural
habitats. One of the more intriguing claims arising from the ethological model is
that vestiges of behaviors observed among lower organisms occur at the level of
humans. For example, people give every indication of being territorial creatures
as they build fences around their yard or define the local playing field or arena as
their turf, areas they are often seen to defend against intruders. In a similar fashion,
our aggression in social situations can often be interpreted as a means of establish-
ing dominance over others. These and other sequences of aggressive behaviors are
referred to as fixed action patterns. They are characterized as being stereotypical,
innately determined, and triggered in response to specific environmental stimuli, for
example, a threatening stare from another male. The concept of catharsis enters the
picture inasmuch as aggressive energy is thought to be constantly generated within
the individual species member. This energy seeks periodic release lest mounting
pressures reach dangerous levels and an attack is suddenly unleashed. From the
ethological perspective, it would seem prudent to occasionally drain aggressive
energy into safe channels by performing acts of aggression. Competition in the
form of debates, an international race for the conquest of space, and of course,
sports provide a variety of relatively safe, competitive outlets. Lorenz observed:
While some early forms of sport, like the jousting of medieval knights, may have
had an appreciable influence on sexual selection, the main function of sport today
lies in the cathartic discharge of aggressive urge; besides that, of course, it is of
the greatest importance in keeping people healthy. (p. 242)
While ethology’s two leading figures, Lorenz and Tinbergen, have gained
widespread recognition for their views, fewer people recognize that they have
distanced themselves from their earlier support for catharsis. Evans (1974)
writing in Psychology Today quotes Lorenz as saying “Nowadays, I have strong
doubts whether watching aggressive behavior even in the guise of sport has
any cathartic effect at all” (p. 93). Nicholaas Tinbergen (1968) in commenting
on crowd disturbances at football matches believes an “inflammatory effect”
(enhancement) frequently dominates a “waning effect” (cathartic) among fans
following the conclusion of the contest.
The currency of cathartic beliefs is perhaps better understood against the
background of those eminent and influential scholars who at one time or another
have advanced the case for catharsis. The names highlighted above rank among
the most authoritative analysts of behavior and include two Nobel laureates, that
is, Lorenz and Tinbergen. However, a dissenting voice was occasionally raised.
Charles Darwin left it to the next-to-last page of his monumental work The
Expression of the Emotions in Men and Animals to comment: “he who gives
way to violent gestures will increase his rage” (Darwin, 1872/1965, p. 365).
Methods, Measures, and Views of Sports Aggression 227
Are attempts to drain or vent our aggressive urges by physical means generally
successful? Following a hydraulic model, can people relieve pressure on the
psychic dam that is holding back slowly rising levels of anger lest a surplus
of aggressive energy spills over or breaks through? Does physical aggression
have as its function an opening of the flood gates with a resulting lowering
of pressure behind the dam? While the analogy is appealing—even intuitively
convincing for many—support for the notion has not been forthcoming. Rather,
studies generally show that physical aggression results in either no change or,
more often, an increase in aggression.
Archival data provides the means to test the cathartic hypothesis that acts of
physical aggression serve to reduce one’s aggression. For example, on-ice aggres-
sion by hockey players would be predicted to decline from the opening face-off
through to the final whistle. Whatever frustrations and anger a player brings to the
game, relief is only as far away as his first fight. A review of such studies showed
clearly that interpersonal aggression increases steadily over the course of a game
(Russell, 1981a). However, it might be claimed that a 60-min game does not provide
enough time or opportunities for player aggression to be vented. Yet, other data
shows player aggression increases with the number of time any two teams have met
over a full season of play (Russell, 1983a) as have National Hockey League (NHL)
average annual penalty minutes tracked from 1930 to 1988 (Russell, 1991).
time procedure (e.g., Giancola & Zeichner, 1995; Taylor, 1967). The results were
straightforward and opposite to that predicted by the catharsis hypothesis. The
principal analysis involved those who read the procatharsis message and were
given the opportunity to aggress against the individual who had earlier angered
them. Those hitting the punching bag delivered significantly more aversive noise
to the source of their anger, the confederate.
In their concluding comments, the researchers “suggest that media messages
advocating catharsis may be worse than useless. They encourage people to
vent their anger through aggressive action, and perhaps they even foster the
displacement of aggression toward new, innocent third parties” (Bushman et al.,
1999, p. 375).
Bushman et al. (1999) have suggested three reasons why cathartic means of
reducing anger are highly regarded as effective by a sizable portion of the public.
Firstly, pop psychologists and others enamored of catharsis theory continually
advise angry people and parents with aggressive children to find an activity
where their aggression can be channeled, discharged, or safely vented. Though
seemingly knowledgeable, they are giving bad advice. While enrolling a child
in a boxing, hockey, or football program may make them stronger and fitter
(barring injuries), their difficulties in managing anger and aggression are apt
to remain, even worsen. Second, procatharsis media statements or recommen-
dations may be construed as implicitly providing “permission” for people to
relinquish their self-control over their actions. Finally, they suggest that cathar-
sis is generally known to have a long history of discussion among intellectual
illuminaries in various fields. For many, it would seem to follow that the theory
must have merit.
A second study in this short series of examples was conducted by Bushman
(2002). His design involved 600 male and female college students who were ini-
tially angered by a student confederate before being randomly assigned to one of
three experimental conditions, that is, rumination, distraction, or a control group.
Participants in the rumination and distraction conditions hit a punching bag as
often, as hard, or for as long as they wanted. Control participants sat quietly
during the same time. Those in the rumination group were also told to think about
the student confederate who had angered them earlier. The distraction group was
instructed to think about becoming physically fit as they punched the bag.
Bushman again used the Taylor (1967) competitive reaction time task with the
noise level and duration set by participants for the confederate serving as the mea-
sures of aggression. Those who thought about the provocateur as they punched
the bag were most aggressive followed by those distracted by thoughts of getting
personally fit. Participants who sat idly by were least aggressive. As Bushman
concluded: “Doing nothing at all was more effective than venting anger” (p. 724).
Verbal Aggression
Verbal aggression by spectators is commonplace and tolerated at some major
sports events. People watching baseball, basketball, or football jeer, boo, and
hurl insults at game officials and opposing players with impunity. The same
Methods, Measures, and Views of Sports Aggression 229
SUMMARY
The opening sections dealt with a set of experimental artifacts that lay in wait
for the unwary researcher. Thereafter, a wide range of means to measure aggres-
sion was described along with both traditional laboratory means and several
newer, innovative methods. A following section outlined the basic features of a
sample of aggression theories, both historical and current. The concluding sec-
tion offered a short review of the concept of catharsis and its current status with
respect to the scientific literature attesting to its merits.
Suggested Readings
Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Is it time to pull the plug on the hostile versus
instrumental aggression dichotomy? Psychological Review, 108, 273–279.
This article provides a thoughtful and convincing reexamination of a long-standing
distinction between two types of aggression.
Retrosheet, Inc. <www.retrosheet.org>
This volunteer organization of baseball enthusiasts has as its goal the creation of a
detailed, play-by-play database for every game ever played in major league baseball. They
have already made impressive strides toward their goal, that is, data from every game
played from 1957 to 2005 (except 1999) is presently available along with a number of
nonconsecutive seasons. Ultimately, the Retrosheet organization plans to make the infor-
mation available to all interested researchers. If you wish to volunteer your time, energy,
or provide copies of game accounts/records, contact information is on the web site.
Savage, J. (2004). Does viewing violent media really cause criminal violence? A meth-
odological review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 99–128.
This large-scale methodological review of empirical research on the effects of televi-
sion on criminal aggression might instead have been a Suggested Reading for Chapter 4.
However, because it largely involves detailed discussion of methodological issues it provides
a valuable extension to the foregoing section on Methods.
Stanovich, K. E. (2006). How to think straight about psychology (8th ed.). New York:
Allyn & Bacon.
In my opinion this book should be required reading for all students entering the
social sciences. This reader-friendly paperback will also clarify for the lay person what
science is, and is not, all about. Above all, it is entertaining and dispels the mystery
surrounding scientific investigations. It further provides the reader with the intellec-
tual tools to debunk the misleading claims of pop psychologists and pseudo-science
practitioners.
SUPPLEMENTAL READING
A significant correlation does not allow us to infer that changes in the values
on one variable are in some way causing changes in the values on the second
variable. It may seem likely, even very likely, that they are but first evidence
or reasoning sufficient to discount the merits of rival explanations must be
presented. This is a daunting task for our student.
Consider the finding by Semyonov and Farbstein (1989) of a significant
correlation of +.28 between the levels of team violence and levels of spectators’
violence across 297 Israeli soccer teams. That is “teams characterized by violent
players are more likely to have violent spectators” (p. 50). Incidentally, the cor-
relation calculated over a 14-year period of league play rose to +.50! What is the
direction of causality? Are violent players increasing spectator aggression or are
violent spectators somehow fueling the aggression of players? Using a sophis-
ticated statistical analysis, the researchers determined the causal influence was
unidirectional, that is “it is violence in the field that sparks violence in the stands”
(p. 56). See a challenge to this general conclusion in the form of evidence to the
contrary showing that members of an audience can also directly or indirectly
increase the aggression of those they observe (see Chapter 1, pp. 18–19).
References
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References 259
Note: Some author names may not appear on a particular page as they are included
in an et al. citation.
261
262 Author Index
Geen, R. G., 3, 78, 79, 109, 112, 115, 208, 223 Hayduk, L. A., 75
Geis, F., 47 Haynes, G., 56, 213
Gelles, R. J., 62 Helbing, D., 185, 193, 194
Gentile, D. A., 118 Helfrich, H. M., 47
Giancola, P. R., 228 Helmreich, R. L., 45, 94
Gillis, R., 46 Henson, A., 34
Gillmore, G. M., 40 Herman, D., 20
Gilmour, R., 175 Hersch, H., 89
Gilovich, T., 80, 81 Heslin, R., 74
Girard, D., 127 Hicks, D. J., 223
Giulianotti, R., 157, 161 Higgins, E. T., 10
Gladue, B., 45 Hill, A. H., 176
Glass, D., 45, 46, 77 Hill, R. A., 79, 80
Goeckner, D. J., 87 Hoaken, P. N. S., 88, 163
Goldenson, R. M., 172 Hogg, J., 104
Goldstein, A. P., 165, 166 Holland, L. C., 55, 56, 225
Goldstein, J. H., vii, 6, 20, 51, 62, 123, Horn, V. E., 130
132, 143, 151, 164 Horton, R., 138
Goode, E., 134 House, P., 27, 58, 157
Goodenough, D. R., 65 Houston, B. K., 45
Granath, F., 93 Howe, N., 122
Granger, D. A., 67 Huarte-Mendicoa, E., 224
Green, T. E., 76 Huddle, M. J., 130, 167
Green, T. M., 70 Huesmann, L. R., 110
Greenberg, J., 53, 209, 210 Hunter, J. L., 52, 156
Greene, B., 210 Hurd, P. L., 71
Greene, D., 58, 157 Husman, B. F., 212
Greenwell, J., 163 Hutchinson, P., 139, 167
Greer, D. L., 55
Greitemeyer, T., 24, 210 Innes, J. M., 84, 147
Griffiths, C. T., 98 Ito, T. A., 88
Grimes, P. W., 61 Izutsu, T., 24
Gross, D. E., 177, 178
Grove, J. B., 216 Jacklin, C. N., 61
Guger, C., 17 Jackson, S. J., 13
Gustafson, R., 87, 163 Jacob, B. E., 55, 56, 225
Guten, S., 178 Jacobson, S., 31
Guttmann, A., 129, 130, 160 Janis, I., 172
Jenkins, C. D., 45
Hain, P., 28 Jerome, J. K., 42, 43
Haley, A. J., 150, 151 Jeukendrup, A. E., 202
Hall, E. T., 75 Johnes, M., 185
Halteman, W. A., 25 Johnson, D. W., 94
Hammock, G., 24 Johnson, N. R., 171, 172, 187,
Hardy, C. J., 78 188, 192
Hare, R. D., 48, 49 Johnson, R., 94
Harlow, A. F., 198, 199 Jones, J. C. H., 107, 108
Harmon-Jones, E., 53 Jones, M. V., 21, 101
Harper, D. C., 78 Jordan, C. H., 9
Harré, R., 32, 145 Josephs, R. A., 67
Harris, J. M., 80 Josephson, W. L., 109, 110
Harris, M. B., 220 Josuttes, D., 210
Harrison, P., 141, 155
Hartmann, D. P., 208 Kaare, R., 83
Hastings, D. E., 99 Kahn, A., 153
Author Index 265
Smith, M. D., vii, 12, 137, 139 Trivizas, E., 62, 63, 149, 150, 216
Smith, R. E., 37 Trulson, M. E., 57, 58
Smith, R. J., 48, 49 Turner, R. H., 147, 161, 185
Smith, S. L., 117 Twemlow, S. W., 58
Smith, T., 51
Snyder, C. R., 45 Ungeheuer, H., 84
Snyder, M., 104 Urbina, S., 41, 207
Solomon, D. H., 104 Uzzell, D. L., 101, 187, 190, 191
Solomon, S., 53, 209, 210
Southwick, L., 88 Valentine, J., 45, 59, 152
Spence, J. T., 45, 94 Vamplew, W., 156
Stack, A. D., 277 van Baak, M. A., 202
Stacy, C., 25 van der Kraan, M., 27
Stallings, W. M., 40 Van Limbergen, K., 83, 137, 140, 149
Stanley, J. C., 206 Vanstone, R., 23
Steele, C. M., 88 Vardaris, R. M., 90, 163
Steffen, V. J., 61 Vasquez, E. A., 60
Steinberg, J. L., 90, 91 Veneman, J. M., 135, 187
Steinmetz, S. K., 62 Vescio, J. A., 10
Stewart, K. G., 107, 108 Vicsek, T., 185, 193–194
Stewart, S. H., 88, 163 Voigt, H., 156
Stoltz, H. Z., 156
Stone, K., 28 Waddill, P. J., 43
Stott, C., 137, 139, 157, 161, 168, 169 Walder, L. O., 110
Straus, M. A., 61–62 Walgrave, L., 83, 137, 140, 149
Strauss, A., 183, 194 Walker, R., 51
Strube, M. J., 46 Walshe-Brennan, K., 151
Suay, F., 65 Walster, E., 125
Sullivan, D. B., 106 Wann, D. L., viii, 18, 43, 51, 52, 55, 56,
Sumner, K. E., 25 57, 88, 104, 122, 156, 158, 161,
Swapp, D., 17 163, 213, 225
Ward, R. E., Jr 134, 137, 139, 164
Talley, A., 45, 59, 152 Webb, E. J., 216
Tamborini, R., 116, 117, 118 Wechsberg, J., 83
Tannenbaum, P. H., 105, 122 Weidner, G., 46
Tavris, C., 229 Weiss, M. R., 12
Taylor, I., 187 Weisman, A. M., 91
Taylor, J., 135 Wells, D. D., 55, 56, 225
Taylor, R. P., 71 Wells, G. L., 38, 39, 41, 71, 216
Taylor, S. P., viii, 18, 23, 45, 60, 86, 87, 90, 91, Wenner, L. A., 104
96, 163, 208–209, 228 West, D. J., 213
Tcheremissine, O. V., 90 Westerman, D., 116, 117, 118
Tedeschi, J. T., 212 Wetzel, K., 67, 68
Tesler, B. S., 112 Whatmore, P. B., 64
Tharp, G., 66 Wheeler, L., 152, 162
‘t Hart, P., 139, 144, 145, 146 White, G. F., 112, 113
Thibaut, J. W., 94 Wilde, K., 10
Thiblin, I., 93 Williams, J., 31, 86, 150, 167
Thomas, G., 47 Williams, T., 104
Thome, P. R., 23 Williams, T. M., 111
Thornton, E. W., 57, 58 Wilson, B. J., 117
Timmerman, T. A., 7, 8, 29, 30, 216 Wilson, D. W., 79
Tinbergen, N., 226 Wilson, L., 28
Tinsley, M., 69 Winslow, C., 28
Toch, H., 159, 223–224 Witkin, H. A., 65
Author Index 269
271
272 Subject Index
personality: riots:
definitions, 36–37 crowd composition, 147–148
idiographic versus nomothetic, 36 definitions of, 134–135
traits, 36–37 incidence of, 135–137
personality measurement, 38–41, 43, and moral panic, 134
45–46, 48–50 risk assessment, 168
reliability, 39–40 severity of, 138–139
validity, 38–39 rumination, 59
personality theories:
an aggressive personality, 50–51 self-reports:
locus of control, 46–47 validity of, 213
Machiavellian personality, 47–48 situational influences:
macho personality, 42–44 geography, 99–100
psychopathic personality, 48–50 surveillance, 186–187
Type A and Type B, 85 territoriality, 100–101
police:
deployment, 168–169 targets of aggression:
and impulsivity, 162 minorities as, 26–30
style of public interactions, 168–169 sport officials as, 20–23
priming, 98–99, 120–121, 144, 163 women as, 23–26
professional wrestling, 116–120 theories of aggression:
and aggression, 124 aggressive cue theory, 223–222
children as consumers, 118–119 frustration–aggression hypothesis,
effects on children, 118–120 219–221
teen date fighting, 119 instinctual views, 218–219
projective measures, 212–213 social learning theory, 8–9,
provocations, 30–34 222–224
eye contact, staring, 33–34 theories of riots:
songs, chants, 31–33 excitement needs, 139–142
verbal, 30–31 FORCE typology, 142–144
punishment: role reversal theory, 140–141
effectiveness of, 169 social systems analysis, 144–146
third party influence:
racism, 26–30 direct, 18
definition, 26 indirect, 18–19
evidence of, 7–8
prejudice, 26 verbal aggression, 30–31,
stereotypes, 26 228–229
response bias, 214–215 volunteer effects, 206–207, 215
rioters, 147–154 control of, 206–207
characteristics of, 149–151
hooligans, 149–150 weapons effect, 97–99
personality of, 151–154 demand characteristics, 98
superhooligans, 150–151 experimental evidence, 97–98
troublemakers, 148 evaluation apprehension, 98