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----------~-------···-- ·--· -- -·- ..

r"""'"''4 r""""·
i><·-.. ~"\ Distr.
'--.~} RESTRICI'ED
rPer,IR.3
11 Decenber 1986
UNITED NATIONS
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION ENGLISH

TECHNOLOGY PROFILE ON
MINI STEEL PLANTS *

Prepared for
INTIB - THE INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL INFORMATION BANK

by

G. Anestis
UNIDO Consultant

* Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply the
endorsement of the secretariat of UNIDO. This document has been reproduced
without formal editing.

V.86-63126
 - i -

PART I: ITS POSITION IN THE STEEL INDUSTRY

page
INTRODUCTION 1-

1. IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION METHODS 4

1.1 TYPES OF PLA~TS 4

1.2 CAPACITY RANGES 7

')
<. • CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRODUCTION METHODS 12
•
2.1 RAW MATERIALS 12

2.2 ENERGY 16

3. ECONOMICS OF STEEL PLANTS 19

3 .1 CAPITAL COST 19

3.2 PRODUCTION COST 25

4. ROLLED STEEL PRODUCTS 10

5. INFRASTRUCTURE 32

6. MANPOWER REQUIREMENT 32

7. TRAINING 35

8. COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ABOUT THE THREE

IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION PLANTS 36

9. INTEGRATION OF MINI-STEEL PLANTS WITH

OTHER INDUSTRIAL SECTORS 43

10. PROGRAMME FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF

A MINI-STEEL PLANT 49
 - ii -

PART II: TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH 0F THE MINI-STEEL PLANT ALTERNATIVE ROUTES

page
1. ALTERNATIVE ROUTES FvR IRON AND STEELMAKlNG 52

2. SELESTION OF STEELMAKING PROCESS 52

~. MAIN PROCESS-STAGES AND FACILITIES SUPERPOSED LN THE

EAF-STEELMAKING 56

J. 1 DIRECT REDUCTION-PROCESS SELECTION SE:

J.2 SHORT DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR

DR-PROCESSES 61

69
3.3 ORI-QUALITY / CHARGING METHODS

SCR~P GRADING ACCORD:NG TO USAGE 73

J.4

J.5 SCRAP PREHEATING 75

76
4. ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE STEELMAKING
77
4. 1 ELECTRIC FURNACE

E.\F - AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT 79

4.2

SECONDARY STEELMAKING-LADLE METALLURGY 85

4.3

CONTPWOLTS FEEDING OF THE :"lfRANCE AND LADLE 90

4.4

SYNCHRONIZATION OF EAF STEELMAKINC AND CAST!:.'!. YO

4. 5

FUME COLLECTION AND SOUNlJ PROOFING IN STEEL-PLAilTS Yl

4.6

'J. PROCESS STAGES AND FACILITIES AFTER THE f"J\F-', l~ELMAKT~C

YJ

5. 1 ADVANTAGES OF CONTINUOUS CASTING Y3

THE IMPACT OF CONTINUOUS CASTING ON SCRAP DEMAND 96

5. 2

TllE IMPACT OF CONTINUOUS CASTING ON WURK' s PLAN'.JlNc;

TECllNI CAL CONS IDER.AT IONS Y8

) • 4. 1 PROCESS PR1NC1PLE-MJ\CllINr: TYPE YB

yy
) • 4. 2 TECllN!Ci\L CllAR1\CTLRISTICS
 - iii -

page
5.5 FINANCIAL ASPECTS 104

5. 5 .1 CAPITAL INVESTMENT 104

5.5.2 OPERATING COST 104

5.6 QUALITY CONTROL 104

6. BUILD-UP AND SIZE OF THE "MINI-PALNT" CONCEPT 107

6.2 BUILD-UP ROUTE 107

" 6.2 RANGES OF SIZES AND PRODUCTS 111

6.3 PRINCIPLE DEMANDS ON ROLLING MILLS 112

6.4 THE ROLLING-MILL CONTINUOUS CASTING INTERFACE 115

6,5 HEATING OF THE STEEL FOR ROLLlNG 115

6.6 ROLLING MILLS FOR MINI-STEEL PLANTS 116

7. COMPUTERIZED PRODUCTION PRvCESS 121

7. 1 EAF COMPUTERIZATION 123

7. 2 AUTOMATION o: CONTINUOUS CASTERS 123

7.3 AUTOMATIOi~ IN ROLLING MILLS 125

8. PLANT LOCATION 125

9. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS BASED ON TWO REFERENCE PLANTS 126

 - iv -

page
AP P E NDI X 130
Appendix - 1: - Resources 132

-- Iron Ore 132

Appendix - 2: - Scrap 142

Direct-reduced iron 144

Appendix - 3: -Environmental Control 146

Appendix - 4: -Economic Considerations and Sensitivity Analysis

of three alternative process routes 152

Appendix - 5: - Examples of mini steel plants 160

Appendix - 6: - Epitome with selected steel producers

and equipment suppliers 180

Appendix - 7: - Problems areas in mini steel plants 197

REFERENCES
 - 1 -

PART I: Its position in the steel industry

Introduction

Steelmaking is today a very broad area of competition. Crude steel

production of the world in 1985 amounted to 717.407 million tons and
steel consumption per capita to 150 Kg in the same year.

The world recovery in steel production was particularly marked in

. developing countries. These were since 1974 the only area where growth
in steel intensity has continued to take place. Developing countries
produced 130 million metric tons in 1985 and further increase of their
production is expected (by 30% over the 1985 level) after for many of
them the iron and steel industry is extremely vital in the industriali-
zation process, not only as a supplier of steel products, but also as
a mean to reach a self-sustained and comprehensive economic and social
development due to its strong linkages with other parts of industry.

Also in international steel trade the producers from developing

countries h:ve increased their share of exports co~siderably at the
expenses of the traditional exporting countries. The share of
developing countries in world export of steel products increased
from 2.4 to 11.7 % between 1975 and 1984.

Iron and steel can be p~oduced in several different ways according

~o t~e size of production scale, kind of ·aw materials tJ be used
and Lhe type of products to be made. It is important to select a
production system which serves the intended purpose.

Most of the worid's steel is produced in large-scale "integrated"

iron and steel works, which include production units tor pre-
treatmtnt of raw materials, iron-making, steelmakin,;;, steel c;istin,.
and rolling. As a consequence of the cost and complexity of an
integrated steelworks, iL is vital to ensure that it operates at a
product-ion rate close to it 0
df'sign capacity for most of iu. workin1;
life to obtain a satisfactory return on the investme~L.
 - 2 -

The sharp Jncrease in energy costs in past resulted in a slow

down of world steel production.As a result traditional markets
shares in steel have b~en shifting and the industrial policy has
been toward to decentrelization. Non-integrated producers and
specially steelmakers occupy market niches for which the benefits
of large-scale operations are less important. This had led to
an impressive growth of mini-mills worldwide, as illustrated in the
Table below:

TABLE

MINI MILL CAPACITY

(million metric tons)

1970 ( lo ) 1985 ( %)

Mini: 35 7 106 19

1)
Western
world tot a 1: 525 100 560 100

1) means rnar k et-economy countries

.

Ir. developil.g countries the role of mini-mill production is also

impressive. Developing countries contribute 28.3 % of the western
world capacity of "mini-steel".
As regards the least developed countries, one can also note the
development of the mini-mill cap~city.
 - 3 -

However, developing countries and especially newcomers to the

iron and steel sector face problems encountered in mini-mills
related mainly to raw materials, energy, technology and financial
aspects.

Hence part oi the INTIB work programme of 1986 was the preparation
and pr~scntation of this technology profile with the purpose to
make available to developing countries the necessary technological,
Economic and other information about the "mini-steel" route. This
will facilitate planning the development of the iron and steel
industry integrated with other sectors of the economy and the
selection of suitable technological options that will permit this
type of deveiopment.

Acknowledgements

This volume acknowledges data based on published reports

by the Sect0ral Studies Branch, Division for Industrial Studies,

UNIDO. The author wishes also to thank Dr. J. Tanaka for the

helpful discussions.
 - 4 -

1. Iron and steel production methods

[ron and steel production methods currently practiced are

rou~ly divided into three categories; the production process
with blast furnace and basic oxygen converter (BF - BOF), the
direct reductior. system with direct reducdon facility and electric
furnace (ORI - EAF) antl the electric furnace st~elmaking by using
scrap as raw material. Each sytem is in generally equipped with
rolling facilities.

1.1 Types of piants

From the above roughly discussed categories three types of steel

plants can be obtained: Integrated steelworks, integrated mini-
mills and mini-mills.

a) Intefrated steelworks is defined as the process which

comprises the following stages:
Blast furnace ...... LO converter (BOF) route~ rolling mills.

b) Integrated mini-mill is defined as the process which has

the following stages:
ORI_,, EAF route ~ rolling mills.

c) Mini-mill is defined as the process which involves the

following stages:
Scrap _.,EAF route ........,. rolling mills.

This classification enables a distincEion to be made among

different routes of producing steel products, rather than by
capacity size usually adapted to differentiate mini-mills from
traditional large integrated steelworks. The mini-mill concept
is based essentially on a small-scale entreprise ph:losophy, but
the conce~t can be and has been applied in very dillerent circumstances.
Main taci 1 ities of the processes mentioned above are summarized in
Table 1 and schematically depicted in Figure l.
 - 5 -

Table 1

Main steel production facil~ty by process

Facility Integrated Integrated mini-mill

steelworks mini--mi 11

(BF - BOF) (DRI - EAF)

1)
Power plant x x
Coke oven x
Sintedng plant x
2)
Pelletizer x x
BF x
ORI plant x
BOF x
EAF x x
CCM x x x
Rolling mill x x x

(Source: Reference Nr. 34)

l) It is desi~ed to own a power plant inside the sttel works as one

ot energy saving measures

2)
BF-BOF process does not necessarily own a pelletizer

Abbrevi;itions:
BF Blast Furnace
HOF Basic Osygen Furnace
Ei\F Electric Arc Furnace
CCM Continuous C;isting Machine
!JR! Directly Reduced Iron
 - h -

.... ... ...

plalt . . ...~ ..

1bt d
~ .
tlli'alwl4dlll
1 I II j kI
FlguN 1. Main poems 5'9PS lor lhe din.rent steel products; H - Cok! rolled com
A - Blooms J - Stri?S; pidded, cold rolled, galvanized
B - Billels K - Sheets; hol rolled, pidded, cold rolled, galvanized
c - Slabs L - Galvlnzed com, tinned criils
D - Heavy platel M - Pipes; _ , . . , bUtt1'911Jed
E - Spinll W9lded IUbee N - Sections
F - Hot roled coll P - Wn, rod n
bar
G - Plckled coil R - BileCs

(Source: Reference Nr. 18)

·----- --~--

lflN I
lflLL.S
(Ill ~JHf)
llHE 'IVIT£0

<Jilli• 1)1]JHID
"'"'' MILLS

IN1£GICA1' 0

STHl.JIOAHS qlllJJfilUJ UII 11111 I~

fOOO ft,OOO

'APACIT'/ JIAN(,f

(Source: Based on references 4,5,l0,18,24,25,26,27,28,14,40,41,45)

 - 7 -

1.2 Capacity ranges

The BF-BOF system requires raw material handling facilities,

coke plant, main and auxiliary fa~ilities of blast furnace.
This system with suc.h heavy struct11res is fit fer large scale
production.
Although it is possible to have more than 2 BFs in an integra-
ted steelworks, the maximum scale of such a steelworks is con-
sidered 15 million tons a year because there are limits to the
capacity of unloading and storing faclities of raw materials.
The scale of the integrated mini-mill·; varies according to the
type of production method it uses. Producticn of 20,000 to
60,000 tpy is possible if solid redur.tant is used. In general,
the production scale of 300,000 tpy is considered minimum from
the point of economical use of gaseous reductant. Scale-up of
the production capacity is easily made in both cases by ad--
ding modules. However, the scale of 2 millions tpy is general-
ly considered maximum because if it becomes too large, inte-
grated mini-mill (DRI-EAF) will be less economical than inte-
grated steelworks (BF-BOF). Figure 2 illustrate~ the usual
capacity ranges of the three types of plants above described.

Tables 2J & 2b show examples of functions relating costs for

the limiting case (capacity=2 million tons).

Table 2a Capital cost in relation to plant size for the limiting

=apacity case of 2 million tons per year.

Plant size Index of caoital cost

thousands of tons) Integrated Integrated mini-mill
steelworks (BF-BOF) (DRI - EAF)

1000 129 109

2000 115 108
3000 100 107

Source: Commodities Research Unit Survey

 - 8 -

Table 2 b:

Process sequence Capacity in raw steel Total cost of

ttons/year) raw steel
(millions of dollars)

2 000 000
~~;;g;~;;~=;;;;l~~;~;;
Ore 6000 tpd BF, sinter
plant, coke pla~t, two
150-ton BOF, con~inuous

caster, hot mill, merchant

mill

;':)
2 000 000 965
~~;;~;~;;~=~~~~~~~ll;
Direct reduct ion, six
200-ton EF, continuous
caster, hot mill, cold
mill, galvanizing

Source· UNIDO/ICIS. 25

*) based on prices of the year 1975

Production scale of the mini-mills varies widely because its main production
facility, EAF (electric arc furnace) using scrap, ranges from the small 1 to
to more then 200-ton capacity.
However, the adeguate scale of a mini-mill Ls this one that k2eps the balance
with the capacit; of the rolling mill it possesses dnd that makes the best ot
the big advantage of low investmwent.
 - 9 -

By 1980 there wereabout 50 mini-mills in Europe, North America, and

Japan, all bro~dly similar, with EAF-scrap melting, dontinuous casting
and long product mills. Their capacities ranged between 50 000 ~~d

800 000 tpy, mos~ being around Z50 000 tpy (see Table 2c).

Table 2c: Scrap-based mini-plctnts in industrial countries

Countries Number of Capacity range Capacity mean

plants 1 000 s tpy 1 000 s tpy

Europe 23 89 - 600 200

North America 12 200 - 500 300

Japan 11 150 - 800 360

All 46 80 - 800 265

(Source: Steel Times International 1985)

 - 10 -

Table Ja

(in thousands tonaes)

Country Capacity Production

Argentina 930 9'•9
Bnzil 315 255
Burma 20 10
Canada 1625 538
India 180 42
Indonesia 2300 500
Iran 330 -
Iraq 485 -
1498
Mexico 2025
Nev Zealand 150 155
Nigeria 1020 162
Peru 100 26
Qatar 400 381
Saudi Arabia 800 351
South Africa 225 76
Sweden 70 20
Trinidad 840 283
USSR 417 15
United States 1090 -
Venezuela 4452 2ll68
Fed. Rep. of Germany 1280 70

(Source: Steel Times International)

 7able 3b - 11 -

The following table lists direct reduction plant installed worldwide. It includes both gas-hased and
coal-based direct reduction installations, covering the various DR processes that have been developed. In
addition to plants that are now comparatively well established, the table shows che major install<iliom and
DR plant recently started up. Plants that are currently shut down are indicated hy an asterisk.

Start· Capacity Start- Capaci1y

Country, company and location Process up (.\t~;u) Country, company and location Process up ,.\tl yc;u)

Algeria Libya
SNS. El .\\ilia - 1990. Z3 Government, .\tisurata ,',11Jrcx l'lXS l l

Aritentina Malaysia
AcmJar, Villa Cons1i1uci11n .\\1Jrcll 197X 0.-'2 Government+ putncrs. tAbilan MiJrcx l'lilol tHi5
lhlmine Sukrca, Campana .\\iJru 1976 O.H lliwm + panner•. r rcn!Q!anu N•rron S1cd 1°1115 I) Nl

Brazil Mnico
A.;n• Fmos Piratini. Charqucadas SLRN 1971 0.065 Hylsa ..\\onterrcy llYL I 1957 0 II)\
( :'"'~ua•. S.1n1i Cnu Purofor 1976 0.33 Hylsa, Monterrey llYL Ill l'IMO 0 ~5
l'"h~. 1lJh1a llYL I 197~ 0 25 llvlsa, Monlerrc:v llYl. Ill l'IJB ll 'O
llylsa, Pucbl;i HYI.1 1%9 0 !\
Burma Hylsa, Puebla ll'il I 1977 Ohl
Sicutsa, Lazuo c~rdenas HYL. Ill l9MS 20
(Jo\·rrnmrnr, ,\\aymvn Kinglor
Tamsa, Veracruz HYLI 1%7 0 ZM
Met or 19Ml 0 02
G1wernmeni. Mavmvo Kin1tlor
0.02 New Zealand
.\let or 198-'
NZ Steel. Gknbrook SLRN 1970 0 l'
Canada
NZ Steel, Glenbr(l(lk SLRN 1987 o ~o
Nia11ara Metals, Niaizua Ac car 1973 0 035
SiJhc~· Dosco•, Conrrecoeur ,\\iJrex 1973 0 40 Nigeria
S1Jhcc-Dn"o, Cr.nrrcrncur M1Jrcx 1977 0 6Z5 Delta Steel. Warri .\\iJrell 1'1112 I l
Sicko•, Bru•e Lake SI. RN 1975 0.35
SuJhurv .\\era ls.• Sudburv .-\(car 1976 O.H Peru
Sidcrpml, Ch1mbote SLRN 1980 0 12
Eitypt
Alexandria Natiunal Iron & Qatar
Steel C.11. El D1khcil~ M1Jrcx 19M7 0.716 Qatar Steel Co, Umm Said ,\1idrell 1978 o ~o
Germany FR Saudi Arabia
llamhurgcr Siahlwerkc, ll•mburg .\liJrex 1971 0 40 lladeed, Al Jubail Midrell 1983 0 MO
NnrJfcrro•, Emden ,\\1Jrcx 1981 0 88
Th\<SCn NicJcrrhcm•. Obcrhau>en Purofer 1981 0.15 Soutb Africa
Dunswart Iron & Steel, Benoni Codir 1973 0 15
India Scaw Metals, Gcrmiston DRC l98J 0 !17~
Tara Iron & Steel. Jamshedpur
lr11ata, JoJa
Tata
Tai a
1979
1985
0 005
0.09
hcor, Vanderb1jlpark SLRN 1984
0 "°
Sponizc Iron lnJia, Paloncha SI. RN 19MO 0.03 Swedcm
'>ronge Iron India, Paloncha SI.RN 198-' 0 031 lfogan:is, Oxclosund lfogan:is 1954 0 03~
Oms;i Sponge Iron. Om'.la Accar 1982 0 15 Sandvik, Sandviken Wiberg 1951 OOH
Sail. Ranchi SI.RN 1982 0.003 SKF Stll, Hofon Plasmared 1981 o u;u
lndonrsia Trinidad
PT K rakarau Steel. Kora Baja llYLI 1978 23 (Kon•, Point lisas .\\idrcx 1980 o ~o
(Kon, Point Lisas MiJrcx 19112 o ~o
Iran
Si"o•. :\hwaz Purofer 1977 OH UK
Ni""· Ahwaz 11\'L I - LO Bmish Steel Corp•, lfuntcnton ,\\iJrcx 1979 0 ~l)
N"co. Ahwaz M1Jrcx 1985 I0
:--;isco, l<iahan MiJrcx - 32 USA
Armco•, Houston, Texas Armco 1972 OH
Iraq Direct Reduction Corp,
SoiJac, Khor Al Znhair llYLI 1980 0 543 Rcxkwood, Tenn DRC 1978 OM
Sn1dac, Khor Al Zn hair llYL I - 0.925 Gcor1c1own Fcrreduction,
GMrgetown, SC MiJrrx 1971 0 ~()
Italy Gilmore S1eel Corp•. Portland, Ore M1Jru 1%9 0 30
Tuan En,ineering•, Casa Grande Su RN 1975 0 fl()
Oanieli, Bunno l<inglor MiJru, .harlotte, NC .'>11Jrc1 F.OR 1977 0 fJ(ll
,\\crnr l9H 0.01 !nmetco, EllwcM...t City, Pa lnmcico 1'1112 0 l~
Arved1•, Cremona Kin11lnr
.\lctnr 197() 0 04 USSR
OEMK, Kunk ~\iJrr• 19115 l h
Japan 1•1•10
OEMK. Kunk M1Jrc• I'
N •rron Steel•, I lirnhata NSC 1977 0.15
NKK, Fukuvama SL RN 1'17-' OH Vencruela
'ium11nmo .\\etal, \l'akaHma Sumitomo l97S 0 168 1'17() I) 1•
~um1111mo ,\\eral, K.-h1ma 19H Finr de Venezuela, Pucrm Ordat F1nr
Kuhota O. lS
'u1motnmo Metal !nJ l.S.RIOR 1'11'1 O.OOJ Minnrca, Puc:rlo Ordaz .\\1Jrcx -
1'177
"0 ;sI<<
S1Jnr, ,\1A1an1n M1Jru
Sidur. ,\hun111 11\'L 1'177 ii,,,
'i11111h Knrea \1J .. r. ,\\arantl\ .\\1Jrc1 1'•79 I"
l11d1un lr11n & ~red'. (n,h11n \L RN 1?7r1 fl ls \1J•>r •.\\•1 •nta\ llYL ···~() ; .I

(~ource: Steel Times International)

 - 12 -

2. Characteristics of the oroduction methods

Each production method has its own advantages in each facilities,

raw materials and energy it uses. Selection of a method should be
based on the geographical, economic and cultural conditi~n of the
site. The characteristics as raw materials, energy, production
facilities and cost and type of products of each method are
discussed in the following paragraph.

2.1 Raw materials

Iron ore is the basic material to make iron which is refined to
make $teel.BF - BOF is the most common, proven, economical and
~arge scale production system. The system, with BOF using molten
pig iron from BF, is free from facilities to melt cold materials.
In the DRI-EAF route iron ore is reduced directly to iron the so
called ORI (~irectly ~educed !ron),• This type of
feed stock cannot be understood to be scrap (see definition in
the next p~ocess route ) in the conventional sense but it must
be considered to be the equivalent of scrap as regards its
function. Production and production capacities in 1983 were
divided up as shown in Table la, Table 3b lists direct reduction
plants installed worldwide.
The production of ORI ore rose to 7 800 000 tonnes in 1983
from 7 500 000 tonnes in 1982 ( + 3.8 % ).
To secure stable supply of iron ore to mass-produce
steel, an organized arrangement is required for operations starting
from mining to shipping, unloading,storing and to charging into
the furnace.

Formerly, steel industry grew in the area near the iron and coal
deposits. l{ecently, with the advance of cornrnodtty distrib•1tion
system the steel industry is being developed on ~he coast having
part facilities to secure stable supply of iron ore through a
regular route.
 - 13 -

Scrap is the main raw material for mini-mill operation. Domestic

scrap in large part recovered in the steel consuming regions ~ay be
classified into three categories according to the mode of generation,
namely:
Internal scrap
Producer scrap
Capital scrap

Scrap lac~s elasticity in supply and the price fluctuates, see

Fig. 3 a, b.

International sources of scrap are limited to few industrialized

countries. Improvement in fabrication practice and increasing
application of the continuous casti~g process have significantly
reduced the available recycled scrap (see Fig. 3 c).

But on the other hand scrap collected in the market is increasing

with the economic development and the continuous reduction in the
life span of consumer goods. Availability of scrap is one of the
important conditions to determine the location of a mini-mill.
Prices of the products made by the mini-mill are greatly influenced
by the prices of scrap.
 - 14 -

-
'.f!
c
-....
0
...'r'l"' -

c:..
- -.-
,-
··>J
' '~
; ~

20 -

1 0 ,_
i
i
'i
0
82 93
~overnent of scrap S'...1Dpiy :n Japan

Fig. 3a

(Source: Reference Nr.34)

----·---· _____ .... ---· ··- ·-·------ -----·- --,

. : ~ - :d.(

--
.-
- .;

I '' j I
I J It

"S 76 77 ·7s ·79 ·so a1 '82

~cverner.t of scrap( ar.d ~e-oar( pr;ce oer
~on in Tokyo

(Source: Reference Nr. 14)

 Major world ferrous scrap flow: 1979

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ArRICA - (J
,/ ',,
°'\ vrn1:z111:111
' , ; J1·1~ 0· 'l".
NJGl:lllll
\ ·-· i .....,__, )';"
'l:- ~) -~;',,. /~ r.
__,,.,,,
1
'.(·
IJ
f
I mm•
,f\ ,
\ _:,
JHU\Zl I.
_.,,.
.._
> '

.:A'.
\.

\ • .\ J. .". .. """""
" I I ' I I' \ 1 11\

.
} ,'

i\
(\,•
' '"' """I / ,/
so llT II ...

tJ ;;/J' f\tu:l.NllNfl

•
\) ••
. :.f\.

~ource: Union Carhide.

J'igure '.le
 - 10 -

2.2 Energy

The steel industry is a major chonsumer of energy. OECD figures

shew that it typically accounts for around 7.5 % of the total energy
used in an industrialized country, and for '8 to 20 % of the total
energy used by industry.

In Japan the steel industry's share is eve~ greater, with 15 % of

total energy and 35 % of total industrial energy co~sumption. Efforts
to save energy consumption have resulLed in the saving of 20 % in
10 years as shown in Fig. 4.

Energy consumption by different iron and steelmaking processes is

shown in fjg. 5. DRI (integrated mini mills) generally uses natural
g3s, though it can also use coal. Easy availability of natural gas
at low cost is one of the conditions to determine the location of DRl.

By 1984, there were around 30 gas (or oil) based integrated mini mlls
around the world. (See Table 4).

TABL: 4 NATURAL GAS INTEGRATED MINI-MILLS (1Q84)

Country Number Capacity Capacity

cf range mean
plants 1.,000 s tpy l,OllO s tpy

Iran 4 150 - 2,200 1 ,250

Iraq 2 ! ,000 - 1 , SOC!

Qatar 400 400

Indonesia 3 u)O - 1 . ; sci YOO

:·;, OOC· ·_; .Cl'.h·

\'er:<c zue].:,

2. c '.1(' 2. ~'C,11..:1
l' .~: . . .
t. 9C - 1 '(J(1~1
4 :,r:
~El:,,

ALL 18 1 .c )('

(Source: Steel Times lnternational)

 - l7 -

100
T---BF & all steelmaking processes

95

)(
41
"O 90
c.
\
\

85
'
'
EAF-\,
---

BO
0
'7 3 '74 ·75 '76 '77 '78 '79 ·so ·s1 '82 '83
Fig 4 Indices of energy consumption oer ton of crude
steel production in Japan

3.50~

3.0JC
c
0

2,500
•f.
t

C okt> - -
Oxygt>r.--,
c0 kt' . ' ·~
- I
"c:
....
1,,
/'
,~
Elt>clrrc
so:: p::>WP•

.,
1
1 C:xygf',..· -----
Eiectr1c power_.___,:

soi: EH

::-,g 5 En!>r;, cr.n::.urr1pt1cJr DP' tor of erg irQr rPduced 1rcr

an:: :-.,l1f' stE>ei product10r. by process

(Source: Refer('nce Nr. 'l4)

 - 18 -

A~ shown in Fig. 5 and with regard to the absolute energy comsumption

the integrated steelworks (Bf - BOF) route is more favorable than
the integrated mini-mill (DRI-EAF) route.

The second essential input for the mini-mill type (next to 3dequate
and cheap scrap) is cheap electric power availability. When oil or
coal is converted to electric power, the energy loss including the
loss from power transmission amounts to more tahn 60%. Technical
studies to make use of fuels substituting power are an important task
to EAF steel makers at the location where hydro-power is not available.

Table 5 shows raw materials and energy required for each type of
plant.
Table 5 Material and energy for steel production by type of plant

Material R Integrated Integrated Mini-m.;. l l

Energy Stet!lworks mini-mills
(BF - BOF) (DRI - EAF)

Iron ore 0 0

Scrap x x 0
1<)
Coal (Coke) (o) x
Oil x x
Natural Gas 0

E1£ctric power x x x 0 0

Oxygen x 0 x x

Notice:
o means primary material or energy
X means secondary material or energy
*) Some of DR! processes use coal instead of natural gas.

(Source: References 17,24,25,34 and 45)

 _______________
,.... ..,_·--·-·------·--·~-·--·------ ------ --- ------- --------------------~-------- - -- --~------ -~----

- 19 ·-

3. Economics of steel plants

3 .1 Capital cost

The "plant cost" covers all costs a~sociated with the actual
construction of the steel plant and includes the costs uf site
preparation, production and auxiliaty department, utilities,
auxiliary buildings, engineering.andadministration charges during
construction, as well as contigencies, The costs to be incurred on
capital spares, preliminiary and promotional expenses, start-up
expenses, construction fuacilities and interest during implementation
are adried to the plant cost to arrive at the "fixed investment''.

The wide range of possible capital cost variations can be seen in

Tables 6a,b.

Figure 6 illustrates the decrease of cost index with increasing plant

capacity for the three tyFes of steel plants. The capacity ranges
for the economical operation of the respective types of plants
are indicated.

The capi~al cost of BF-BOF perton of steel is compared with that of

DRI-EAf in Fig. 7a,b. The difference reflects the cost of the coke
oven and the fact that an integrated mini mill costs about 80 % of
that of a integrated steelworks.

As a further general observation one could perhaps say that the

investment cost per ton of installed capacity of a mini-mill is
about 4o % of an inte~rated steelwork cost when only scrap is
chaq::ed (see fig. 7 b and 6).

The investment cost will, of course, vary from project to project

an~ it would not. threfore. be easy to indicatE anv specific fig~res

for it.
Table 6 E d 1 f 1 j U.'-L&&Q LVU~

Integrated ateel works Integrated mini-mills Mini-mil ls

( BF - BOF ) ( DR! - EAF ) ( EAF)

Process~
facility tpy 500 000 2 000 000 8 000 000 50 •)00 500 000 1 000 000 50 000 soo oool 1 ooo ooo

CQke plant x x x
sinter plant x
blast furnace x x x
basic oxygen
furnace x x x
N
0
direct reductio;1
plant x x x
electric arc
furnace x x x x x x
continuous
casting machine x x x x x x x x x
ro 11 ing mi 11 x x x x x x x x x
Galvanizing
unit x

Total custs
(million dollars) 305 955 6 000 17 213 606 12 160 346
________ L_________
-------------------------------------- ----------- ---------- --------- ----------- ---------
Source: UNiuO/ICIS. 25.
 - 21 -

TatlE: Cb

Estimates of the Cost of Building New Integrated Steel Plants

in Various Countries
Costs in dollars flCl net raw ton

1976 1978'

Estimatt soura FinishLd Jndu FinishLd /ndtx

and rtgion Slabs stul (U.S. = JOO) Slabs stul (U.S. = /OOJ
Ba.men"
Uniled Swes 399 726 100 468 853 100
Canada 400 756 104 403 762 119
llpAll 332 525 72 482 764 90
European Coal and
Steel
Community< 368 649 89 488 860 IOI
Aylen•
Uniled Stares 100 100
Japan 78 88
Europe 59 73
Industry estimatel"
Uniled States 900 100
Uniled Kingdom 382 0116 98
Canada 438
Australii 503
Indonesia (di reel
redll(:tioo) 900 100
Twtey (dirccr
redll(:tion) 862 96
Taiwan 651 72
llpAll 721 80
a. Aulbor's cS1ima1c, usina dome•lic gross-c1p111I fonnation dcfta1or.. and chanae• in average exchange
..ics, 197<>-78.
b. D. F. Barnett, "Compualive Capical Co51• in World Slcel lndu•lne"" in D. F Barnell. Tht Canadian
Stttl lrtdMJtry ;,. a Compttillvt World Envtronmtm, vol 2: Com and I'trformanct (Ottawa. Re•ource
lndullric• and Consuuc1ion Branch. lndumy, Trade and Commerce, 1977).
c. Includes Bclaium, France, lcaly, Lu1embourg, Nelherland•. and Wes1 Germany
d. Jonadlan Aylcn, "lnnov11ion, Plan! Size, and Performance: A \onipamon of lhc American. Bnli•h,
and German Slcel lnduslrics,'' paper presenlcd 11 lhe Allanli• E<:onom.-.. \•soc•••ion Conference, Wuhin11ton,
D.C, October 12, 1979.
e. From confi.;en1ial indusuy source•.

(~ource: Reference Nr. 50)

 CA~ITAL
cosT weca F&sur• ' :
cv.1
100~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-,
CAl'l'TAL CO.ST F'Olll.:

(!) ar- eor •ouu

(!) DRl·EAF ROUTE

so cu~Vt.S INOICATING ("PAUT1 N

N
RAH5l FOA 6C.ONOMICAL
_ _ _ .., _ _ .## __ - -

- ~- OPERA 110N:

DRl-EAF: a.oowt 80/. ol

@ 8f· aoF c11pit•l costr

@ EAF : aiioCAt 4o Y. •I
8F"· oor 'opitol cosrr

o .S" --
'f.~ z..r J.S

1.0 2.0 J.O 4.0

CAP.\C.IT'f

141UIOJIS tpy

(Source: Based on references 4,5,17,18,29,32,33,34,35,36.37,38,39 and 45)

 - 23 -

80

•
~ 60
c

.,,
0
v 40

20

..
EAF & ret&t•d f&eilitiH

BF-BOF DRl-EAF

Fig. 72Compuison of capital cost of stH•I production

facilitil'S by prOCl'SS

2.20(,

2.JOO

-c:
0
1.800
:>.
-:: 1.600
u
"
Q.
1.400
.-"
.!:!
Ill 1.200
~

-
Ill
0
u
1.000

ii 800
ii
600
"
u
400 w·
''• rod m; 11

200

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.5 2 3 4 5 6
Capacity scall' (million ton)

Fig. 8 Capacity scalf.' and capital cost by rolling mill

(Source: Reference Nr. 34)

 INVESTMENT COSTS PER METRIC TON MINIMILLS VS.
STANDARD INTEGRATED MILLS
$1~·: '. ric Ton
I
, .')00 ' Ll.->--
. ) ;I :I n ! i ---rI I -----.... .........,
.
•
.
I I
I
. '
'
'
I
1 I

·200: I'
I _..,. I '. !' 1' 1100:---.
I'
!
I
: I I
I
I

1X)Q -i , I
i
I i I ~ !

j\\.
I

•o
I 00~;;-~-'--
-~
! i ! I j
I I i : I

900 I I I
I. ~\I i '
800 -1 I I

700
,...00
i )'",\'\' _\ '
b ~ ' f \ \.. ____ -~ !

!
I
N

'°"'
500 I
I
II I: <./.''<·..- \ - '
' -·- I / : .
. : I I I
400-; j
L

I ·
.....-;450
I
,I
I
I1420 I j400
;19~ il8
no
300 ~ i
i I'"
~: j.
I; I
i
I
I I
I
I I I I

I
0 20 j,Q fl)~)

0 100 200 X)Q 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Thouundl of M•trlc Ton/yHr
N07E a) plants constructeod on a t1.1nicl'y basis
b) th" costs tor •ictr.a clvi wak du• to unsuitabl• gound N• not includ•d
c) w• ha•i• assum~ • minimiil complf'tl' with t"i•ctric NC furnac•, contl·
cast•r and rollng mill vs an 1nt•gatf'd"st•f'I mill with colc• ov•ns.
1
'i:tire 7b bl.st furnoict', convt'rtt'f', castnQ, w-rvicn. plus blooming .and rollin~
mill
d) should a m1rwm~I havl' to ma~l' U!• of spon9 ran 1nstNd of scr•p, In
.idditional co!t of $ 2201250 prr ml'lrlc ton for th• ln•t11llatlon of
Dirt'ct Rt'ductton must bf' considt'rf'd - - - - - - - - - - - -

(Source: Reference Nr. 39)

 - 25 -

3.2 Production cost

Production cost of steelmaking varies depending on the conditions

under which the steel works is run. The operation c0st of an
integrated mini-mill is affected by natural gas prices and the
mini-mill by power cost.

Considering steelrnaking costs the BF-BOF route is the most economic.

Both gas- and coal-based DRI-EAF routes are more costly due to a
number of reasons including the high production costs for ORI and
substantial power consumption involved with EAF steelmaking.
Tabl~s 7 a,b present to production costs for diffzrent iron and
steelmaking processes.

Typical iron and steelmaking operating costs are given in

Table 7 c and illustrated in Fig. 7 c.
Table 7 a: Production costs of iron and steel in different routes. Ironmaking process

BF-BOF route Gas based DR EAF Coal based DR-

route EAF r0ute

Unit Unit price Quantity Cost US$ Quantity Cost US$ Quantity Cost
US$ US$
Iron and feedstock

Fine ore t 35.0 0.991

t 48.9 o.498 24.4 1, 440 70.4 1. 440 70.4
Agglomerated ore

Energy

Coking coal t 61.0 0.612 37.3

t 50.0 0.600 30.0 N

Noncoking coal O"
3
Natural gas 3.5 (300m ) 37.8

Other fuels ( BFG,COG) +17.3

kWhr 0.045 41 1. 9 125 5.6 75 3, Lf

Electricity
6.3 C.I';
Auxiliary materials spare
14.6 10.0 17.0
Labour amnd maintenance

Depre,: ia t ion 23.8 9.6 13. 7

8.3 7,4 13.4

Miscellaneous
Total manufacturing cost
of iron US$ l34.0 140.80 148.6
Energy consumption Gcal 3.34 2. 9') 4. 19

(Source: Steel Times International)

Table 7 b: Production costs of iron and st~ei in different routes. Ste~lmeking processes

Bf-BOF route EAF rclite Gas based DR-EAF Coa 1 based DR -

route EAF route

Unit Unit price Quantity Cost Quantity Cost Quantity Cost Quantity Cost
us $ us $ us $ us $ us $

Ferrous feedstock
Pig iron t 133.88 0.823 110.2

Scrap t 94 o.Z67 25. 1 1.067 ioo.n (). 269 25.3 0.269 25.3

DRI t o. ili79 123.8 0.879 130.6

Fuel 2.2 0.5 0. 1+ 0.5

Oxygen Nm
3
46.o 3. 5 25 1. 9 .
1 C•, ]. 9

Electricity kWhr 26.6 1 • :: 525 23.6 5., 5 25.0 575 25.9

Auxiliary materials l+. 6 17.6 16.2 17.8 ""

-..J

spare
Labour and maintenance 11.6 15.3 15.3 15.3

Deprc::iat ion 7. 1 6.8 6.8 6.8

Miscellaneous 9.7 13.:: 13.5 13.5

Total manufacturing
cost of liquid :;teel US$ 170.t\ 179.2 2 29. 1 237.6

Energy consumption Gcal 3.34 1. 21 4.02 5.08

----
(Source: Steel Times International)
 - 28 -
Table :'c

Typical iron and steelmaking operating costs(l): Industrialised country 1982/83

(per metric ton of production)

ProdYctiGft Moda (J) Enim.&IM ops-ating

costs; US$ (2)

Scrap-base4 EAF
Scrap (l.l mt) l. IX
Electricity (600 kWh) 2j

Electrodes LO
Re!Aetaries
Fluxes '
2
l3
Miscell~ (gas. water, etc.)
Ubour n mainteNnCe 16
70 • l. LX

Blast Furnace Hot Mew

Iron ore And sinter 65
Coke (less crediU for coke bf-eeze and coke oven gu)
Fuei oil (25 kg)
Fluxes
"6
J
Aiscell~ (gas. water, etc.) 16
Labour and mainteNnCe 10
1,,

BOF Steelmaking
Hot mew (0.& mt x 1") 12,
Scrap (JOO kg) O.JX
Fluxes
Oxygen '4
Refractories 2
Miscellaneous (water, gu, electricity, etc.)
Labour and maintenancr ''
10
160 • O.JX

Sponge Iron Production

Iron ore(1.,mt x $'0) 70
4,
Cu (2.7' CJ)
Electricity
Miscellaneous '
LO
10
Labour and maintenance
140

S(!!?!!ge Iron/Ser•!! EAF Production

Sponge Iron (6'0 kg) 'H
Scrap (•50 kg) 0.4~X
Electricity 2S
Electrodes LJ
P.efractories
Fluxes '3
MisceilllleOUI (gas. water, oxygen, etc.) l6
Labour and maintenance 16

112 • o.i5x

(I) Approximate costs1 will vary widely depending upon size and location of works.
(2) Composite scrap price given by USS X. ·
(J) The opportunity cost of scrap is used in the ana.lysis, whereat in the real world the
oxygen furnace steelmaker could rely entirely on internal arisings and be 1.. r~ely
insulated against the vagaries of the scrap price.

(Source: IISI, Brussels 1983)

 Comparative steel production costs: Industrialised Country 1982/SJ

220
----

,,./
EAF (60% DIU t

EAF (100% scrap)

4 u% scrap)

c0 ....
e
200

180 ---- BOF (75% HM + 25% :;crap)

-----
;i
U'-....
:J -cl>
"0 VI
2 u; 160
0. 0 N
Qi u
Cl Q\
"'
t: ~

-....
140
"O jQ
::1 GI
tJ' 0.
;:J0120

100

...-----r----,
60 80 100 120 140
Composite scrap price: $/mt

T'ir,ure 7c
(Source: lISI, Brussels 1983)
 - 30 -

4. Rolled steel products

To select t~e type and grade of rolled steel products suit2ble

to ear.h iron and steel production process, consideration should
be given to the fact that each product has its own scale merit, or
the optimum scale of production, as each process has its own.
Selection should be made in such way that the seal merit of the
product matches that of the process and the quality of the product
agrees with the property of raw material used by the process.

The relationship between the production scale of rolling mill cin~

th2 capital cost per ton of product is shown in Fig. 8.

The rolling mills constitute the largest element of capital investment
in a mini-mill. Being the key to the profitability of the mill, they
have to be tailored to the plant's needs must be flexible and have
a high utilization factor.

Together with its electrical and auxiliary equipment, a 150 000 tpy
rolling mill could account for over 50 % of the total investment in
a mini-mill. A typical breakdown of this cost could be:

Melting 12 %
Casting 14 %
Rolling 52 %
Building 12 %
Services 10 %

In the case of expensive rolling mills such as hot strip and cold
strip mills, the smaller the production scale is tre higher (Fig.8) the
capital cost per ton become~. The unit capital co~t of these mills
begins to level off when the production exceeds 2 million tons a year.
ln the case of less expensive rod and wire and mills, the unit capital
cost levels off when the production is over 500,000 lons a year.
 - 31 -

Large scale BF-BoF is desired to be combined with such rolling mills

as hot strip, cold strip and plate mills, and the mini mill rod and
wire rod mills.

Molten pig iron from BF and reduced iron from 9RI, both the steelmaking
materials made from iron ore, contain less impurities. The recent
technological ad\ance to desulfurize and dephosphorate molten pig
iron has made it possible to make steel of high purity in BOF. Chemical
contents of the steel from BF-30F and DRI-EAF pose no restriction on
the type and grade of rolled steel to be produced. In the case of mini
mill steelmaking, impurities such as Cu and Cr contained in scrap mix
into the steel produced. Since it is hard to remove them economically,
the mini mill is less suitable to the production of high quality
rolled steel such as plate for high grade electric welded line pipe
and other steel products to which the trump elements contained
may present a problem.

The existing products mix still limits mini-mills to a share of

around a quarter of the total steel market by aGding sheet to their
product range, mini-mills could add another 45% slice to their market
potential. Several attempts have been made to design a mini-strip mill
such as sendzimir planetary mill,.steckel and reversing compact
(ffSRC) mill, all presentCsmall)flat product plants whir~ -ould
be ecc.1omically dP.sirable for developing countries. But most mini
steel operators feel that sheet will be completely included in their
production capability when continuous casting technology is able
to cas~ slabs 1 \ - 3 in thick. Plantmakers in developed countries
believe that this technology is only three to five years away

Analysis of other financial and econmic factors like capital output

ratio, distribution costs inventory costs, enterpreneur cost
construction time and costs etc. suggest that the overall advantage
lies with the mini-mill.
,.--~-~-----------~--~~~~----------

- 32 -

5. Infrastructure

Infrastructure in connection with developin: countries can

often include difficulties. Especially for large integrated
steelworks, large infrastructures are needed. But even for
mini-mills the weight of this factor should not be underestimated.

Some ideas about the importance of the infrastructure can be

obtained from Table 8a which illustrates typical quantities for
a 1 Mtpy integrated steelworks.

6. Manpower requirement

The efficient operation of a steel plant is determined to a

large extent by the s~ills possessed by the work force. A wide
range of skills and capabilities is involved, as the operations
carried out in a steel plant are many and complex.

The work force in a steel plant can be broadly grouped into

the following categories of personnel according to the characteristic
skill for carrying out their respective tasks:

i) Managerial

ii) Supervisory

iii) Highly skilled such as steel making, continuous

casting, rolling, maintenance of electrical and
mechanical equipment.

iv) Skilled like masons, welders, crane operators,

control panel operators etc.

v) Semi-skilled as typefied by the work of conveyor

attendants, oilers, packers, loaders etc.

vi) Unskilled such as those reuqired for cleaning

handling materials, messengers, janitors etc.

vii) Office staff carrying out works such as secretarial,

typing, filing etc.
 - 33 -

Table 8a
(Source: Ste~l Times International)

T•:pical qvantitits {«a IM l~\'ttlr inltf"llWI s1ttlplan1

Civil and structural Process and plant

~
- -
~

~
-..
~

I :!
-
~

... ·!.u . .
e
' Plant area
'i .... ...
=
J:j

c:
·u
0J:j
c
.. a..
0
·:=
-;

...
!
. ·;
Q,

r:I'
~

...
; c:
.. .::.. .8 .. 0 ~

•a. . ..0
l
-a
i
i
u
c:~
o~
u!
.2c:
·;;
Q
~
0
u

..,,~
.
·:=
"~
~
.Cle .. ..
a.
u
0
.. e ~
:;;~ &
l
c
"'
..
>
oc: ~
e
'~· llC
""100 r.11~ llC f... U~ U U~

: Ro.w m•tcnal h•nJling, stor•gc •nd

I m:lam.iion
l4,000 2500 4500 48.000 2700 - - 127 ·"°° l IR - ,•.,..,I
Coke ovens 30,000 3500 lOO 6500 38.000 6500 21.600 1500 405.000 '. 77 107 3 1200
! Pellet plant 26.000 3000 110 3000 21,700 5700 l900 100 225.000 l 20 51 3 lllJU
I Lime Fulani 4000 500 20 1200 6500 1100 1050 50 IOl.000 I I!> 2 (>(jl)j
I lll•\I UfniCC •nd ga•hnlJcrs 37.000 6000 449 t.700 16.000 10,500 15.700 1200 S00.000 l 54 35 4 I ~IMJ I
'. S•ecl plant 25.000 6400 ~20 13.500 ll.000 rnJO 2900 600 170.000 ! 50 ~o 10 I
I Cununuuus co•llng
RuJ mill •nJ hghl 'i<:Llinn mill
30.000
102.000
5000
10.000
IHO
550
5000
IUOO
30.000 4500
llO.UOO 17.500
350
2200
950
1000
130.0ll()
990.UUO " SU ltl 6
145 ll
t,jMJ
-t
I' OU
I l'll'4'Cf r!:.ml 3600 350 40 900 l'Ml 2500 100 rn.1 100.000 I 09 70 I I

I llxvgrn pl•nt rn.10 500 25 JOO 4000 llllO - 230 ~0.000 ~l l7 I

I

.\k'-h•niul mlcr·pbnl •crv1<n J5.000 7000 lSO 7000 2400 llOO - 7000 100.000 4 .18 411 J -i'
I
I El~.:triul J111nbu1iun 2100 12 - 70 M500 1250 - -406.000 K .. -1
Cuai "nloaJcr anJ (nnta1ncr crann - 4 104 - - mo - 30 10.800 64 4 2 -1
.\ux1hary ::•nldings
Tora!
34.000 3000
348.300 47 .826
40
2288
1500 72.000 500 -
6 l.670 412.000 62.100 46.000
100 - ll6
12.990 3.187.800 41 42 610
l7 -,
Ml ~II. ~110

,.
"MINlMILL HOURLY PRODUCTI VI TV :'able 3b

Manhours/ Mt-Ir ic Tor;

(Source: Reference Nr.39)

15
14
13
12
11
10 ------+------------- - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - i - -
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
----f---'o
----------
fl

1
0
------
1950 1960 1970 1980 1981. 1990
Yt-•r
NOTE ; Tht- actu~I posit100 within lht- product1v1ty !h~ span dt-µf'nds on
lypl' of product and q.iality of slt't'I - - - - - - - - - - - -
 - 34 -

The manpower estimates have to be based on the production processes,_

equipment and facilities envisaged in different departments(see Table 8 b).

The estimates have also to take into account, as far as possible, the

prevailing practices of manning in the steel plants. Whenever direct

manning is involved, the positions have to be as far as possible

identified on the basis of the layout, technology, equipment, location,

job affinity etc.

A centralized maintenance system can be consider£d. The merits of

the centralized system are:

efficient co-ordination and monitoring of the maintenance activities.

better utilization of maintenance power,

standardization of spares and maintenance procedures.

The incorporation of a working concept with multi-skill worker can

reduce the work force. The multi-skill concept will assist in developing
the skill of operational personnel for carrying out minor repairs and
inspection of the equipment, and assisting the maintenance crew in
carrying out capital repairs and break-downs.

7, Training

Trained manpower is one of the essential pre-requisites for the

successful maintenance and operation of the steel plant in question. The
education and training of injustrial manpower takes considerable time.
As rer.ruitment and training of work force is time consuming, it is
imperative to initiate comprehensive manpower planning well in advance
so that the required number of qualified and trained personnel are
available during commissioning and operation of the steel plant. The
objective of such a plan should not be limited t0 merely listing out
 - 35 -

the requisite number of men and their qualifications and training

needs, but should also provide for adequate opportunities to the
workmen for development of additional skills and for advancement.
Manpower planning should therefore, embody the following aspects:

i) Manning schedule

ii) Job specification and qualification for recruitment

iii) Organization planning, span of control, functional

:esponsibilities, reporting relationship and delegation
of power

iv) Wage and salary scales

v) Lines of promotion and age matrix

vi) Job description and

vii) Recruitment, training and placement programme.

The training policies and programmes will have to be necessarily

oriented towards ensuring maximum participation by the domstic
personnel. The training schedule will include among others:
training in skills and jcbs outside the country ;ri question (if
necssary) in plants with facilities similar to those being proposed
for installation;
training at the equipment suppliers' works in order to familiarize the
personnel with the design, operation and maintenance requirements of
the equipment being supplied.

Besides the above, it will be necessary to provide on-the-spot training

at the plant site itself during the erection,commissioning and operation
of the plant.

The total cost of training will depend on the training changes per
man-month, the living and out-of-pocket expenses of the trainees and
their travelling expenses.
 - 36 -

8. Comprehensive review about the tnree iron and steel production plants

The concept of a BOF plant (integrated steelworks) for the realization

of a wide product range requires the pres~nce of a certain degree of
industrial infrastructure and an exisiting massive demand for steels.
It also need3 an arrangement to secure stable supply of iron ore and
coal of high coking property. The scale of 1 million tpy is coosidered
minimum for au economic operation. As a matter of fact, the growth of
demand on the steel plant is dependent on the growth of demand on the
downstream engineering plant and its performance in building-up is
production.

In the early phases of the steel industry in many developing countries,

the size of the market has not justified large integrated steelNorks or
the commissioning of steel plants has taken much longer than planned.
Thus, development of direct reduction processes with low technical risk,
reliability and simplicity in operation and downstream facilities
(e.g. refractories, gas treatment, heat recovery etc.) could give the
best economic benefits for these countries.

The integrated mini-mill composed of the stages directreduction, electric

arc furnace, continuous casting and rolling mills suit to medium scale
production and is useful in the re~onwhere natural ga& is easily
available.

Concerning the reduced iron precaution should be taken against natural

oxidation while it is shipped and stored. Capacity of an integrated mini-
mill can be easily increased by adding modules. The modular design
supports also the te~~ ·10logical growth. For developing countries where
steel requirements are prin~rily for non-flat products and w~en gradual
expansion is planned with relatively small investment, these EAF steel
plants are atrractive and could fundamentaly offer a good alternative
to large-scale BOF-plants.
 - 37 -

The ability of the arc furnace process to operate on a relatively

small scale makes this process attrative to developing countries seeking
to establish an iron and steel industry to satisfy local demand for
reinforcing bar, structural steel sections and similar products essential
for a developing industrial sector.

The variable cost per ton of DRI-EAF steel is higher than that of BF-BOF
but it can vary depending on the cost of natural gas. DRI-EAF can be
competitive against BF-BOF after the capital investment on mini-steel
plant is much lower. The plant starts yielding returns on investment
from a very early stage, because of a shor~zr construction period in
aariition to low requirements trained manpower and hi5h managerial
experience.

The mini-mill with simple production facilities and small investment has
a value in a district where steel production is needed even on a small
scale. Further, mini-mill is an important tool of steel production in
a place where low cost power for the EAF operation is available.
The mini-mill has a significance in assuring the role of recycling
scrap. The availability of scrap can basicaly contribute to a stepwise
establishment of a steel plant according to the following time sequence:

1. period: Scrap availability results in a downstream route:

electric arc furnace ---) continuous casting ---)
rolling mills (in respect of the facilities a plant build-up
starts with the rolling mill upstream).
Due to the ability of the arc furnace to melt sponge iron (ORI) an
upstream extension of the above process and a conversion of tht mini-
mi 11 to an integrated mini-mill can take place.

2. perio~_: !'nit for iJRI ---) i~/\F ---) CC --~HM

 - 38 -

The mini plant concept (integrated mini-mill and mini-mill) owes its
very existence to the advent of new processes in the steel industry;
these included the development oi continuous billet casting (iucl. computer
control), which shortened the processing route and gave a 10-12 %
improvement in yi~ld, and of UHP (Ultra High Power) arc furances.
Innovations have included the use of water-cooled panels instead of
refractories and the introduction of oxy fuel burners; foamy slag
techniques were developed to reduce electrode consumption, and incre3sed
use was made of oxygen and coal to cut electric power requirements. The
ladle refining contributed to the quality revolution achieved and new
continuous casting practices opened new markets for special quality
tube and wire. Flat products could I>ecome mini-plant type product
either through rolling techniques or through thin-slab (or even strip)
casting.

If a mini mill produces products made with relatively small scale

production facilities, such as reinforcing steel bars, medium and
small sections the mini-mill is feasible due to the depreciation,
administration and fixed costs, all ofwhich are lower than those of
BF-BOF. Production facilities of the mini-mill should be on such
scale that the production cost is lower than that of BF-BOF and the
scrap consumption keeps balance with the supply. Too many mini-mills
will result in keen competition not only with BF-BOF but among the
mini-mills. Figure 9 a shows the cost of ~olled steel in the mills
of Japan, USA and West Germany.

Tables 9a and lOa show capital costs for a 3-million - BF-BOF plant
and for a 500 000-ton DR-EAF plant, respectively.

The estimates given in these Tables do not take into account costs for
mining, power, housing, contingencies and interest paid during the
construction period.

The capital investment anct operating cost for an electric furnace

with a capacity of 1.71 million tpy are given in Table 10 b. Cost
figures for an oxygen furnace of similar capacity are gi~en in Table 9b.
The percentage distribution of inputs in a BF-BOF plant in relation to
total operating costs is shown in Table 9c.
 400

350
n lntegr~ted

l
mill (E·F - HOF)

-c
0 I Mini-mill
~ 300 w
I./)
::::::> '°
-~ 250
u

200
0 L--L---'~---"'---L~_........----'--~~-- ...........__.
USA W Germany Japan
Fig. 9a Wire rod production cost at integrat~d mill
and mini-mill in 3 countries in 1981 (Source: Ref. Nr.34)
 - 40 -

~ lOO
z-
~

·- 300
~
u-
UJ
..J
en
~
E
~ 200

100

2CO 300

CR Merchant Cold Rolling Mill

OR Direct RedYction Plants

OR - EAF Fully Integrated Plants with OR-EAF-Route (1.35 million tpy)

Bf - BOF Fully Integrated Plants with BF-LO-Route (1.35 million tpy)

H.H Mini Hills (0.5 million tpy, different grades of integration)

(Source: Reference Nr.18 )

Fig 9b VIABILITY-NOMOGRAM:
Position of metallurgical plants
 T.UU

__
9a CAPrTALCOSTSOF A ).Mlll.JO!i-TONIF..OFl'l.IJIT

......,_.,.
ll/tO-)
,
-""'
'-' ......
- 41

....... --- - --
,,,_}
~-"7
C...,cwr

Wtl
'-""'
•l-1

Cabplu1 S6.0
7S.O
u
11.6
161.0
225.0
DllKI ..._ (JSO 000
Docuic , . _ !SOO 000 - l
·-> 17.D
40.D
2S.S
lU
•.4
l0.0
-fumcr
-axnmf..,,...,. 43.0 6.6 lJ0.0 Sb.- - !SCIO 000-J 4S.D 10 u.s
63.0 lO.t JU
Collltuuaow. euttn 430 u 131.0 - - - -(450 000-)
llluod ...... foab .... 111.0 290 sn.o M1ot.1 lfnod -W 22S.O 74.S 112.4
125.0 ~-tudllllpoctiDa
Gmcra! facibucs 42.0 '-~ (SS of fbod - . ) 11.0 3.6
Subtotal ('nod USU) 447.0 61.9 I 342.0
A4minillntift. lld..-, ud n,...... - ·
baanecnD&. pronuemcn1 and mspcctiori (JS of liaod .-U) 7.0 2.3
(S• of fued ust•) 22 0 34 ,,_,pentilo&nPft1H(l11 o f - - > 7.0 2.3
AdDWUltratlon ldvuor,. ud cxpedmDf cosu
(6'1 of fned URm 27.0 4.2 Sub•otal (proiect ,,,,.._utioll) 25.0 1.2
Faod capital.,.... 2SO.O 12 7
P':'o-cpuatm1 n.pm•1 Cl'I of fl.led UKts1 13.0 20
hifrutn1ctwal . . . . _,,,(!SS of mod .-u) 34.0 11.)
Subtotal t,pro]Ect unpkmrntahon and
pre-oprraUDC t:itptlllt'I 62.0 9.6 Subtotal (fpod capital ODii• pl111
lafrutnlc:IUI<) 214.0 94.0
F aed gpnal msts 50" 0 71.6 Workills capiW (l!I of faod .-ta) 11.0 6.0
lnfrastnidW"al D'IYntmtn'. 72 (\ 111 Subtotal J02.0 1000
SubtotaJ (fpafi apt.ta.I cosu llltaar pul '"""' illlple-•tatio• 10.0
plus lllfranructu.re S81 o 19' Total 312.0
W.orl.lltf capital fl S'I of foed asxts,• 67 r 10 J
&ovrre- l!NlDO/ICIS.lS
Subtotal 648 (I JOO r•
Nole- DR·If chtet1 rtiduchon/eltttric furmct
Jatere-..'1 paid du.nn,: unplemtnunor: 42fl
Tota.i 690 0

SoM"t"# UNIOOllCIS lS
f!fotr BF B0f blu1-furnaa/buH OIJlt'n furnace

TABLI 'J.c COST STRll<ThRf OI A Nf1' BASIC OXYGf1' Ft:RSACE TABLE 1% ('OST STIHJCTIIRE OF A NIW ELF.CTlllC FUllNACE SHOP
tAMua: dellJT. ClfllC'Tt~. 1 1'1 milhol"I ton~ of llcitl carr:~ m~Stmcn'. (Cl I ~: milhoD kicauon. (Mllual ~ copaol), I 71 • 10' "''" or rue! .apiw oma1 ... n1 (CJ). S6l miDJoo, loca11on.
Gr~'. Lake~1
Greet Lakes)

com ..1 U1111n

-------------------------- Co.rt.., U.Uu
lll'ltU Doli.r:r cml.IMmrd Doi.. ,, won• nou... tOPllM .... ~d Doli.n

.....
0' •"l"IWll pr• pr' ton ~rron
_,,,.,,,
Dr•VHMI IH' ~''Ot'I ~"'"
~
""" of nul ofnur
""'' ofn,~1 Of l"el

•..,.,bl, rotrJ Y-.iteom

a... matenab ...... Cltmals
H~t m"a! {93'l Fti To• 106 4~ 0 81 lfi.JJ Roducod pellru T!>tu of uon 102.18 0 7l 77.16
S,crap Too 80.0!· 0 35 26 Scnp Tons 10 0.Jl 25.60
E.ncrl' ~
Ekctnc powr: pwchased t~ 0 01~ )() 0 4! Dtctnc power pwchued kWh 0.016 6()(; 9 60
f:.Mrr atd1u (t:rm OC' ht ~cif.ed1 Ekarodes lb 0.5! 10 S.SP
Carbon mon0l.ldl" 1r• Btu "()(\ 0 44 (0.88 Duect operatlft& labow hr"'"' tun..noun 7 OC· 0 ~ 2 !(l
V..1tc; Direct IU~TYUOT} ~ 1.S•l-iabour 0.Jl
(oob~ I or::ubtin,: !'1tt1 I 00(1 0 OS 010 M.annenan~ labour and matena.b 6lH1 2.17
Due.:-t opcrattn(: llbou' '•11c~· M~n-houn 0 25 1 7~ O.A<
Labow oftrhead 3~'l 'l•S1
Duc.L. SU~!"YUOry W~' 15'J bbou: o lo Mucrllaoeow wa.nabk' oosu/aedJts
Maintenanct" labour and mater.al~ Hn l 11 Rdr1C1anr!. 2 ()(·
Labour o"erhead 3~'JIL•Si 0 7{t fluxes, 01yl"r• nusodlaneous norunet.alllci l.\J(J
Mrt.alli' addmom 1.50
Total nnabk oost1 12i.9U
M.11a:Uaneous Yalllbk oosu aedm
OitYIC"' Too 10 0 08 0.10 Futtlcorn
hMn. bmt spa: 3 00
Plant Oftrhead5 65'1,l+Si U'
Slq dLSpou.! hn' meul 1enr treatmtnt 1.00
Local tan~ and msu.ranct MCI 0 16
125.61 Drprr.cut1or1 ()8 years) 5J51l ~ 1(1

PUrd C'OIU Tot.al productton cost• 13~ j j

Plant on:rhqd, 6l'I (l•S• 1.31 Return on m~stmcn1 (ptetu1 2M Ci 1.60

Loc.ai rue• &Dd msu;anci! 2'1n 033 Total I l9 93
~preCM111on 11 ti vears, l.15'1 1 •5 -~--~-~--~~~~-

ToUil productinr oost; llb.9(• So11rct" Un1tl"d Sttt~ lnd .. m11 l.n"'1onm~n11 1 i(«-earct 1.Ahon1oq 1·vA 6(..0'7 ib--034'
Return or. 111vn1men 1 lpre~u1 20'! n 5.lb f'iolr l dirt~! Opitrttln5 Uibour S dttf'cl l\.IPf'rYll.OI"' •••~

Tota: J '14 I~

Snura llr11td S111~ lndustriar Lnvuonmrnia• R~earch l.ahorat:•r). f.f'A-600'"' 16-0J.4(

Norr BI u llW'itllli thermal unih L d1rtn o~nhna lahour, S d1rt:c! tupervwory w-.,.n

TABl.f J: COSTSTRUm'll.f Of A Bf·BOf Pl ANT

(P!rctntarr)

a.u-r-fvrrtM"r 8a.r1f M.Yl('f'I

lllor 11ttlrruitt111

b• nuile!"U.h and pnmar" entrg' M1 93 O"

Uttl1t11!'\ I 9 1.0
Uhow 5l 08
CMr~ead· J J o.~
M.amten.anef 1•CJ of UtY'l'Stment J 2 [I 29
Local llxt! and msur1nct 0 I 04
Drprtaat1nn (~.~':l of invtttmtn!) 2! I 4
l'1t.1! J()(J(I 1()(J(J

Sourer l!i-iiH)(1/ICIS B
•LtQu1d mtul rnullt111 from U1r prrnou~ procea Mid
transfrr cn•h

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- -~-~--
 - 42 -

An i~teresting ex&mple is that of the st2el plant set up at Matanzas

in Venezuela. Extensive analysis carrie~ out before investment
decision had shown that given the available conditions a DR/EAF
combination was more advantageous in comparison co a conventional
BF!BOF plant. This was also supported by the study carried out in
1975 by a World Bank group of e~perts which had shown that the

quality cf steel produced by two routes ~ould b2 about

the same;
estimated capital costs of facilities fur pelletizing,
ironmaking, steelmaking and continuous slat casting of
3-4 million tons per year favoured a DR/EAF plant by
nearly 4o % over a comparable BF/BOF installation;
production costs, excluding fixed charg~s and taxes,
for a tonne of carbon ste~l slabs are approxiwately 20%
lower when proci~ced by a DR/~At operation than when made
by SF/BO:.<' route:
average return 0;1 inve!.itm£nt WCl.s f.cum 2. 5 to 3 times as
great for the DR/EA~ f3cility as for the Bi/BOF plant.

Another intersting example is t.h~ comparacive study of the absolute

and th? specific dir~-t consturction coses for the following steel pldnts:

Localisation Route Caµacity Construction Cost Specific const.co5t

----------------------------------------------------5--------------------------------------
4.5 x 10' US$ 2250 US $/t
ALOMINAS BF-BOF
(Brazil)
6
SIDOR OR--EAF J.6xto rpy 5 . j.. x 10 9 1470 u:; $/t

(Venezuela)
6 9
DELTA STAL Co. DR-EAf 1.0x10 tpy l.SxlO US$ 1500 us $/t
(Nigeria) t 3 re rolling
mills

figure 9 b i!lustrates the cost poi~t areas fo1 various processrs. It

shows th~t the integrated steelworks (HF-BOf) arp situated in a range
i.nvolving a higher degree of risk (referr'!d tc uti:izatit>n anJ avail-
ability) ~han th"' min:. mill::;. Thi~, i~ mainly due tc, the inherently
highe~ capital cbarge~ for the t;aditionals.
 - 43 -

9. Integration of mini-steel plants with other industrial sectors

An integrated approach to the development of the iron and steel industry

with other economic sectors, especi~lly the Capital Goods and Agricultural
Machinery, in developing countries is important in order to ensure an
integrated and interlinked industrial sector, to promote further processing
of semi-processed and processed raw materials.

An illustrtive model of the inter-relationship between the various iron

and steel products and the various sectors of agriculture and capital
goods industry, relevant to developing countries, is given schematically
in Figure 10. But these existing l~nks among the various sectors of the
economy do not constitute an automatic process. Hence they must be the
subject of long-term planning.

Table 11 gives an overview of the types and the proportions of products

produces by mini-steel plants. Various integrated steelworks, integrated
mini-mills and mini-mills operating in Latin America are illustr~ted in
the Tables 12 a, b, c.

A large proportion of the output of mini-steel plants in developing

countries (also in developed countries) comprises rod and bar products
and wire rod and wire products.
 - 44 -
tiotlSS or l•1ECIA1(D ltOnO"lC DlV[LOtKl•t VITI llON ANO STllL t•DUSTlY
--------~--------------------------------------------------------------

I 1 VATU l I
I II'.• llC I
I
IAIL IOAll

t I AI S t 0 I t I
POvtl
I

J CAPllAL I II.Oii AmO STEEL l•OUStlY IWIPOllU l

·1.___ _-.JI I

-----'-PAIES AllO ICHACTOIY l

·1 COlfSUKAfLU I

llON AND ST CL PIODUCTS

COLD Stlll StHIS IAl5 SUtl- SUUC- IAILS IOLl.[0 flSH lllkE HI PL T S HI HI Ill HI
PIC CAST- FOi AllD LlSS l~lALS SLCEP- PLATlS 1005 SKELPS A E SHllTS lLEC. ALLOY ALLOY
UOll INGS fOlt- IODS IOL!lliS EIS SHCCTS SKEETS IODS A
INGS IAP.S
c.1. STEEL SlAK- 1111[/ P I P l S Cl Cl ~I ALLOY
-.- Cf.ST- fOIC- USS llllt U:J/S;J/L:.' UC SHlETS CLCC. Al.LOY FOIC-
INGS/ CD tJPES Pll.00~ f.NO SHECTS SHEETS INCS
PIPES PIOIJU- CTS STllPS
,...__ CTS
c.1. ~OATED

SLEE- SHEETS
PUS/ Cl/TlN
OTHU

ACllCULTUll CAPITAL GODO:.

AGllCULTUUL IHPLEHEllTS - (fOICIHCS A PLf.TU) INDUSTllAL IUILOING - (If.IS 6 IOOS; STIUCTUIALS1

ANO SHCDS PLATU; Ml SHllTS; PIPU;
ACllCULTUIAL llACHINEIY - (fOICINCS, ALLOY IODS, Cf.LYf.lllZCD SHEllS)
PLATU)
- (IAIS 6 IOOS, STIUCTUULS;
AGllCULlUlAL SHCDS/SILOS -(If.IS A 1005, HI SHEETS, Cl SHllTS; CASTINGS; PIPES)
GALVANIZED SHllTS)
IAILllAYS - (RAILS; SLCCPEIS; flSHPLAT!S;
COllTAINCIS AND PACMGl~C - (HR/Cl SllECTS, CALVIJUZED Plf.TES; l~C. GASTl~CS ANO
SHHTS, ll11PLAT£S) 1 ~OST OlHCI STCCL ITCHS)

llUGATIO~ - (IARS f.NU 1005, STIUCTuir.s, DEHllCE (PLATLS; CASTlllGS AND HOST
runs. PIPES> or OTHEI Sll[L llE"S)
' - (STIUClUIALS; PLATES;
GALYANIZCD SHEETS; IAIS ~D
1005, UC)

tlACHINE tOOLS (Cl CASTINGS; STlEL fUIGING

ALl.OY RODS, fORCINCS £tC.)

HTIOUUH (PlPlS; ITIUcnia.t.5)

(HI AND Cl lllfETli; W.oY
tORC ING S)

CYCLC/r.JtvP. CYCLE (CR STRIPS; PIPES)

fASlr•lR

: I J ,' l ' ' I ) :~

 TABLE 1i PRODUCTION STRUCTURE BY TYPE JF PRODUCT: DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
(Percentage) (Source: UNIDO/ID/WG. 458)

TYPE OF PRODUCT

Type and Size of Plant No. of Output Ingots Wire Rod I Rod and Sections, Steel Pipes and ·Spec. Steel Total
•· Plants 1983 and and Wire
Products
Bar
Products
Flats 1 Castings ITubes : Products
1
l
1 in Semis I
(000 1 Angles.etc. I I
I sample tons) j l , I
I
~
r- --
I I

i
I

1
I

-1
Semi-integrated Plants II I
1-40 1 000 t/a 10 208 21 54 23 2 I - 100 i
41-100 1 000 t/a 4 202 12 39 39 10 100 I
I
101-200,000 t/a 9 807 3 13 51 5 3 2j 100 I
> 200 1 000 t/a 2 448 18 26 56 100 I
I
Total seai-integrated
plants 25 1,585 10 18 I 52 5 3 12 100 I <>
V1
!
Integrated Plants 4 752 - 11 42 10 - 37 - 100
. Crude Steel Producers 6 138 100 - - - - - - 100 1
I :
· Processors of semi- 1

1
finished products
j 1-40 000 t/a
1 9 87 - 46 4 50 100
l 41-100 1 000 t/a 3 91 - 5 95 100
I 101-200 1 000 t/a 2 247 11 10 10 69 100
I > 200.000 ti• 1 87 31 69 100

Total Processors 15 512 11 25 6 58 100

Total Developing
Countries in Sample 50 3,066 10 14 43 6 2 19 6 100

!:~:~o;!ds:~le. I I I
developing countries 74 6 1 073 10 22 41 _:_ I 3 __J_~--3------~~o-o__
 - 46 -

Integrated steelworks
These works are involvea in ironmaking, steelmaking a11d rolling to a
finished or semi-finished product.

--·-··
......._...,;... ..

... ,. Na.llota Floto

,_, Other
operattons

Integrated steelworks

Ac.1nd1, - lndus1rt1 Atgu11un1 dt Acetos

•1! • x
1--------------------+----+-----+----------------l------+--------+--+----
0 G f.M - Allo1Hornoslipl1 I 2 s 310 3 .2 x xxx x x
I 4 2 2100 e 3 x x xx x
~!lli!!llll!llf, . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'1RI'
A~o M1nH Gtr11s, At:OMINAS (under conslruc11on)
._ 1 2 l
..... _ . .)(_ X X
. ._ _. .~ti..~1
~os F1no1 P1ralini 171 ;. x x
C•m•l•I S1d•rurgi1 13 192 "" x
~-c_o_m_P_•_"_h•_•_~_o•_E_•_pe_c_•_••_•_1t•_b_.,_•_-_,._c_E_s_1r_• ____+-_1_-1__2_2_-i_uo_.................__,_._2_,_,_.__.2_x_1_1:D_.,..._x____-1f--x-x_x_x___-+--+-x-x__ 1.1 ~

~-c_o_m_P_•_nh_,_,_s_•d_•_••-•~g•_<•_B1_1~go_·_M_•n_•_"_'------~-'--+--1---+-80-2___.;.__1....;;....._2_...~"~"--.:.---1_x__x__x-+--------+--+-'---w j
Comp1nh11S1dtrUrgic11d1Mogid11Cru1es-COSIM 1 171 I ;. ,....... _ ;. ,;· )( X c. )( X 1 I
1--------------------+-----+----+--------..._.........__...........~------+--------~-~-~-- I
Comp1nh11Sid1rUrg1c1deTu,.bllo-CST 1 3 1 337t ~ ., .... f.;. ft: .... • 1
1--------""------------+----+-----+-------------....--......_-l------+--------+--+-~--
Comp1nhi1 Sodorurgoca Necoonol · CSN 4 J J 2970 t t 3 ...... 3 x HD X X X X X x x x
1--------------------+----+-----.....______....,_...,.___ -+------+--------+--+-~-·---
Comp1nh11SidarUrgicaPams-PAINS 4 208 3 ;.,,~~ .. 1 x2,. ~O X X x x
Comp•ntu• Sid•rUrg1c1 P1uh111- COSIPA 3 • 2 2441 x xx
l1f•111Lam1n~•od•hrro
~-------------------+----+----+----------------1~-----+--------+--~-·-··-
1 '° 1 1 1JI2 .. 0 X X x
M1nne1mann 1 2 741 3 1 x x x
S1'1t-rurg1c1 Barra M1ns_•-----------+-1--+__J_ _-+_2_10____4_ _2___1_x_2__0_,._x_x_x__x-+--------+--•--·-- __ . ,., 1i 1
~-S-•d_•_'"_'_V•_<_•_J._L_"'_'_•P_•_··-·-----------+----+--2---+-320-----'-'-------~-x-x_x__-+--------+--+-~-·-J
26' 1 1•• a x x
2 4 3 2753 5 3• 2 D x xx

AcP'•as Pa1 dtl Rio 1 11 400 1 I 2 x x x x x xx

. ..:
1•.r>mpan11
~ : ..
S1d•rurg1ca Hu1c;h•pa10
' ...... ',.
1 2

4330 11 • l.<2CU xxxxxxxx x

----+--------------+------+--------+---+-
f11nr11'1or1 Monterrey 2000 • 2 xxxxxxxx x x x

S1d11urg1u l•11r0Carchm1tll!I TruchH- SICARTSA 2 1 0170 x

-------+----<f----+-~------ ......-----1------<f---------+--~·----· - .
Tuhos'11Acerod~Mf'••co-TAMSA x x
~ ' , ...
Aifr'u c1el P•r1gu•v - At:E F'AA lunc1nr co11S1,l11 11onl •uu
• 490
E111prua S1cterury1ca rlf'I Peru - S10ERPEAU 4 2

9 4 4800 4 10 XXXX>XXX x x x

w · w1'1!. I= rub•. b - bar. =no data. • =Only produces slab. I ·" 81!111. • ,. . Bloom, -n - Sleh. r · Rounds

(Source: Steel Times International)

Table 12a
 - 47 -

This table is intended to give readers an insight into the plant and equipment which is installed throughout
the membe: companies of the lnstituto Latinoamericano del Fierro y el Acero (ILAF A). It was compilcJ
by the magazine Siderurgia La1inoamericana with the cooperation ofILAFA, and was first published in the
December 1983 issue of that journal. Steel Times International is grateful for permission to reproduce the
information.
It does not claim to be comprehensive, but is based on information which has been supplied by the
companies involved.
r ....,,....,. -.... -· I
Rib
---
f<Mo
·- l'l•ar
~•t.on•

f
(Semi-integrated plants )
ii... i
I
l
j
II I If.
I
f
! e- •i
?-ani-mills
]ff J I JI 11 l I i i " l:
!
t
~
J i I
l
!
...
0
0
!
~..-~~';'!:,'f.Ta&::' --•, .. ~·~~
Acerot Br agedo

l• C1nlibric.
130
150 ~
• 1k J a x
x
x
x x x
x
x
x
x x -
~

lnlll"~lj'"·.,J":"~;"· ... .__. ..-·•Cf-

~Ot Anh•nguer•

"'MVlllare1
,_:~

-110
•
I
x
x x x •
Companh11 Br•.. '9fr1 do ~o- CIA 50 2 x
Companh11 Ferro ~ode V1t0111-COFAVI 112 J 2•.2 0 x x x x
ComJN1nh11lndu1trial1t1unen1e- ITAUNENSE 101 2 1"2 0 x x
Companh;a Soderurg0:1 d1 Guanabar1-COSIGUA

Comp.1nh11 S1derUrgicll M Al~o11 - COME SA

711
...
2
I
".
1 WI 0
, 0 x
x
x
x
x x
-

Companh11 S1derUrg1u do Nordeste - COSINOR 11 J 1x2 0 x x x x

-
Cu11111 lndus1ri11 Reumtla1 14 1 x x
-------- -·
()twhn1 5 A S1rte1UrgtU 290
• 2 IC, 0 x x x
-
E1e11om1111- A'os Finos J7 2 x x • --
S1d11U1g1c1 A~onorte 243 2 2" 2 0 x x •
S1de1u1g1e1F1EI 112 2 1x za x x •
S1de1Urgte1 Gu1u1 71 I x

--•
S•derurg1C1 H1mt 5f I Ix 4 0 x x x x x
S1de1urg1c1l1n,011 P1ul1111- SIOElPA 40 I x x
S1de1urg1c1 Mendes JUn1or lpro1.cltdl ... 1 Ix 4 0 x x x •
51duurg1c1 Nossa Stnhm• Ap111c1d1 110 4 x x x •
S1df!furg1c1 R1ogr1nd1nse 3le 4 2 IC 2 a x x x x
'
S1d1rurg1u S1n10 Amero 7 I x
"

i
S1derurg1c1 S1n10 S1tl1no

U1•n1 S1n10 Ohmp11

\Ml11H lndu111111 de Base - VI BASA

..
21

270
1
J
J
.. x
x
x x

x
x
I
x x

... ._....-.....
_
i.1 .. ;i.;
~1Jic1one1 T•cn•cH-F~_T.EC "' 2 x x
~----

i Me11lurg1c1 Boe1yt - ME l AlBOCAYA 40 1

'" 2
iJ x
--
I S1d1rUrgie1 del Muni- S10EMUNA 30 J 111 J 0 x

I
I
S1cterurg1c1del P1c1f1co- SIOELPA

s.11uurg1c1 de Medellin - SIME SA

70
IO
2
2
I" J
1 "J 0
• x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x
• •
x
~ .
~

..
-
~

1 ..i•·•••i.tllor1 Co111ruce11~" 1 1. 1 ;:J x x x x

?CNlt'¥• ........._~-~ ~ -~-------· ~~1ou: ~
~ ;<!"11~1
•11·•11.t11.1 rto Aftrto R1t•1~11 1 x x x
--·---- ~ ----- l
x x
f "''''c1111y M .. 111r1n11l11•If1•rc1to· F~MAE
-
··11h1•'''" Me111urg1cH A.n
-·--
10

10
2
I 1x I 0 x x x
x
- ~-x·-=~ 1
-~1.tl'•a1 lJel Acero I 1m•1.11!1 - INIJ"C 10 1 x
x x
rs;;...,.~,,, , ;
~· - -- _...
.
. _. l•;'Ho
E~:h ~ ~~ ...ft.It~,{$..,,
:.·~ 11t 11 ;1·(J 1ec.1ed1 J70 1 1. 1 x x x

(Source: Steel Times International)

Table 12b
 - 48 -

Miiia 01he1
Steo1makln9 operelton•
Non·h•lr Tubes

•r . . ... -+-------l
(Semi-integrated plants)
ti 'f
i J 11 Ir .0

I
c
i
1 ~
-~
...
. ,,,..r.t. .a .
u
Mini-mill
·q iE ,.c ~

..• c..
-I! ~ ~ 1
~. i ~= c ~ :!! ,
~ E!:
,,
~ ;;; si 8:1 CIC ....!i!'
. #~~~- ll!'::&...L~:~t:·J~~• JI·
x i
~
~
Cl
.c.
0 ~
;.:.-1A . . :..
:l ~
-~---
x x
10 x x
10 1.' 0 x x
1--------------------r.,--~---~--~~~~~~----;-----~------~-----~ -----
x x

1 JC';( _, x x
1. 1 D x x x
~,;_, •~,-~11 '\'!It .;~_... ;;;_~, .....
. . . . ·.,1xli
1, 1 --' x x

x
i-· 1• 3
~-_:·_.e_•o_s_oe_c_i._,n_c_•'_"_a_________________ ,.__1_10_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1_, _1_ _ -f _X_ _ _x_______x_ ~-

~- _:_~.:'._~'-'-'•_P_•_c _ ________ __ 11ob_ ~2-..

2 ...-, · -~x-----~x ~ --~ ____ _
;,._ er,):,.r,!\.<::oir1~~~:. 3 "
- --------·- --~- --------------
1
.' <" •J :0 ~ j <J1 'U•'J >' ~ I

--~=~-~-~--t~--2----
320

2, l- l ,-- ------~-=~~-~-
! ~ .~
. r-;~-- --
2s.; ; ;
iI -;--------------.
·'>" u • .: H
I ,-;--------=---=~--====1-~-=~=--=--
1--, ea
-
\-·--------·-!___
___' '-'-~
80 3 i ,• i :J
t------·---------- ·-. -·--· t
1

' t: J .J •'<'Jr , l• Id~!'·, f !~I ,j ! 3F. 2 : ~ ' - !

t-·------------------------·--·· ..... '
l
· ' J' l ':> L!•; ~,' t;;

' " ,.j l d •:u

,JI 'f '. <'i ( ' 1Q

. r-~-~::~------ ------;- ----

>----·---··----------~----
1

-~~-~- ~--1
l

t
, - ', ,, ·., , "· '"'· l
I - - -- ---- - j

n j x i I
~~~~Jti&&W'ffmnra; '0 1 -- H ;72r, mr"'TP'7•·=1•tl•'Wh tlh*"'
l:~row~~-
,~,\•.,t,.,J!J
: ,, liso t.IJ::!-hA 2
&dmzrr
-~
l
Fff""'tt•,Maln'w.~•ml•·b
,-J ~ I }( ,. : '

lo•u•ii~~~bitj!'i~r1'!mE...,!:~-~-ZMW¥tf'tiSW"A\lew.W+at:'tft6ie•i'';
r '.'•.'<•···'' ~·G
(,,,1,,·,,',1t:•,,,",'-""'l,1r.1,,_,,.,i 11'2~ ) JI) X ,. , !

r.·~;-~_'.·~~~-~:~_._·''-''_",_.~._,~_,_.1.~~iJE~lllilldlllllllllll~~lllllb.
__ __
1_c_••;____________
-- -i~t-~~·2_~________ .......
G~Blitlllllli~.'11ilil:li~li1ii'l'W~ij·111J•-~1-..'111111l11i:i11iiiill~--~,:-
1_.
__, _ _ _ __ -----·-----------

! ':"'.'~.".'."~'-"-~"---· ---·-t---·-·.--~-1-~-~---------

~·:;·~;;;::::::':::~:; -~
'L .··~

·\·=· ·.: . ::: : ' 1--- l -1

l ~~~~~,~-~~--z~~~" - s1;~(~~-----·-_-_-_-_·-_·____....',_':_·_.__-':""-;'-.'"''"':~.c_>_•.""...·:'1-·..:·2'-·•_··-- _ _.,_._4_o__-... _--_-__· -------------~---- _ _J_j
(:;ource: Steel Ticies fnterniltional)

Tab 1 e l '.'c:
 - 49 -

10, Programme for the establi::.hment of a mini-steel plant

The procedure for the establishment of a mini-mill would roughly involve

th~ following stages:

1. Principal objectives of the mini-mill establishment

(even as a part of a development programme)
1.1 Links with other industrial sectors
1.2 To satisfy basic needs of the population
1.3 To strenbthen the various infrastructure sectors
1.4 To strengthen the employment rate
1.5 To raise education standards
1.5 To increase the trade intensity

2. Steel demands and product-mix selected

2.1 Actual economic profile of the country
(raw materials, energy sources, industry, agriculture,
transport, social service etc.)
2.2 Steel demand: regional, interregional
actual, forecasting
2.3 Product-mix (e.g. bars, rods, structurals, others):
selection, possibilities of category-
wise consumption
2.4 Plant ~apacity - Production capacity

3. Scrap availability
domestic: actual, possible future generation
possiLility of scrap imports, price

4. Availability of process related raw materials such as:

limestone, iron ore, ferroalloys, aluminium, etc.

5. Production process selection and plant size based on

production demands, raw materials and power availability
and/or eventuRlly related limitations.
S. 1 mini-mill route (scrap or DRI i f available)
5. 2 integrated mini-mill route (ORI, scrap as recycled)
5. 3 raw materials preparation, preheating etc.
 - 50 -

5.4 Steelmelt shop: Design

5.5 Modular extension possiblities of the process selected:
feed related (scrap, sponge iron)
productivity related (ORI-units, EAF-units,
cc-strands, rolling facilities)

5.6 Casting process/machine selection

5.7 Ro~ling facilities
5.8 Fa~ilities for treatment of effluents

6. Plant location
Factors of influence as: availability of adequate area,
transport possibilities, sources of power and water, access
to domestic market centers, availability of construction
~aterials, provision for future expansion

7 Masnpower and training requirements

7.1 Organization structure
7.2 Manpower requirement
7.3 Manpower availability
7,4 Training

8. Capital cost
8.1 Civil and structural
8.2 Mechanical and electrical equipment (incl. transport,
erection, installation)
8.3 Engineering and Administration

9. Operating cost
9.1 Manufacturing expenses such raw materials, labour,
supervision, electric power, repair, maintenance,
refractories, electrodes, additives etc.
9.2 Administration and sales expenses, intersts ect.,
depreciation, amortization

10. Financial analysis including m~de of financing the project,

sales realization, break-even analysis, internal rate of
return, net present value etc.
 - 51 -

11. Drawings tncluding amoung others: topographic plans,

scrap locations, locations of other raw materials
(if e~istent), plant general layout, flow of mate~ial

and balance, distribution routing of major utilities,

s~eel melt shop layout, rolling mill layout, plant power
distribution system, plant water system, plant flow sheet,
construction schedule including initial testing, all
possible detail-drawings for mechanical and electrical
equipment, auxiliary equipment, p~pe-lines, energy
distribution system etc.

12. Suggestions for project implementing with minimum

delay (with priority in advance):
12.1 Establishing of a project authority as a separate
organization with the task of taking all necessary steps
towards implementinb the set up of the steel plant in
question
12.2 Policy decision will need to be taken for arranging
adequate finance for the project.
12.3 Appointment of an independant consulting engineering
organization.
12.4 Evalua[ion and decision on the final site for the steel
plant in question.
12.5 Participation of local agencies for providing construction
materials and services for the proposed steel plant complex.
 - 52 -

PART II: Technological approach of the mini-steel plant alternative routes

1. Alternative routes for iron and steelMaking

As already mentioned in Part I and in accordance with Fig.la there are

three major alternative routes for the production of iron and steel:

i) The conventional blast frunace/b2sic oxygen steelmaking

(BF/BOF-route) as main part of the integrated steelworks
ii) The DR (or/and DRI-scrap combination) - EAF steelmaking
route consisting the main part of the integrated mini-mills
iii) The scrap-EAF steelmaking route emboding the main
characteristic of the mini-mills.

The ability of steelmaking processes to consume scrap varies. For

example, the basic oxygen furnace can accommodate a maximum of about
30 "~ of scrap in its charge. In these circumstances, the growth in
popularity of electric arc furnaces melting 100 % scrap or 100 % sponge
iron charges (or a combination of both) is not surprising.
Mini-plants concepts are virtually all based on electric-arc melting and
the continuous casting of billets or blooms (basically), to produce rod,
bars and light sections. But the key element of this concept is the EAF
as possessing the additonal possibility of flexible (small or large)
scale design.

2. Selection of steelmaking process

The type of raw materials to be used and the gradesof steel to be made
constitute the two major considerations that influence the choice of
steelmaking process (see also part I and respective Appendix-part).
Since the EAF builds the interface integrated mini-mill/mini-mill the
following technical description is devided in three groups of process
stages and facilities.
a) Before the EAF
b) The EAF steelmaking
c) After the EAF
See also Fig. lb. ~hich illustrates the two routes of the raini-11lant
concept in accordance with the chapters constituting this prof ile
1
(Part I, 11, and Appendix).
 - "d - c...
19'

~
cokt
0'4M plant

1~ ~
-------- _Ll blasl 1,.noo

(Source: Ref. Nr. 18)

0-'ihop

- hot st~~

. - - . - - - - - - -+-----

~~~
tti>t n1I
abc d t t g
Agure 1a.Main process steps for tha different st~ prcdu.:ts;
A - Blooms
B - Billets
c - Slabs
0 - Heavy plates
E - Spiral wek.1ed tubes
F - Hot rolled coth1
G - Pid<Jed coils SECTION 1
 fn art! k,...a an su•
/\. /~ A /.\.

~I
l-L.-'at_
_~pim11
I -1

_ ___.. ' I ~ HR-plant-

~i-~-
1 ~ - EJ.-C~s.~
I____

__
I

l
_____
-+---'·- .....
~t-~ ~
~..._-_'..,.·;~

I
..,,,~

'
rod&bar Ill
1-J •_ _ 41 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ . . . . . _ _ SKhon mi
r;:;;::::;;::=;;;;;:if~::.;;;;;~

-~~,-
- · n .. : --~Hu 1 1
. ·. ·.:.-1 ~~ 1 --, ·~~;.r;-,-_QW-for_rned_s_ec_tions- 1•tkitd !~
d r~ ~
I l
~~ tnn; I
~
__.. . . . _._ i~ ==&'-:-3--
f J

---·--r-.;,...:.-1
~~ ~n~ r;1 tYdffiJ J--- t----tl

---~--~1 str~&~ng lrws

r I

l
i - ,- - • ~u
-r ~-.a.____.,....,..._

'~ sit~ fnts • ~

• ~~fltx lean ~ ~I .~ •
h j kI
r I H - C\.. Jd rolled coils
J - Strips; pickled, cokJ rofled, galvanized
K - Sheets; hot rolled, pickled, cold rolled, galvanized
L - Gatvanized coils, tinned
,
cotls
~,4 - Pi~; seamless, butt-wekled
N - Soctions
P - Wire, rod and bar - -- - . ---- - --

R - Billet!S SECTION 2
 s~ I - 55 -

MINERALS SCRAP

la lb
COMPUTERIZED

,. ''
MANAGEMENT

2a 2b 2c
DIRECT SCRAP SCRAP
• 10
REDUCTION TREATMENT PREHEATING

•I I
I
-----~ I
I
'fl

-
ELECTRIC
LADLE
ARC CONTINUOUS
FURNACE
FURNACE ~ ~ CASTING
E.A.F.
AUXILIARY ,...._
EQUIPMENT 4 5 6
3

REHEATING
----
FURNACE
8

QUALITY
ROLLING MILL CONTROL 7
STANDS
9

fir,_~ire lb: Integrated Mini Mills (process route)

la -..-2a -~4 (and 3) _.,.5 -'P6 _,..7 -~8 -~9

Mini Mills (process route)

lb--~ 2b _ _, 4 (and 3) -~ 5 -•6 -~7 -~8 _,9

or lb _,..2b -~ 2c -~ 4 (and 3) -•5 -• 6 _,..7 -~8 _,..9

 - 56 ·-
Figure lb (cont.):

c H A p T E R s
Flowsheet boxes PART I PART II APPENDIX

la MINERALS, 2,2.1,2.2,10 2 1, 2 ,4 ,6
(ENERGY)
2a DIRECT
1,2,3,10 1,2,3.1,3.2,3.3, 2,4,5,6
REDUCTION 6.1,9
lb SCRAP
·- 1,2,3.1,3.4,5.2, 2,4,5,6
2b SCRAP
1,2,10
TREATMENT 6.1,9

2c SCRAP
PREHEATING 3.5,9 2,6

3 E.A. F.
AUXILIARY 8 4.2,4.6 3,6
EQUIPMENT
4 ELECTRIC
ARC 1.1,2.2,3,8,10 4,4.1,4.4,4.5,4.6,9 3,4,5,6
FURNACE
5 LADLE
8 4.3,4.4,4.5 6
FURNACE
6 CONTINUOUS 1, 2,
8,9,10 5,5.1-5.6,6.4,7,7.2 5,6
CASTING
7 QUALITY
8 5. 6' 6.4, 6.6, 7'
CONTROL 7. 1' 7. 2, 7.3
8 REHEATING
FURNACE 6.5 5,6

9 ROLLING MILL
1,2,4,8,9,10 6.1-6.6 S,6
STANDS
10 COMPUTERIZED
8 7 7
MANAGEMENT
 - 57 -

3. Main process stages and facilities: superposed on the EAF steelmaking

3.J Direct reduction - Process selection

Todav, processes that produce iron by reduction of iron ore below the
melting point of the iron produced are generally classified as ~irect­

reduction processes, and the products referred to as direct-redeuced

iron (DRI), (also: sponge iron).

The reduction of iron ore in any direct process is accomplished by

the same chemical reactions that occur in the blast furnace. About
1200°C (2190°F) are considered to represent the upper temperature
limit for the direct reduc~ion process.

Current DR processes, either in commerical prodcution or in advance

pilot plant status differ in approach.
See Table 1
Both the moving bed shaft furnaces and rotary kilns have dominated the
field - each with its own set of characteristics, requirements and
advantages for a particular situation.

Commercial DR processes can further be identified by the reductant

used - either gaseous reductants (e.g. using natural gas, etroleum
products, coke oven gas or gasified coals) - or coal reductants,
i.e. solid carbonaceous reductants in direct contact with iron ores.

Currently, over 85 % of existing DR production (88.9 % in the year 1984)

is shared by two main processes, the HyL (I & Ill) and Midrex, largely
because of their long commercial experience (Hyl since 1957 and Midrex
since 1967) and process adaptability.

Static bed, batch-type retort processes ahve been gradually replaced by

moving-bed shaft furnaces. This can be attributed to inherent limitations
in the retort process which included thermal cycling, non-optimal energy
utilisation and intermittent batch discharge peaks requiring an oversized
material handling system.
 - 58 -

Table 1

Table 1 shows the broad categories of the different processes:

Fuel Prif'ciple Process

Reducing gas Shaft-Furnace - Wiberg-Sodefors

generated ProcessP.s, Moving - Midrex
externally bed - Hyl III
from reduction - Armco
furnace - NSC
(natural gas) - Purof er

Shaft-Furance Hyl I and I I

Processes, Stattc-Bed

Fluidized-Bed - FIOR
Precesses - HIB

Plasl'la Process Plasmal'."ed

Reducing Gas Rotarv Kiln - Krupp-Renn

generated from process - Krup!J-CODIR
Hydrccarbons in - SL/RN
Reduction Furnace ACCAR -·-
- DRC
- LS-RIOR

~ ACCAR: Coal/Gas Rotary-Hearth INMETCO

Processes - Salem

Retort Processes - Hogonas

- Kinglor-Metor

Shaft-Furance - Micl.:ri:?x EDR

Process, Moving Bed - Midrex HBI
 - 51; -
cont. Table 1

Direct smelting - Pig iron Electric

Furnace
- OLM
- Elred
- Inred
- Plasmamelt
- KR
- Kawasaki
- CGS
- CIG

( Source: US-Steel, 10th edition)

 - 60 -

On the other hand, moving-bed shaft furnaces have considerable

potential for maximizing energy efficiency because they are truely
coutnercurrent and can be designed to recycle unused reductants in the
off-gas. The higher energy efficiency for most of the gas-based
processes, coupled with availability of cheap natural gas in some
countries.contribute further to the preference given to these
DR-processes.

In view of relative scarcity and rising costs of natural gas in most

countries increased attention has been focussed on the development of
DR processes based on direct or indirect use of coal. However, while
coal -based rotary-kiln plants have now been in commercial operation
for some time, they have not yet attained the versatility and high
operating availability of the gas-based processes.

Since early 1980, several new approaches of applying non-coking coals

to DR process have received considerable attention, and a few have
been operated commercially.

Capital Costs: Capital investment costs for coal-based processes

are higher than the similar capacity natural-gas DR plants (Table 2)
owing to ext~a costs of coal handling and pollution control facilitie~.
But rotary kilns are best suited to small scale operation, ranging
between 50 000 to 250 000 tpy, where costs of fuel and simplicity in
operation tend to be overriding considerations.

Energy requirements: The most efficient gas-based direct reduction

processes require about JO GJ/t (2.4Gcal/t) of primary energy (see Table 3).
 - 61 -

C•pital cost5 of DR processes classified by reductant

type (1979 US doll•rs). Table 2
Cost. l/tonn•
(Source: References 12,
Natu"'ai ga~ 15 and 23)
T vnicat p•oc•" '" tht US 10010120
HYL 100
Mn1rn•. Vt"n~1u,1r 11(1
Co•~ Ov•" gas lt••st1n9 co~• plant! 19{1
Coat n"'
M1drfl'• w11t\ P•thpr Lur9. or l ~a.aco ga~ifiPr! 300
Co.-;
St. RN 18(110 220
M.n••• EDA 200
A.orcar I :"rt.11 167
P·;11vnttr~r. 210
:..-cri"' ORC Sn ..1~• -.1·,rtt 20\·
~S R,et· 150

I
. Energir comparison of some DA processes
Table 3 i 1,·11ur1.,,~ frm1111uit111;: u11J St<!dmuk111i: r~(
'ii

(Source:Ref. 12,15,23~ Fu•I Total

So..irce of r•,,,.uiriid Etectt1c11y en•rgy
Proca1 rlltduct•nl GJ/t GJ/t GJit
I M1lJr~x
r1,L Ill
:\!Jt~ ... • J1 -joiS
'°'41H\JI JI ~di
:l)-11
10-12 2
tl)-1 15
J ll 9U
11-12 d
1l) -12 2

II :i(.rufj\,J i.:v ..111

~L;R""
::~.jl
Co41
'J d- •9 l
!2 0-iJ
u 5u
•) h
14 J-19 6
128 238
!:JRC Coa1 1':14-19 g I 10 20 5 21 0
I
~i;t.:,J( ;:.J1111a11/ n•lur •• 'i•i 11 o- :5 a 0 JS 12- lti 4

I
I
\tu.Jr~•
:•11n.e1co
t:tJA :~41,1t1.ectr.~11.,
CiJ.tt
a .i-10 2
10 ':I

HYL DR process llowsheet.

Fig. 2a (Source:US-Steel,lOth edit.)

t lltlACfOll ....... "'

COOL-Gd

~~~
1. GAi ttl&Tllt
J •tDUCiw. wi.1 sc•unu•
c OIOUCING GAS COWt!H-
S COOi.. . GAS sc•u•H•
I COOi.iNG GAi COIOl'•IU-
1 C,.&AGI UAUllllC. MICHAMSll
O Qll.CPt&AGI llM.MCt lllC"A- CR
t •l'Oll•ll

HYL Ill DR process d1i1!1<ilffi.

Fig. 2b
 - 62 -

3.2 Short description and characteristics of major DR-processes

HYL: The Hyl process was the first to produce sponge iron on an
industrial scale. HylSA of Mexico has developed this process and
plants in Mexico, Brazil, Iraq, Venezuela and Indonesia, have produced
a combined total of more than 31 Mt of sponge iron since 1957.

The original HYL I process, offered up to the end of 1980, was

discontinuous or intermittent, the iron ore or pellets remained
static in each of the four fixedbed reactors or reducing furnaces
that each industrial unit has, while being subjected to the passage
of different flows of reducing gas. Figure 2a shows a HYL process
flow s~eet.

In 1980, th HYL III process was developed by HylSA, it is a continuous

process with only one vertical reactor comprising two operating zones;
a reduction zone and a cooling zone. Ore charged from the top descents
counter-current to the flow 0f reducing gas which ascends through the
chamber. Fig 2b shows a diagram of the HYL III process. It is
interesting to notice that the gas going out of the top of the reactor
after. having reduced ore, does not return to the reformer, a fact that
has the advanta~e, it is claimed, cf contributing to the protection
of the cataiy~t in this unit.

About the industrial applications of this process see Table Jb, Part I.

MIDREX: It is the continuous process of natural gas based direct

redcutionwhich has the lon~est experience and whic~ prosses the greatest
number of industrial indstallations in production throughout the world.

Fig. 3 is a schematic of the Midrcx process. It is worthwhile noticing

that in this c~se, the reducing gas, one passed through the ore and
passed out as top gas from the top of the reator is returnea to the
reformin~ unit. This characteristic does not entail any problem as
long as the top gas is not contarninatedwith detrimental elements which
might p0iso~ th~ reformer catalyst. Currently most Midrex plants have
only treated ores of high quality, free of sulphur, chlorine etc.
 - 63 -

"3
~·
~E

~i1
I
I
I

\lidrex standard DR proc~ tlo,,.sheet.

Fig. 3 *) *)
Fig. 4

•-. ~.

'•.
':rlAI

~9dl.oclion Dewlphunzoteon by odd1t1on of 11 ne or

c01 .. c--2Co flv• """'" coals "''"' ~<9'1 S "'"''"'"
':: ,S) + F.. Qv!'.·i 1S 0 8'11.1 "'" u'8d
, .. 0v 1S) + CO (g) F•S • co-i:os • '•
f..oO (y.f) • co :g) cos • ca0-co, • eas
f..Oly-l)S• C02(g)

Fig. Sa 1•*)

*) Source: US-Steel, 10th edition'

**) Source: Reference Nr. 40 and 41
 - 64 -

An ~lternative Midrex process was developed to enable the use of

high sulphur ores, thus permitting a choice from a wider range of
oxide materials. In this alternative, top gas for reforming is first
used as cooling gas in the shaft furnace where sulphur is removed by
the hot DRI in the cooling ~one.

In view of the present and foreseeable good availability, on the

international market, of high quality iron ore and pellets for direct
reduction, Midrex plants have no probiem in obtaining the requisite
quality.

FIOR: Of the DR processes based on natural gas, the Fior process

is perhaps the most different. Iron ore concentrates are treated in
a fluidized bed. The ore particles are reduced whilst suspended
in a current of reducing gas. In the Fior process the ore for
reduction passes sequentially through a ,;eries of four reactors,
counter-current to a reducing gas which .s rich in hydrogen. The
reducing gas is obtained by steam reforming of natural gas. The pre-
reduced fines thus obtained are then hot briquetted. The Fior
process was developed between 1960 and 1970 by Exxon. Fig 4 shows a
diagramme of Fior process. The first commercial Fior plant was set
up at Puento Ordaz, Venezuela, began production in 1976 and is
supplied with a mixture of two iron ores of Ferrominera-Orinoco,
coming from Cerro Bolivar and El Pao mines. The poportion used
is 90 % Cerro Bolivar and 10 % El Pao. The average content of these
ores used in the Fior DR plant of Puerto Ordaz, Venezuela:

Cerro Bolivar EL Pao

°lo °lo

Total iron 64.8 66.76

Si02 1.) 2.10
Al
2 3
o 0. 7 I 0.80
Phosporus ().102 o.os
 - 65 -

, f.'- ·_l

TYPICAL LAY - OUT for SMALL

ancl MEDIUM PRODUCTIONS
,.,,----------- .... , Legend
,,
160 I
I
\ / '\ A - Raw material discharge
~
m I
I J \ I B - Raw molenol stocking yard
', .... ___________ . I : ' .. ___________ ..,.,,,/
C - Recla1m1ng and screening
140 D - Raw mo1enals preparation
E - Redudion uni!
F - P•odud dressing
120
G - Water cooling system
H - Dusi sud1on and collection system
I - Electrical subs1a1ian
100
J - Energy recovery
L - Hydraulic unit, compressor and
blower
80
M - Control room and electrical boards
N - D. P.. I. storage
60

40
*) Source: References 40
and 41
20

Om 20 40 60 80 100 120 140m

Continuous line: 1st Phase

Discontinuous Line: ~.ubsequent addition

 - 66 --

The experience of this plant in Venezuela has shown that it is very

important that the fines content under 325 mesh (0.05 mm) does not
exceed 8 % on average. An increase in these fines provokes difficulties
in operation. In regior.s where abundant and cheap reserves of natural
gas are unavailable, but reserves of non-coking coal are, the coal-based
DR processes begin to show their merits.

KINGLOR-METOR: Reduction of iron ore as graded lumps or pellets or

briquettes with a solid reductant (coal). The raw materials are charged
into a series of retorts of rectangular section and the heat is supplied
from a combustion chamber in which liquid or gaseous fuel is fired
(see Fig. 5 a).

The charge descends through the pre-reduction, reduction and cooling zones.
The sponge iron is separated by means of a magnetic separator and the
residual charcoal is recycled, while ashes are disposed off. Fig. 5 b
shows a diagramme of KM-operation.
One important aspect of the KM-process is the possibility of using
"poor" raw materials, such as himonites and liquites, which many countries
possess in abundance. Preheating fuels can be either gases, liquids or
solids. Operating temperatures 925° to 1090°C; iron ore (input): about
3
1,45 t (dry basis) for the production of 1 t of DRI; water: 0,4 m /t DRI;
retorts (purchase cost after the 2nd year of operation): 4,46 US $/t DRI.
Fig.Sc illustrates a typical layout for small and medium productions
(rated capacity range: 30 000 - 180 000 tpy); manpower requirements for
the above production range: 24 - 38 (European conditions); A cost-
production relation is sown in Fig. 6.

SL/RN: (Progressive Feed/Rotary Kiln) ihclined rotary kiln with continuous

gravity flow of blended ore, coal and flux; injection of gaseous and liquid
fuel through shell burners and central burner at kiln's discharge end;
0 0
operating temperature 1050 to 1110 C; gross energy input 21.1 6 J/t;
maximum commercial plant capacity 385 000 tpy. Figure 7 shows the SL/RN
process flowsheet.
 - 67 -

NEW Ki".A PLANTS - DIAGRAM Of COSTS AND PRODUCTION

II Investment cost
•turn-key•

~
....
II Investment cost
cbottery l1m1h

</)

0
u
-'
<(
>-
r-11 Specific cost
a:<( U •turn-key•
u
,_
U1
.... 0
z
....~
</)
w
u
u
u::
0w
D Spec1f1c cost
•battery lim1h

> ~
~ U1

0 :o JO )7 5 60 Qt)ll25120 150 180 225 240 JOO

Fig. 6
NOMINAL CAPACITY OF KM PLANTS (xlo-3 t D RI/YEAR) F

SourcP: References 40 and 41

oroouc!

Schf!me of the Codir process. 1 recycled char. ;>

waMcz cl'\ar
reduction coal. 3 desulphunzing agent (limestone or raw do-
SLIRI\ DR pr°""!! llowshttt lomite).• lump ore or 011de pellets. 5 injected coal. 6 blower.
7 rotary kiln. 8 air nozzles. 9 dust chamber. 10 waste heal
Fig. 7 recovery and dedusting. 11 kiln d1sc!iargl! chute. 1;> rotary cool-
er. 13 screening. 1• magnetic separators. 15 pneumatic 11g for
char-reco•ery. 16 sponge iron. 17 15h
Source: US-Steel,lOth edit.

Fig. 8a
 - b8 -

CODIR/KRUPP: (Progressive Feed/Rotary Kiln) inclined rotary kiln with

continuous gravity flow of blended ore, coal and flux countercurrent to
the flow of hot reducing gases; injection of ?ulverized coal, gas, or
oil through the kiln's discharge and/or feed ends and air blowing through
lengthwise shellports; operating temperature 950° to 1050°C; gross
energy input 21.1 GJ/t; maximum commercial-plant capacity 165 000 tpy.
Figure Ba shows a schematic diagramm~ of the Codir process and Fig. hb
a typical iron balance. The processes that prod~ce a molten product
(similar to blast-furnace hot metal) directly from ore are generally
classfied as direct-melting processes.

KR (Kohle-Reduktionsanlage): The plant consists of two reactors. A lower

reactor, known as the melter gasifier, serves for melting ORI and gasifying
coal with oxygen. It also generates reducing gas; part of it is used
for reducing iron ore pellets to ORI in a conventional shaft furnace
situated above the gasifier where the coal is coked and partially gasified
in a fluidized bed. At the same timt:, ORI is melted by oxygen injected
through the tuyeres and carburized to form molten metal. It is claimed
that this process is an alternative to the blast furnace with low
investment (because of no coke ovens or agglomeration plants), low
operating costs (due to cheap fuel cost) and low specific energy consumption
(around 15 GJ/t hot metal). Figure 9 depcits the KR process flow sheet.

In plasma smelting for direct reduction, gases and solids are passed
through an arc, much like a welding arc, and are heated. This electric
heating replaces oxygen in conventional systems that use oxy-fuel burners.

PLASMARED: The plasmared process developed by SKF, Sweden produces DR! in

a shaft furnace with a moving bed. With this arrangement the reducing gas
is formed in a plasma gasifier at which one or more nlasma generators are
mounted in the wall. The plasma generator uses an electric arc that burns
any gas that passes through two electrodes to temperature ranging between
0
3000 to 40oo c. Here the wall powder is gasified with oxygen and steam
0
at tempe~atures around 1400 C to produce a gas containing 10-15% co 2 + Ho
2
in a pregasifier provided with the plasma generator.
 Fig. Sb '"'°"' OIH KR-process
Fig. 9
10 ~ :.=~~!'ltnq

ran naut
'QtUy .(.lift
t2 ore,! :1ri
n
~~. _
2 ... ,.
:;;:tun1nq lftUf!S
ll~RT GAi

t
·~

: 3 ·~ re
,, 'd!e' 1t1SI
-~ I 1~!c~;:
0: ~'. ;! Qeo
~
.n Uft !u1111
;eou11111
J1~nt

.....
!5 9·1. Fe'" ari
· •esa. 97 8 ''• 01 Fe :ee •o •il•l

7'..,.p1ca1 irOf1 o;iiance: Krupp Cod1r•i• process

0\
'°
Iron ores and pellets used on industrial Codor kilns

Country of Fe. SiO, S 'lther

1'r1g1n % •1. % ''-
S•shen'l
umo ore South Afrtc.a 56 a 30 0.03
......
0~1maaisr>urg 1 )
I .A.
·o
umo ore
1
So111n A.fnca <;!; 9 25 0 02 ,r~·
r~o•rai~i 0 ' A. "... ":t:: Fig.10
.....
~umo

So1m1ne)
.,..11eis
orf!' 8ra1d

Italy
o7 a

65 6
011

272
001

001 0 28 Pb • Zn D:9 ..&.. '

:1:.
...,.,, ..
4-

"/~~I
Kromora1'} "(.>

•" i
:umo ore South Africa 67 1

:Processed in 1• m • • 6 m kiln of Dunswart Steel South Alroca

t 20 0 10 Sn
I 0

') 110 m Jll 3 6 m kiln of Burt>eck otsnt Federal Republic of Germany \

I

.......~. -~
Reducing coats used 1n industrial Cot1or kilns ••.......•
Coat IVl>t!
.,.
r_,11 Volat11n S ,.... Calorific •alue
\
•1. •1.
""'
MJ1~9 ,..... ,.......: ~ '<-" <..> '<..>
'"..... . . ...
'<..>
I
81tum1nous coal
Sem1-•nthrk1•e
Anthracite
SI
611
71
21
13
'1
10
I 3
01
13
17 7
10 2
2e 1
27 1
30 ti
SKF Pl•sm•red tor 150 000 tpy sponge iron •t Stockholm I
C.:>ke b•eeze 114 5 • 05 tI 0 29 5
Source: References 12,15,23,1; US-Steel 10th edition
 - 70 -

Raw gas then passes through a column of hot coke to lower the contents
of coand H o, as well as gas temperature. The gas is desulphurized in
2 2
a dolomite tilter before being used tor reduction. Reduction oi iron ore
takes place in a shaft furnace and the ORI is discharged at the bottom.
The top gas, after removal of dust, water and CO is recirculated into the
2
shaft furnace. Benefits of Plasmared process are claimed to include: use
of fossil fuel as reducing agent, high total process ef.liciency 12.2 C:cal/t),
low pollution and possibililv ot using high sulphur fuels. See Figure IO.
Unlike the direct reduction process, iew smelting riduction processes have

been commercialized yet.

Tables 4a to 4c illustrate a comparisnn af direct smelting processes.

J.] ORI - Quality/Charging methods

A key factor in producing the highest quality grades is reslricting and

controlling the levels of residual elements in the steel.
This is the primary reason Lhat direct reduced iron (URI) is an ideal
charge material for the electric arc furnace as being of known composition.
While most quality requirements of IJRI relate to an optimization of
productivity and energy consumption, the absence ot contaminating residuals

is an important advantage for upgrading steel.

The five major residual elements ot concern to stef,]makPrs are Ci1, ')n, i\i,

Cr and Mo. In LJP.L, the total level of these five elements typically i,;

around 0.02 These five elements are present in scrap at levels ran/''"·-

Lrom 0.10 ~ to over (). 70 °·

As a result oi the low residual content ot lJRl, almost any grade of steel
can be produced using !t. With a JOO~ IJRI charge, residual levels close
to the lower limii. of accurate analysis can be attained ccnsistently. The
effect o[ lJRl use 0r residual levels in steel is illustr~ted in Fig. 11.
 - 71

O:.parieon of di r~rt nt'lt I nq pr..,c,.o' Pr~•" charectt!ri stir and

·----------·*·------ --~---~-·-----------
Proce•• dlarect,.ri~tlc
Proceee Reduction •teqt!,Plnal r~uctinn/

El r"tl
·--+-- ----·-
fltJl<liz.,., ""'d
emt!H i nq 11taql'

0.C. ,.l@ctrl"." arc Plln~ plant 11976-

furn",..'°' Pr,.-rt!'l. ~taql', 0.45 t/h
1
Swi"l~\n<J staq"' 25t/charqe
-4-----1---·-·-·------·-
Inr.-d n .. sh A-ltinq 11.C •UlllTl"TqP<l .. r,.. Pi lc>l plant ( 197~- ):
~ha~ber lfurna~~ 5 t/hr
lfluidiud bftdll Dl'lllO•tration plant (1982- ),
R t /hr
1------f-----· -~------- - - --
Comhi ""'"It Rotary kl ln SuhmPrq..,J ;uc ~L 1 PN, cC*•t!r"."ial plAnta

·--~--'-S_L_l_P_N_i______ lf-urn~· ·_ (-S~~l- --- ~c;~r__ _____________.

fluidiz,.<l bt!d C'>~t>-fillP'l Gh,ft Pil0t pl•nt (1~75- ),
Sl".f
p laHUUmt! l t I furnAct> ( Pl;t~m~ l 1~q kq/hr ( 1. 5 MW)
f 5"mi-COlllllt!rc1aJ plant

----+-·-------+-------~----+-<_P_1_._~_nfl<l_>_6_0_,_o_o_o_t_l_Y_<_1s_..,,._>~
Shaft furrar" ,~haft furn~ct> Pilot plant (1982- ),

___ _____ _. ~ ______ _. _________ ---

fiO,OOO t/y
------ ---------------'
P1 ! or plant. ( 1 ~8L-
,,
!;umi t.omo
R '-!
---- ----t----
Sh,.ft fur'""" furn'ICfl' Pllnl plRnt (1970~)
1"h"fl
rJ0!111oniotr&tlon plant' 100 t/<l
I 1-·lannl'!fl)
·----------- '---- --- ---- --~--------------

Fi11i~izfl!'d ~d.'
('Jr~
1 r_~,_mv.,.rt.f"r
c;h3ft furnar:P 1

------------ ·---+-- ------ ---------- ---- --------

5~•f i__~~~·_:__t':':'_~:.'.'.": ________ r1_'._o:__P~-:~- ~-t1charq ..

Bri ti~h !=:.,aft furnacl!

5t•l!'1
Corpnr1tlf'ln
__________ _L __ -··-------- ----------------~-------

(Source: Reference Nr. 34)

• t·,..111J r1"9• ., ... ~, l tyt •fi.111, 11• • f', .I. 1 ""41 ,,.,,
 - 72 -

~hi• ~•r1y ,.,1""''""""" lr-r tftnn• nf t'"f ..,.t41J lft Atr•rt ,..,.Jtt.,q prr~••"• (Pf•••nt ... .., lJ'wo M•I• rA • t l . .tlOftJ
4h -·----- --·-----· - - ... -- ---- --~·--------

Plr--1 tnr'Pd .......... i t rnur

--·----~-------·---L----------1
!kol Geel !!!!
D>ol• r.91 •.u 100-0 '· 24-0 un 1.0 1000 1.70 - c i t... ..J

I....""""·"'""'
2.'
-...
AllO ltOO l•L/11111
!:;;::·~:.:{) Orwt.1 1]0 150 0.57 1.:ro -1u,.. J.J
a11'clhf't"• 1r:..,1
·1•• -4. :ro
IUPI
, _,_,
,_,,-rr1W11•1,.t. f*l'
,,,_, 1'1•rtrlr.HJ ) fli"f) O.lt r--ry
.,.n-r11t Inn .,_,_,.,.,,,.. \ )vh
0 -· .J• 1cn1
"'' ,...r•rflt
, ,,,o .. ,,,,..,
1.10
..,
11n~hT,.,.t f':lllt, {"h.ep 119• ~•1. ~oil• u .. u ... -
bltWll..,.. eoal.
ht r.n•I "''"''• rt'J•1 'lf" ~n~hf"._C!_!f!_ ___ _
lllt...lnam C9l1
lt9nittt
tAen en•l ent:i.rKl t.e, C.-
•-•
..
1.0•1

F'1••·' r4rhn" •
..,.__ .,,, "·" 1 tqnlt• C"Olll 4ft
I J. l• t)

. .h .
11-17
••• . '·" 14.9'
v,.,1,..tl 1_. t1t•I !•r •

------ --
,,, ··"·
-------'-------+---------

. .. -- ...
91Jffkh•nt surrtetent •l•ctrte 9'1 • • • •rd he• t•r • nrplu• "' a>-rtcto ,.. llor- en •"""' 1111-
•1-.rtr'i r-el •rwrqy ~r Qen•r•t..t hn111 off u•9d to au per tu11e t prodl•ct ••• , - .,.... ,.t.. •"" r9C'0'99ry all. -~
111 _ .,,,.._ -
. . ft#IU tftd f'rOll off- ,.. to as:i-r111t• 'll~ftc:'trle portion of pr0<"9•• fo1' 91111• •port/HI•. """'
offer•• _,..lch I• nee••••ry quentttl .. ol. . .,.. .,. f r m - 1 '1-'9"
q111" tn nptrete .... r. •rr- turn11rfl
erl"" f11rn•~• .,,.. lnj•Cted with ~1 cen be 911Mratett by lnterul
du•t, artd tron ore •fMll'VJ' utlJl••ron·
•npf'J y 1nn 1t-"/t: nf
cr...tl t ftne• •t. •1•4J--Ul _,.,.,,ID
UIJI - · tlll•
J.t
tnt1trface. S.•11 t;('.'•l/t.
of CUftlt
-'>Uftt
tn UW •haft.
U ....
I
Thie prt)C. .e I•
I
htqhly ""'P"""""t ""
•htl"'trlclty 1111rJ1ly.
I
I

'T'#llt-1"' rn111p.11rleor'I nf ~•r'l.-tty, tron nrtt, hot _..t•l, ".'eplUI ~tend ~ratlnq co.-t for wrl!lua dlr•ct -ltlraq proc••H••·
l.c
-------·~------~--~-----~--~-~-·~---~.------~-
P:lr"" lnr.,, cntM C.~. ~-lt
---- --------·-
.,n.nM-cnn,nno t/y
- -
100,ono-cno,noo t/y
·----------
150,000-4,0,ooo t/y
- ·-·-------
J00,000 t/1 -·-lit
P1n• nr• fqr11tn! rtn1t l"ron «•. P'tftft Me ,.1 l•t •nd 1 65• re .. ll•t , , , . •• ,.ll•t , IM ft
~h• n. 1 ••) re1rln9d •rrtte. lll91p or• !l•• 1 112•-111• lWIP ore
rflt•t. cont•h•l"'f ln
~ .., frmr er••
clf'•ner
--------·---+-------.,________..
fbt •t11t.d
~?f'~'llti~.n (•}
IAJln CtW l
~:O!_l!L
LlCJftl te
-~·_J_!_l_I_
-c
-!!!!
1-4 1.7 1.4 4.0 1 .1 1. 7-4.4 J. 7 0.1
1-4 0.01
...~·
p
o.n~ • .1 0.1 1.0
0.1
0.1 o.tJ
0.1-0.J 0.02-0. 1 11.05-0.2 O.J 0.02
- ~--- -----------if--------+--------.f
C11ptt111l rn111t
(In 11<;~ l
Sii! OI S01-1 I? '4 ,,, ... S•10-150/t 11~
. . u1

.. ,,,..
!1204-2M/t lk!t
"~' 1Mt41 J

Pr!ltTur.ttnn (",.et. 91 \1/t 111n-UO/t ,,,,,t (091

IUO'!/t lllllatl
f ~r lnnn.._ hot-. '150/t i.ollr I
•t1•llf!lc;,1

-~;~ f; ~ -Co•I. - ·1 ·; ;;: ---..... •--· -,

~;; ;;;;~- ---· ·- ------.T;;:-;;;-----•· -----·1 ----- --------- -T;;~;;------- ---T------··-------

(Source : Re f • N r • 14 )
 £··,~:: o.r DR.,,' on rcsi.iuu: 'onu1·J: Ct.' stef: kW hit
Eleclfical
Energy_..la I
" 557 kWh/t
811.7\\

<
,!'-..
. "-'
'
-

!.::. . - ~, -... - -
~ ' '

'-
!
.;:;
"
~
• ; ~,-;~ i!:_,·; ~·.158 . 19.5
~ ....·~· ,L~t 1.01.0 .'. 13.2
.. 9.3 ..
...-..:., ... 51.0

------ tC 510 83.0

;)· - 2:1..:. (~"-' 50~" :-:'- \:•.'· 83 12.2
Percenl DR~'" lht Chars• 427 52.7

Fig. 13: Energv balance diagramme 1 or elP~Lrjc .__,

Fig.>l (Source: References 40 and 41)
arc turnaLe. Excess heat trom exothermic
reactions and latent f~el sources may be
recycled lo el t ect subslantial t:nergy
- · ...,, ""X-'"~ Fig.12.:.-:.·.·''.l-J':'~--,,.s.~·r:'",rr-,t:" ,')r-' .'
savings (Source: Based on reierE:nces "o&'41)
·~ '---''~''':'n

(Source: Ref. 40 & 41)

~'-J
I
.... ._'l(J'f\>
Fig. 14 s·crap preheater (Source: Ref .Nr. 10)
"' f,
q•i
·""

j
.
. ~
j "II
i
-~
•00 -~SO"C
...
I FURNACE PREHEATER FILTER
 - 74 -

The resulting impact of ORI (Midrex process) on some key physical

properties of steel is shown below:

Elongation

Fatique
,~

Notch toughness ~

Hot workability ~

Heat treatability ~

Weldability ~

Isotropy ~

Yield point ~

'
Tensile strength

Continuous charging: The preferred method of using ORI in the electric

furnace is to charge it continuously via a feed pipe extending through the
roof of the furnace. This is ideal when ORI makes up over 30 % of the
charge. The concept of continuous charging ORI into the EAF was developed
in the late 1960 to take advantage of the free-flowing characteristic of
ORI. Several types of continuous charging systems have been developed;
however, almost all melt s.1ops adjacent to direct reduction plants have
adopted an overhead system which feeds ORI through a fifth hole in the
furnace roof.
The relative cost increase for the building and charging arrangement is
about 5 to 10% of the electric furnace cost.

Batch charging: In most cases, EAF steelmakers who purchase ORI on the
open market will be using only 20-30% ORI in the charge and will not have
a continuous charging system installed in the melt shop. This suggests
that batch charging of ORI will be increasingly used as the merchant market
for ORI expands. In batch charging, ORI can be beneficial for densifying
the charge and controlling tramp element levels.
 - 7) -

3.4 Scrap grading according to usage

The bulk of scrap trade takes place close to its sources of generation
and points of consumption. All steelmaking processes require a well
prepared scrap of defined analysis and having a maximum bulk density.
The scrap must also be supplied in a suitable form and size for the
available melting units. The types of scrap grades used in ~he charge
is a decisive tactor in the production of a heat.

Scrap preparation: The purpose ot industrial scrap preparation is to

make available to steel plants scrap which is chemically and physically
as clean as possible and which is as compact and dense as possible.

i)Scrap Comminution: The purpose o[ comminution is to achieve the

followinµ;:
the manutacture of small sized scrap having a high bulk density.
the creation of conditions for a possibly necessary grading
nf the scrap.
There are many facilities available for comminuting scrap, depending
on the manner in which the relevant scrap breaks up and on the required
t ~nished size.

Materials capable ot shear fracture Materials capable ot brittle fracture

thick walled thin willed thick wallect thin walled
or compact scrap scrap or corrpact scrap scrap

Coarse explosion
crushing or flame cutting
inter- guillotine shears alligator shears skull crackers
illed iate alligator shears hammer crusher hydraulic
size (shredder) crushers
reduction hammer mills
fine rotating drum mills
crushing hammer mills
swarf crushers
 - 76 -

Researc:1 is being carried out into the use of plasma cutting and
cutting by means of lasers and water jets. In the fielc of inter~ediate
size reduction, hydraulic guillotine shears will, for the present.
remain paramount because of their favourable energy balance. For thin
walled scrap, hammer crushers continue to gain ground as is indicated
by the developmEnt of shredder plants. Super-cooling of the scrap more-
over, with, fo= instancy, liquid nitrogen prior to size reduction, is
still further advantageous.

ii) Scrap upgrading processes have the purpose to remove, as far as

possible, the tramp elements (S, Cu, Sn, Zn, Pb, Cr, Ni, etc.) and
the nonmetallic mate=ials (rubbPr, glas, plastic, oil, dirt, etc.)
The electrolytic leaching process (Goldschmidt process) is used only
for the preparation of tinned, new sheet off-cuts.

Attempts to detin contaminated tin plate scrap, p2rticularly preserve

tins from refuse scrap, have not yet led to any satisfactory results.

iii) Scrap compression has always been important in the preparation

of light scrap. The purpose is to reduce the volume of the scrap for
transportaticn, to increase the efficiency of steelmaking furnaces and
to reduce melting losses. Treatment methods are: scrap baling, scrap
briquetting, hot compression of scrap. A distinction is drawn between
baling and briquetting, depending on the pressure applied. Figure 12
illustrates the advantages resulting from the use of the scrap press.

~lectric Furnace Scrap Requirements: Basically, every type of scrap can

be used in the electric furnace. When capital scrap is charged, however,
particular attention ihould be paid to copper and tin contamination as
both these tramp elements, nobler than iron, cannot be removed during
the melting process. When producing plain carbon steels !n the UHP
furnace, scrap density is no longer quite so important. Extra subsequent
charges of up to thrPe baskets need not adversely affect the output of
an arc furnace because the walls are additionally protected by the scrap
and the power supply can h~ increased durirg this period. In modern
furnaces, the cut-o[f period is reduced to two to four minutes during
the extra charging operation.
 - 77 -

The maximum length of pi~ces of scrap depends or furnace size. With

10 t furnaces, it is about 1 m, with 50 t furnaces, about 1.5 m and
with !50 t and large furnaces, about 2 m. Heavy ingot 5Crap should be
charged only in limiteG quanitities and in the first basket in order
to avoid electrode breakages caused by slippingand sliding of the scrap,
thus leading :o down-tim~ and produccion losses.

The proporti0n of turnings and shredded scrap charged should be

restricted with conventional operation practice as they tend to
agglomerate. A 100 % shredded scrap charge can be possible only with
continuous scrap feeding. A tenctncy to explode and the extraction
capacity of dust removing plants limit the use of turnings contaminated
by oil

Auxiliary equip~ent for scrap handling: On average, in a steel plant,

scrap goes through 3 handling proctsses btfore being loaded into the
furnace. It is thus essential to diminish the coEts of these
operations by the use of adequate and reliable systems. It is also
important to k11ow the weights of scrap used. Auxiliary equipment
suitable for the scrap handli~g is:
weighing device
basket conveying cars
clamshell or gore charging baskets
electromagnets
hydraulic spiders.

3 .5 Scr~p prehe~Ling

Almost 70 % of the total conversion ~osts in the melt shop are direct
or indirect energy costs. It is therefore worth to look at the possibilities
t0 recover waste energy. The energy balance in an electric arc furnace
heat helps illustrate the relative magnitudeofenergy used. It also
points out the advantages of recovering the heat available in waste
gases, cooling waters and steel, to further optimize operatin~ costs.
A close look at the energy balance in figure 13 and in regurd to the energy
 contained in the llue gas, only the portion extracted through the
root elbow can ~~ utilized. Scrap preheating is one possible application.
The heac can be recovered either by passing the lumes directly through
the '-;crap or hv using a heat exchanger to heat an intermediate I luicl (air)
which .,,, l l then pass thro11gh the scrap.

The installation tor scrap preheating is shown in figure 14. The hot
0
waste gases having a temperature ot ''bout (;()() - 12UO C are sucked through
a he d t in (-( c ha rn be r in i..J hi ch th P s c rap b d s k e t is p laced . The temperature

lh•· continuous avdilabilit' c

scr.tp ,,rc:.1 r•\,',ui:ir 1•pcr11r.icn ot tl1e cicctric arc turr.ace arl' i:•;portant

l· .,1·r elu:trc;de and pm·1er consumption (by 1\)-l"J

:tn1:1Jrrnl\· J,,.,.; nvdroµ,en curitenr. ut the steel dL:•· t<> th1'

Th•: scrap prd11at ing rr1uiprnenL consists of:

l'r! i 1. for rr·cuvery c•f heat t rom furnace fumes
scrap hec1ting J1uod
basket carrying cars.

~. Electric Arc Furnace Steelmakinq

The electric arc fucnat~ steeimaking has became the pricipal process
employed where scrap anc !JRI are the main raw "laterials available. One
ton of good-quality scrap is rPquirerl to make one ton of raw steel. A~

'J '/, gang11P in the raw ore and g5 '/. m€,t;dlization, 1.1 tons of llRI an•

required to prnducP one ton o[ .;teel. It metallization is HS% approxi-

mately I.lo tuns an~ needed.

I
 - 79 -

The time required to make a heat of steel depends to a significant

degree on the size of the transformer installed with the furnace.
During the past 20 years, tap-to-tap times were reduced from three
hours to less than one-and-a-half hours.

In Figure 15a the power classification according to IISI proposal 1981

is shown together with the power raiting of different furnaces in USA,
Japan and FRG. Precondition for applying high power rates is of course
capability of the public grid. The melting time which can be reduced by
higher energy input is only part of the total furnace operating.
Additional time is consumed for refining, super heating, adjusting of
analysis and holdi1•g times. However, a series of new developments
has permitted a considerably increase in productivity as shown in
Figure 15b.

4.1 Electric furnace

Electric furnaces for steelmaking range in siz~ from 5 to 500 tons

per heat. The electric arc furnace is the most suitable unit for
melting scrap (up to 100 %); ORI or a combination of both. (In
comparison BOF converter can accommodate a maximum of about 30 % of
scrap in its charge). Two types of furnaces h~ve proven to be
practical for melting steel:

a) the three-phase A.C. (alternating-current) direct-

arc-electric-furnace
b) the in<luction furnace

Recently, D.C. (direct-current) direct-arc-electric-furnace has also

been developed in smaller sizes (10 to 50 tons) for commercial use.
Thf. thre~ phase direct-arc electric furnace is the type most commonly
used today. It is primarily a DR1 or scrap-melt:ng furnace. A three-
phase transformer, equipp~d for varying the secondary voltage, is used
to supply energy to the furnace from the electric-power over a suitable
range of power levels.
 KVA l1naa Mill
PER
IQNNE
·-· 1111
ULTRA
HlGH
SAN-:'0
• BAYOU-STEEL
• HAMBURGER STAHLWERKE
• KRUPP I S1egen I
• BAOISOE S fAHLWERKE
HIGH
• LUKENS STEEL
• TOSHIN ....
Ill .. . . . , ...
I · KRUPP
MEDIUM
LOW
! Bochum )

Eregy k>~ ., ~ee<'l()('l 10 1he diJo?lon ol

cool openng
10 \2[-)

,. Di
..,, ...
Fig. 15a (Source: Ref. Nr. 10) Fig. 16
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
(Source; l<ef. Nr. 41) ·~
Fig. 15b (Source: Ref. Nr. 10) I a;;

melting
MCGfllolftaC:tlOll
with ••r11•n
KfGP preh1H111f>9
colllpUt•r control lop to tap
I 0

capacity
t/h I
,., lturnor
I•••
_ ..,t ..noc•
c~
time
min I •••llf·Clll•• ••" ••• "'' ......
. . . . . . 11110111

.-
.... aNI ..... tlO
120
110
I "" ...,...,.,...........,
• llJllO llACtl
... 1. . ttlc ,,..... '" aui,U•1

• Ml,.tlle ...HIM 11 ...... lrll,

100
IO
....•.,... ,,,,,.,
lluu 1d tUt'fl

·.,mite• wll- NI llttl

IO
'JO

' ....
'
150
Ml
Fig. l 7
(Source: References
14 and 45)

1960 S70 l980 ,990

 - Bl -

Cylindrical solid graphite electrodes suspended from above the shell

and extending down through parts in t~e furnace root are used to conduct
the elctric curre~t inside the furnace shell. The removable roofs enable
the scrap to be quickly and easily charged into the furnace, but the
duration of the loading operation has to be kept at a minimum due to the
therrr.al losses (Fig. 16). The trend in recent vears to ultra-high-
power operation (see Fig. lSa) has had a considerable impact on arc
h 1 rnace design. The term l.1HP is a relative one and. '..Jithin current
technological limitation3, is a function of transformer size and the
abilitv of the furnace walls and roof to provide reasonable life. The
structural and mechanical parts of a modern EAF consist basically of:
a shell to contain the charge, with a refractorv lined hearth, water
cocled wall panels and a water-cooled roof. Figure 17 features a
comparison of older electric arc furnaces with modern units.
A tvpical furnace diameter is 5 m tor 50 tonnes and 6 rn for 100 tonnes.
Figure 18 illustrates a consturction diagramme ot an EAF (ASEA/Danieli).

'+ • 2. EAF - auxiliarv equipment

Auxiliarv oxy!uel burners: The use of auxiliary oxytuel burners is

being adopted in many steel plants, since it allows to achieve two
important targets:
Reduction of melting time
Reducc1on of e:ectric power and electrode consumption
The eomplete plant consists of:
Burner unit, side and piping
Unit lor the distribution and fluid conLrcl
Control panel

.'\typical layout and dist.rihulion system are shown in Fi~',Url' lY.

lfaL<'r-cooled panels for furnace shells and roofs: !Jue to the higher
tr~mperaturt~s r<~ilched inside the frunace (UHP, oxyfuel burners), there
has been an increase in the consumption of refractory material.
Traditional furnace coatings havp significant short--omings, so that
thev are no longer su1tal>le lo meet the requirements of more modern
npr~ ril t· i ve sys le ms.
 - 82 -

·-
.JL. - - - --
il!'°
-~---

r:(·
-----"-------

i--~~ r~~---=
-

~.....~-' l--
I I

f1
'

r--__J "L

·-

~'~==========~~~==-1r~~u,....___:;.y,~==:::::=====~
,fl,

_,..., \1'
.ll- ~====================~-

Fig. 18

(Source: References 40 and 41)

- layour cn:I ckri.Uion divarn cl

oxyloel bl.mets.

Fig. 19
(Source: References 40 ~nd 41)
 - 8J -

Cnnsequently, i~ is necessary to line the walls and the roof of

furnaces with water-cooled panels. The use of such panels not
only enables the introduction of t~e above mentioned technology,
but also 3ig~itic2ntly 1liminishes refractory consumption, while
in=r~asing the ~tilizacion fac~or of the furnace at the same time
(heat hours/calendar hours).

Refractorit:·s: ~lodern ~:AF commonly have a hearth constructed from

dolomite biocks. Tne sidewall, ~e~ending on conditions, can also be
of dolomi~ bricks or panels with magnesite or chrome magnesite being
substituted in hrt spots or wherE furnace conditions encourage
refractory wear. l:\oofs \1ill norrr.ally be lined with silica or alumina
bricks. (See Figure 20 a,b and Table 5). Figure 21 a shows a typical
inslalldtion of a bricked dolomite hearth and profile bank arrangement
in a 100 tonne Ul!P furnace. Figu•·e 21 'J illustr;;.tes an eccentric
bottom taphole arrangement in a 200 tonne capacity furnace. This is
the largest arc furnace c~rrently operational in Europe, and was
converted to the EBT design August 1985. Figure 21c illustrates the
taphole arrangement. No drying or preheating is necessary with the
cerarr.icallv bounded dolomite hearth; however for the first charge,
light scrap should be se1ected and a lower programme follo~ed.

Figures 22 a,b indicate the advantages for the refractort consumption

resulting from the use of the water-cocled panels and root.

Tilting mechanism: fhetilting mechanism has to give ;;. smooth and jerk-
free movement to the furnace and especially a slag-free tapping important
for all further secondary (ladle) operations.

Electrode hold!~g, operating mechanism and control: The main adv3ntages

of the automatic operation of such a system are a) redu~tion oE electrode
consumption b) shorter stoppage ot the furnace operating time
c) controlled fastening.
 - 84 -

: , : " 2·~.
'----------·--ll----~::::::.
Fi3.2~a:Va~iou5 arPas of zon~d electric furnace
refractorg linin~ (see also Taole S)
(Source: Ref. Nr. 45) -

WC WC we I I we

•_c_-+-_wc_--+_w_c__._•_c~~-•-c_4-_•~_c---11
__ SLrGOOOll

w: WC 2 we we
SILL Ll'I[

L-
I
I
_, -·------
Fig. 20b: Various areas of zoned electric-
fu~nac~ refractories and water-c0oled
~~-----l_i_n_i_n~g.._(see also T~ble 5)
(Scurce: ~ef. Nr. 45)

'fab l <· c
.i: Refractory Co11struction in Zr.med El~tric f!lma ..'f! ( cuO~rCe.• US - St e~ l , 10th pd.)

-i-- Ti"' ····:"'Yin rk.. «l -:"""- ~-T-;---

Tvpt"
Metal-bath
aiea
S!a~-line and
tap-hole
I Hot-,pots
II UiwPr walls Upper walls
---A-.---+--..-,-J-gn-esite Fused--::ast .....
, Fused-ca:;t 1'. D1recc-bond1>c t:nburned
Con"entmn.al brick or magnesite- magnesite- magnesite- magnesite
lining r:•.mming mix chrome brick . chrome brick 1 chrome brick-- C'hrome hr1~·k-
lmpreimated or magnesite- clad dad. Direct-
maJlT1rsite bride 1 bonded-dad
brick
1
, I
A Same :-.iagn-esia· \fagnc~ia· "'1agnesia· as''
I Jm,•ci·hondedot
113 _, Same
1
LlninJ! usi:ig ,,:prbon brick · c;orbon brick- carbon brick
magtiesia- .I rlad
carbo11 bnck brick-dad

c
I
Linir,~ using Sam_c_as
__ "-_ _.._S_a_m_e_as_A_o_r_B_.___wc•__L
E'"nels I WC we• panels
__·_p_a_n_e_l5_ _.__S_a_m_e_2!_s or B. J\
water-<"oole<:l
pands
 Bricked Hearth end Profiled Banks Arrangement
fig. 21a'") *) Source: Reference Nr.34

r .; . .~'"'.
06096

""··~
/.//1----· · - ·
tI I
I
1332
...
"'"'' , lrit~1d 09'..Utt "Htfh

:~t~
Ott ail of EBT /(BT
19!0 TIP.hole Am1ngemenl

"· rTI a.a

~

~~~~~~~~~~~~22~aI.=J.

D Sll\:OOFORMK 12101 r?71SINMAFORMT12280 ~SINMAFOAMT122~0 f'·':::qSINOOMIXT72402

Cera.micahy Borlded LL.L.J 5""' Carbon Boroded ~Magnesite
Pilch lmP<egn&ted
Oo10m1le
Magnesile
·. ·: · ·.-.- Tar Oolomlle Rem Mill
hpllOll .,., •• -
I fBT/CBT
Repair pri!Ct1ce
Tor Wur Tube
.
a,
V'

Fig. 21b*)
~R
-~
- - - - - - - - 5200 3660

r
-==--·£- -- -- ~-i---·--·
SpUt shell line Hehl line. j __ .
iI .
• SINt1AFORl1 T 00711
l Ruin Bonded ~gnesit1 l

Fig. 21c*)

SINOOFORH K 12101
Ccr Ulically llonded
Pitch -.,,.egnated Dololllite

200 Ton Capacity EST-Furnace

 - h6 -

,_._""""'""- . Adv<Jnloges r~ Iran The

use ol warer-eooled panels for tfe .hel
.;.- Nil-lllOIWJ<Odiid~

\~~I I -I
. I I
I• IC

I I
.io,W1',•

1,.5 lr.q/t
I
'1

'
ll'~c~
J Eliah;;>--c~
'
1.,~,~~;J'lo

A.r!·1r:irlr~ge:. ·~:t.Ming fr'JfTI ~he se -:;.f

'"''.? '.'\lfJte<-c:.oied roe>i

, '.; .~,. i •.)s·, !

j ~ <JI'

l)nwn·~

Fig. 22b*)
(Source: Ref~rences 40 and 41)
 - B7 -·

Foamy slag: Fo2my slags are those which develop a high gas rate
while at the same time offer a high viscosity. The basic elements
which characterize foamy slags are Caco and C. The main advantages
3
of this technique are: a) shortening of melting and refining time
b) reduction of refractory and electrodes consumption c) reduction of
electric power consumption d) increased productiity e) improvement
of the work conditions for the personnel.

4.3 Secondary steelmaking - ladle w.etallurgy

One of the recent development that has major impart on mini-plant

design and operation is the secondary steelmaking technique1 The
modern trend in steelmaking is to keep to a minimum the metallurgical
work carried out in the EAF. Furthermore, the metallurgical possibilities
of secondary steelmaking have changed the role of EAF; it can produce
nearly all types of steel if equipped with appropriate processing
facilities (see Figure 23). Table 5 shows basic function and
processing techniques for various secondary steelmaking processes.
Slag free taping is necessary for all secondary operations (see Fig.24).
To achieve an optimum service life, alo~g with economical energy
consumption, basic li.1ed ladles are used. Table 6 illustrates a cross-
scction of performances in ladles for both EAF and BOF shops.
The metal refining proceas MRP developed and designed by Mannesmann
~emag HUttentechnik, FRG is given as an example regarding operating
cycle and investment cost.
The MRP converter is a bottom-blown convertE~ which uses oxygen and
inert gases to produce high-quality steels. Figure 25a shows the MRP
co~verter profile with a nominal capacity of 8 t, and Table 7 indicates
the design data. Figure 25 b shows the process cycle for the steel
tyoe 42 Cr Mo 4. Resu1ts achieved in about two years of operation
are summarized in tabular form, Table 8, Table 9 indicates the total
investment cost for different MRP converter capacities.
-- -------
.L... 0 p tll.t'tll ptt1 llL. pvll.PoS EJ FrM. "THE .ffl,.PL1£~TION OF OPFP.flT/oN
ltf' 71HLUllC:.1C"IU /.
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.. fi ,i ... ..,. ,1
ol'e,.,.,,., I ...t ll;~
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,., "',._,
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ll*"'lltl.fL OF"
• •Pr_tt!tTltlN ILrfMfNrJ l' :--i 0 .. (

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A) IHJ'ECTION PROtEU
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~11~111 ..) --
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(L~t>LF rv11.Nll<6 ~ y L N y N y y y y y y y y y
ltfAcT•W'E SL-FICJ II~
1/'JE.R T (,.llJ)
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'i 'f 'f L N v N NIN N ,., L y J
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(OMBtNIN' f)F 11•ou:1se. /J UJUllLj R£!fSDNJ ~Off. Of'£14.•T•ONllL
H~rRLL(,111~1 ClfL 04J~Cfl•ll ~
6'~111tT1tJN
l1t&ll.CIJll Of" "'l'LUll!.rl<~;
y. "'f•f
L • L/'411~.l>

Hr NO
'
Source. Ref. Nr. 45

Table 6 ( Source: Rei. Nr.34 )

c:.....,.., Plont Copeclty ~tat• L.,.,_Llfa

w Gerrnant 1f0 Tc.Ylet l. N. B.O.r. JiOHHll

"
B
c:
1'0 Tonnes
10 TCW'IN't
l. N. ""'Shop
C. L. lore Shop
)2 "'*'"
SoCIHs•l1
0 220 lOl"W'let r. u. B.o.r. JI .... t.
£ 2U TOl'Y'l91 C. L. B-0-'- SS ..,.,u
f'rancr A 120 TOIY1l't c. L. e.o.r. '~ 1-ttltt
B 10) TO'Y'et C. l. Arr Shop .:J•·tHtl
c s
, 1 lcirv.1 T. L. Arc 5"°P 60 t••flH\t

u.o< A 100 TonMt c L .. Ar-: Shoo A8 MHtl

e 70 lorvtel c L. Arr Srqi 61 .... tt
r 18{'1 Torvw1 c L. Arr $hofi I~ M1ut1

Xi•1" •
~
10C' Tonnes
11'> 1 orY\f~
c
c.
L Arr Shor·
L. Arr Soho~
60 Mnt1
61 H111!1t1

e•
fflh l~ l~• c. L. Arc Shop '8 HHll
17r; lonMs c L .,.., Sl>O<

~-f'Clf'' A
,._
'" 1onnt1 c l A.re !tt«, 61 Huu
~ Tonnt~ c l Arr Shot 9'i HHll
-------· ~~--·
·-
-- c' '·
Ci•"lmilr• 1]'.I lD'l'~' Arc Shoe, !t{1t-Wa11

,_ ____
~------·--

..-011"' JOO Tonnt• L fLO r ~';i ....... \.

-
,....,.,
e•
U ~.A If c A.rr Shop •@ Hnu
t(' fl)l'Tif'I c L. A.rr Shop 110 Hp11•
c ,...,., c L Arc ShOC: 92 Hf'•h
" c
.. 0 HP Torv·1H L. AOO W.. l"t HttU

,,,., IR.O.C. A 1~C ,,,..,., C. LIS. l. 8.0.r. ~~ Huu

l(('lrH CR.0.V.J A )O{• ,...,., c L. 8.o.r. ~ HHU

1- _...,,,,,,, A l.J fOl"l>VI C. L Arc~ ~ ....... ,.

"" zu1r11~ 'Sof\T~t c L. Arc~ 71 ""4r•t•

( l
T N
c ..11nq Lldtr
lhr-'"'' N1..ctPrtw1ri
l
l.
~ ......
,,...,., l 9dl•
 . ·...._-·

SECONDARY STI
VERFAHREN DER SEKI

-
(AU .... ·.,.,..

t-db-t
lIJ

SECTION 1
RY STEELHAKING
R SEKUNOARMETALLURGIE

~on ... 1.,

t11f~ia..-. ... ~......

•U•""•'"" M•
Wt"IQ_,t""'lil''"~..,'i
........,.......

\
~c.'l

.......... ,,.1

BV
I I
Auo-Sl!F-
AOO
.....,.o.....
~Ta~.... -
,_,_
CLU

Q 0[·1
r~L~ .J.'l~.

~: i_: _.: l
. •:
fi.'
['·'J
~
:
- -

AIS

11.'.~~
LI1 Fig. 2)

Sour c e : Re 1 • :< r • 4 ')

SECTION 2
 ..... ........ .•It•....
..... ...............
~lilllJ
---,

t: 7 l
,. ,. ,.
111 II • 1111 2111.
T I
L!J · '
{

=;::::::i::
} 1 , Sampling
remp
meauS1emen1
Time in

- I ! minutes
,. ,.. 1 455
I
I

1(0 '•"

... .,.,
- I .. ,.. lltlte "'/>:·
//'>' ·I.' ".'••i~' • ~!11111 I I s~- :o ppm
- .
·/,
:·~~ ~.
~,~ N,~1
",'.',
3050! Processqas
ml/min :: I j .
Iv
:.
:1 ······i·
363 :: :: 1 : :~-·- .... cP
; /./'; I I N, ; : ;: I /Iv F <;..
//// ......_
1 515
,.. . ,,,
//
'// I MRP-proce-;s operation tor GS 42 Cr Mo 4 I

n . ,. ,-,-
t.Q
Fig. 25b
(Source: Ref. 1 • 16)

iill
~
--
665 Table -:;
'le,!el dur.ens:C'n'J
O'!s'_'J_"_·~_.a_t_11_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

~·--
~.\1Pd r.fllp;tC!ty .:tPO"l• 80 I
lllTJ I - I - I Miii Co,,verler prolile 18 11 o"""'" he1qn1 .lDOrO•. • IJOO 'Tim
in!lt1de the ~1111e .;hell
llllelllllltccllllrtl "lolum4 ~cortJ• 11 2 m'
C·1llndr~cal ,P.t:t1nn d1a ~·1l 2 360 mm

~-
~poro•
Fig. 25a J ~3~ mm
(llTJl-1-1 .... 1n'.\1rte ha1gnt lhl ~ppro•

(Source: Ref. 1 -15; ;n.">1ffP. n~w iimnq

'J0lurie J 'j :'T'!;"';lL
C:'{i1nf1rica1 '\~C 11.1 Id) ~ 4'50 r"rn
T~ lec:hnlquee to •void llmg ~noc;u1e r.~11;nt ·hi 3 O')O ~m
entrM!ment. ·
r :11ng dr:v9
Stat:c ~ilt1nc; t0r-;11P. J1r.r'l"':r..iti 10 ·iC-0 ,,,,.,
,.,,,•1r~1:rr .. :so ·~00 ~4"T1
Fig. 24 ."-Jo,m.11 EmMqP.nc1
(Source: Ref. 14 & 45) ,,.~, ,,, ·~"':pr
'>:JP.rii11"n ·iOAr,1T1on

• 1il.0'J '5CAf'."f1 r;i:"!I\ 0 1-1 2 :; !

4.nc;!P. ol 1111 1 J 160
\.lt.1ff.'f5
7vpe ,,l.,t:1'1C j1r

~~um he" I
rl,11'?C SCP.ell r;:.m) 720 1 'iOO

31-t#P.S
rvoe <Joubte ~~"e ,.,,~•es

'.\4umoer 2
 - 92 -
Operational dala
Capacity ol MRP-C::onverler 101 151 20 I
Ope«•t•c>nal Jata A B
- Complete mechanical.
Year or comm1ss1oning t983 1983 electrical 1nslrumentation.
Ve5sel size 81 81 gas clP.an1rg s·~o;lem. service
Trunn1on ring size 8' 81 media. suoerv1c;1on al erec-
tion and comm1-;~1omng 3 700 000 - 4 700 000.- 5 800 000.-
Relractory lile per
campaign - filial capital coc;t 3 700 000.- 4 700 000 - 5 800 000.-
Vessel 7G-95 50 Production (m1n1mum)
Blowmg no7Zt!I ch-lnge 50 30 I/year 1300 wotk1ng
Gas cnn~umphnn C-st~rl days/year) JO 000 45 000 60 000
01ygen m'll tG-15 16-20 above 020%C
- U•eful hie fyea"J 10 10 10
20-24 up lo 020%C
Nitrogen m 1/t 4 above 020% - Calcula1ory der>rf!'r:1'1.t1on
UP lo 3
tlm.,ar depreci.111nn)
up 10 6 up to 020%C
OM!year 370 000.- 470 000.- 580 000.-
Argon m 1/t 4-5 up to 3 above 020%C
up 106 up lo 020% - Calculatory antl""rMt
Heating alum1n1um lG-12 10--IQ ( 10 "'• ct 112 purr:has1ng
Lime consumption 30--IQ '4G-60 above o 20•1.c value) OM/year 185 000.- 235 000.- 290 000.-
50-70 up to o 20 •1.c - Total h•ed cost• OM/year 5fiO 000.- 705 000.- 1170 000 -
TrP.almenl time 2'>-30 JG.-35
- T01-..1 spec1lic inv~stml!'nl
co"t~ OM/I hquu1 steel t90 16 0 15 0

Table 8*)
Table 9: Total investm.
cost''')

~_
~ riui11
.....

•Kiii•
lreli•nl

Prltlrli91

Fig. 26:0bjectives in
secondary metallurgy*)

'') Source: Ref. 1 - 16

45'
----------~------------- -------------------------------

- \13 -

4.4 Continuous feeding of the furnace and ladle

The continuous feeding of the furnace and ladle offers adva~tages

such as:
shorter break down due to feeding by means of baskets
continuous feeding of sponge iron (in C3Se of DRI) at
a high melting and refining power, thanks to the con,stant
covering of the electric arc with foamy slag
shcrter do~n time during the refining process
higher thermal output of the furnace

4. 5 Synchronization of EAF Steelmaking and Caster

With respect to continuous casting processes the main advantages

resulting from the steel processing outside the furnace are:
Metallurgical advantages: optimal degree of oxitation (deoxitation,
degassing, desulphurization, alloying and temperatur ccntrol and
adjustment).
Industrial advantages: Improvement of the steel plant yield rate,
reduced consumption of the furnace refractories, better all-round
utilization of power, better yields for ferroalloys, improved yield
in continuous casting process, widening of the range of steel
produced at reasonable costs, decrease of the percentage of castings
which do not comply with analytical requireme~~s. *)
One morepoint should be added, that the ladleserves as a buffer
between the working cycles of the furnace and the downstream casting
facilities.Minor troubles, unfavourable chemical composition, and
fluctuations in casting periods from different tap weights can force
variations in furnace LZ?-to-tap times. These factors can be balanced
by extending the retention time of the liquid steel in a ladle
metailurgy station. Figure 26 shows the measures taken in process
technolo~y and their c0nversion into metallugical processes

*J Today it is possible to achieve contents of (CtS+P+O+N+H) ( 10 ppm

and loJer contents of these accompanying elements dowr
to the limits of analytical determination.
 - 94 -

4.6 Fume collection and sound proofing in steel plants

Research is constantly carried out to improve furnace productivity.

There has been a progressive increase in the specific installed
electric power (kVA/t), (see Figure lSa, b), lea3ing to today's
extremely high UHP values.

This implies not only the generation of more fumes, but also a
significant increase in the noise level during the melting stage.
Thus it has been necessary to take steps to lessen noise diffusion.
It is possible to distinguish two differe~t trends:

soundpronfing of the furnace bay to limit the diffusion of

noise towards the outside and setting up of sound proofed
cabins to protect the operators.

complete enclosing of the furnace by means of sound

deadening walls.

The soundproofing of the furnace area involves a higher investment

as the surface to soundproof is greater than the one involved for a
furnace enclosure. However bay sound proofing is preferable in some
cases, as it does not require any change in t~e furnace operation
(see Figure 27). There is a widespread fear that enclosing the
furnace may affect and delay its operation, thus negatively
influencing productivity.
But i~ fact, if the enclosing of the furnace is examined in all its
details and the necessary me~sures are t3ken to allow for an easy
furnace management, the problems can be solved. Beside. preventing
noise diffusion inside the planL, as well as, outside, the enclosing
cf th~ furnace makes it easier to colle:t thesecondary fumes gener2ted
by the furnace. In the case of furnaces with a lower capacity it is
even possibl2 to eliminate the section system for the collection of
fumes rrom the 4th hole, so that the costs of the fume cleaning system
are further reduced (see Figure 28).
 ~

a b

i
c d

..,,
~

e
(a) Furnace extraction system. (b) C..anopies .,.ithoul furnace system.
(c) Roof hoods without furnace system. (d) Furnace sy\lcm with panial roof
extraction from canopies. (e) Furnace system with full roof extraction from hoods.
(f) Combined furnace extraction with full roof extraction.

Fig. 28
Source: Ref. Nr. 51

,,,
•''
•''
: I :=:
~;;o.'!!.o;..'!!."';;.-=--"!..-=o...~=--~~

_fig. ::.; -
Source: Refeienc~~d42l
 - % -

s. Process stages and facilities after the EAF-steelmaking

Selection of casting process: Two routes can be ~dopted for casting

liquid: a) conventional ingot casting, and b) continuou5 casting.
Conventional Ingot Casting: In conventional ingot casting, liquid steel
ls poJred into ingot moulds: the ingots are stripped. heated and then
rolled in primary mills to produce semis such as blooms and slabs.

Continuous Casting: In continuous casting. liquid steel is directly

cast into semis like blooms, billets and slabs. During the last 15 years
the total world crude steel production remained firmly constant at a
level ~round 650 million tonnes/annum. During this p2=iod, however,
the tonnages and percentages of continuously cast steel continued to
increase, and in average world wide, the continuous casting percentage
is now close to 4o %, Figure 29 a.

5 .1 Advantages of continuous ca5tin£

The rapid progress of continuous casting is mainly due to the many
advantages it offers over ingot casting. There are:

lower investment cost

smaller space required
continuity of operations and possibility of complete
automation
improved product (consistent qualitv)
except for some high alloy and special steels, all
grades of steel~ may be continuously cast.
high yield ratios between liquid steel and semis
(see Figure 29 b)
lower consumption of inputs and energy
less handling of ~aterials

lower transformation costs

increa~ed output in the production proc~5s down-stream
from casting (rolling etc.) see Figures 29 b,c.
~ore comfort and s~Lety lor the personnel which work in
tne ste~l plant and a better work ervironment.

I
 - <•-/ -

1100

1000

000

eciO llOM.D c;aa ITIR MDllUCI... ...

1:..,
,.
,_
.. '
100

.,,, ";J'
SI

ml.
'• ..
8llO
,
~
;'!
IOO

.- ...,... 0# CC·llllODUCTOI ULI

.. ,,,,,
-'
,,
21
:ICI
~
\~ ._,_,;~ CIC-l'IWJllUCT...
~ ~,...,.. I
,.., .' ... .,!::..:- "
200 ,.,,..,.·v , ..._..,,-
.
·.-o-· 10
~.... --........--
100
--------- -
:i:..~ • - _:.....-~ •
0 -
1"5
----·--~ 1119
- - 0

WORLDWIDE PAOOUCTIOH OF CRUDE STEEL AHO SHARE OF CONTll'ilUOUS CASTING

Fig. 29a

1
Rewtive yields ;,f ingot and continuous castu1g ( )

Fig. 29b

~--- 97-., ---414•-------3b'<b

..
?I'll>-----~ lt-.'A,.

lngots Prun.iuy ln~ot

(J) rolling semis

Liquid
11ecl

..~------------- ,,.. ----------.j+----- 91'111 ----~

I.I)Tvpical yidd:i based on .JaparieM! practice.

(2) Overall yields tor ingot usting and continuous c.sstmg are 16% .snd l!/%, re~pecllvely.
(J) Sum of ingots plus continuous Cao.ting semis is crude steel as delined by HSI.
Source: USI.
r-- -
l
!

f-ONV[NTIONAL INGOT CASTING CONTINUOUS CASTIN\!_

I ITllL MAK•G ITl[L MAKING
j •
,UR•AC[ IN 'U"NAC[

TAP TO LADLE TAP TO LADLE

TRAN5'[R TO TRANl'l" TO
POUIUtG AR_;:_.._ _ CASTING MACMINf

CON TINUOUI CA STING

POUi! INGOTI
Of llLLITI 01 IL.All

TR'N"IR 9'1GOTI
TO IOAltlNG PITI

TIANIJIR INvOTI
TO P"IMART MILL

ROLL TO llLL [Tl

Oii IL.All

TIANIFl• 10 ITiJIAGl T,ANSHR TO ITOllAG[

01 fllfl5MING MILL O• FINISMING MILL

LIOUID LIQUID
ST[[L tCIOt IHlL 100 I
LADLE LADL (
CASTING I
DULL LOSS zt - TUNCI .. ~
GOOD CASTING I
INGOT$ 91 t ][ lllULL l 05$
ll

IDAlllNG
•••••
'IT
• •
• CUTTING
LOU
M[ATING It 2 • 1
LOU
,.,,..._.,.
lllf LL

- CIO' LOH " t

( O.f>prox.) 1[1111$ ,~t

11111111 HMli Ht
11111111 (nppi·ox:_)

COMPARISON BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL ANO

CONTINUOUf> CASTING METHODS

I!:.s· 29c
(Source: UN IDO)
 - 99 -

In the case of mini steel plants, the adoption of continuous

casting enables production of good-quality billets(blooms and
slab production can baJically be included by the mini plant
concept too) in the place of conventional pencil ingots or small
size ingots. It also obviates the need for a breakdown mill for
rolling the ingot to billet.

5.2 The impact of continuous casting en scrap demand

The introducL!Onof continuous casting is having, and will continue

to have, a profound tffect on the availability of circulating scrap
since continuous casting of steel involves one step fewer than ingot
I

casting (se2 Figure 29 c).

The total effect is to increase the yield of finished steel from
liquid steel by effectively reducing the amount of metal which is
scrapped; it is widely held belief that the increased use of
continuous casting will resul~ in ar. increased demand for purchased
scrap. In the case of continuous casting the lower generation of
circulating scrap is exactly balanced by the increase in yield of
semi-finished steel from liquid steel (see Figs. 29 c,d).

5,3 The impact of continuous casting on ~ork's planning

Because of the quality demand and th~ international steel market

situation, it is necessary to improv~ the yield of steelmaking
facilities. The continuous casting machine has a key position in
this position. The controlability of the factors influencing the
desired quality of the product being poured is the major concern
of the continuous casting technology. Because of its n3ture, the
contint 1us casting machine demands the central position in the
work's planning, on the one hand in relation to the melt shop
(upstream) and on the other, with r~gard to rolling (downstream).
The srheduling of the production through the works based on
continuous casting must involve sufficient atlention to the
co-ordination of the steelmaking operation anG ~lso that of the
steelmaking operation and also that of the rolling mill with the
casting machine itself.
 ,.EfDf'-'•L)
.. ,••••u.,.
•caA~ TOTAL It 6 TW 14N
SCltA~
MILL
SC "AP
STUL 'LANT
'I.
• L.IMl$fe411i9
... 0 Y. ~,,. ... p
de.
---------. 4. 3 /.

SLA~

-•i • 17 /.

-
c
0

FACILITY
I ELECTRIC CONTINUOUS
CAST1Nt; HEAT IN~ ROCA,HIN' INTE RM. FINISH IN
l\IU LA>L£ MILL MILL MIL. L
A E CH:/\/£ f'<.A A.N~C. E
F&•o- L.IQUll> B~ fU,
PRODUCT I &.IQ.ST£lL• .STAAN D 8lL.LETS
S'-'1'~
S1{£L ($eLi~i/. $Hat) ANG.. Las. etc..

fig. 2~d: RETURN S~RAP, APPROXIMATE VALUES IN%.

(~ource: Based on UNIDO material and references 35,36,37 & 45)

 - 1'Ji -

5.4 Technical considerations

5.4.1 Process principle - machine type

When molten steel comes into contact with the walls of the water-
cooled mould, a thin solid skin forms. Due to thermal contraction,
the skin separates from the mould shortly after solidification.
The rate of heat abstraction from the caJting being slow, molten
steel persistswitnin the interior of the section for some distance
below the bottom of the mould. The thickness of the skin increases
due to the action of water sprays as the casting moves downward
a~d grad~ally becomes completely soldified.
The mass of solid steel is supported as it descends by driven
pinch rolls that also control line speed by ~ontrolling che rate
of withdrawal of the castiP6 from the mould. Oscillation of the
mould up and down for predetermined distances at controlled rates
during casting helps to prevent the casting from sticking in the
mould.
During the development of the continuous casting technology different
types of casting machines were established especially with the
intention to reduce machine heights and consequently investment costs.
The machine types with corresponding general characteristics are
summ&rized below:
Machine type general characteristics
vertical straight mould height no bending
high ferrost, pressure
limited length
iimited casting speed

bending/ straight mould height

straightening high ferrosc, pressure

bow machine reduced height curved mould

(curved mould)

oval bow minimum height curved mould

varying machine radius

bow machine straight mould beding with liquid

(straight mould) reduced height core

horizontal st£"ai:,ht moul<l for small sections

no bent:.ing (un<ler development)
 The tapping temperature of steel is generally 1650° - 1690° C
for concast installations, depending on the life of the furnace
refractory Jnd the taphole condition.

5. 4. 2 Technical Characteristics

The successful application of th~ continuous c~sting process in a

steel plant is dependant upon many factors, some of which are given
below: i) General data
1.1 Size of r· .e furnace
1.2 Tap-to-tap time of the furnace
1.3 Possibility of programming the tapping time
1.4 Total tons of steel to ~e cast per day
1.5 Shape of the cast rroduct (see Figures 30 a,b)
Billets, blooms, Round Bars, Slabs.
1.6 Metallurgical length, lmJ (solidification coefficient K,
Table 10)
1.7 Casting speed [mJmin] (see Figure 31)
1.8 Cast size [mm x mmJ
J.9 Number of strands
1.10 Design (bow type, vertical,verticdl with bending,
horizontal)
Length of vertical section, m;
Radiis of curvature, m;
Straightening (1 point, several points, progressive)
ii. Before the Caster

ii. 1 System protection between ladle and tundish; sampling

ii. 2 Tundish (size, lining type; bafflcldam; stopper rodl
slidegatelmetering nozzle; covering powder; automatic
bath level controlJsystem; possibility of tundish change
during casting; special treatments; preheatin5Jreheating,
additfons)
 ---------- - ------·--~--====-=~~=--=-=:..:-:-=--~---=----==---

--,e_~ .,;=;;c

-- 1- -.~~---,
'
!,..-
. . :.: · ------~-=--

.-- fif: T- k •
·' ~ - p -

I
~-- ~
.--.-+r- ..
I
' : r. . .-
- - ,, .,+,--

*' '" ; !'i I';

,I
J;..;;.
•1 I•
,I
.llill. I 1 i.u=-
I I·
illl'lf- ~l==­
-- -- -- ' E
'fS"
t!f-'J
~

~!T
r.=r
-t=-'
' nAI.! ..

---
11:
,I
--..--..,
1 .. :
--=--+
~:~

::.=,

;---d--.:-~ --L=:+:;
-- - - - '- -----=-_,
' -:- _ :-.:--·- - -:·- - - -; ' t
I. I

_t:'°~nl.'L~ dfik!l"iH!,,ll_~J · - - I
)
I -- ---
'~
_
-3~"'' ---:::~
-~ ~-=-- L_ _____ 57_-=:-_;, - -~::.:-:=-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_~~-: -±-::-~"-- ---=~~-~-~-::::~~=---~~~"=---:::"~---::~-~-
.l ..1___ _~----~· ------- ------ -- --------· .-.:-.-:~·___._,,-~--~-=---=--~-....!Cl"=--'--'

Fi~. 30a: Longitudinal section of a cont. casting ~achine for billets (Source: Reference Nr.44) -
0
l,,.l
 fig. 'l()b
. ··Kt>!.
\Soun~ . N r. !f~)
96qtinuous ~sting concept and its advantages
~
Slab casting machines:
: ~-=->-._.
·,.._ ____ ;......_
f
~.,...~
h.~~ '~__, <,__-L-,·~=~.1~:_-
-- '>~·
Ladle turret
r\ . . ,\ I
''~ \ I ' l;
~
V-shape tundish

~\ 1~,'\!.,.,
; ~ ~-
•1 • goad ac.ci;;!'>s to !he mould
"-, \ '-, \ . 'I e gOOCl 'f'l&1b1l11,- of m&n11CU6
.> ..i
,~
.......... ---------- \ : .' \ ' - ,.:
"--.... '" r-- Casting bow
\ '-'
~. t·,~t~--- ..
'
~hgnment

"~~
r, • one p1oce - no

A
"'·~~
~~-:-_-=:::::-::.---~
-.,ii
" ~)
"·,
:,,
~ ~.·
>~

Straight mould
e undorm dlSlnOukon °' IOciUalanl
• uMonn Shell growth
• ease ol maintenance
.
"'-<~
' '-.

Bending zone
oomboneS
- 0.-. head mactl11te plOhte
- metatlurgica.1 aa11an1.ages ot SralQtlt
~ Top- led dummy bar system

,_.
c
.i:-

"~~·
-,. ,l

'Clt'j ,· .
/

( ~)-'.~ ,.['
10' .... ·· {.
- 1J:ty· J

.:1'.~i'
f.lJ· : .• ~
Straightening zorn' ·,,j'f'. '
e n.gn-speed (',1:-1.n _..... ~r ..
'.;>· :•'ri.:
QtJa!ll~· res1ricl1W1'
e tugh proauc?1\/1lJ
"'.',1' =r.

4-roller p1nct1 ru11s1c1r1C1

j'

Strand guide '.:.

e modu.k&.I oe~iqn \
e ~r"ktll 'Olk:•!> w11h 1nlttrmedMlte 6Upil0rll
• small·dta orrwn ro&Mtrs to~ ,·;·\:.
bul9'0Q
e k~nq ruhtt! 11k h19tl • ..,~ -
,; '"
L..1'111 ma1111t-t11dinc.t:
• n.Qll ~ttd Cd.">hfll,, t\tyh ptoduCllVl1y -
ex1...ttlk-1•: qu.ahl)'
..------------~------- - - ----·----- · · - -·-·--------------------

- 105 -

K (11111 I 111111"')
21 27 26 ,5 24
!SLABS 3,0
instnsiblt to cr1ck1o1g ldttp dr1wing x
1au11hly,11usltnihc st11onltss slttls tic)
sens111wt lo cr1ck1ng lptpt gr1dts,Sll7
lstl.1 ftrrolic st11inltss sletls tic.I x
•l.rlrir •h•••• IS.1-~llRv•" l"/•I x
BL OOHS
instnsiblt to cr1ckioq
x
In crilCKIOD
. .n ....... x
BILLETS
instnsiblt to cr11cking x
stnsilovt to cricking x 'O
cu
cu
Solidification coefficient (straight mould) ~ 1,5
.....Ill
Table 10'') ,,,
\J
1,0
,,,
)(

SIZE JOO • 400 J Ill LESS 0,5

[Jj TIHJl9i PREPAAATIOll AREA
IIIill HAlllTUW«I N¥fA
D cc MACHINE

JOO()
50 150 250 350
strand thickness s (mm)
Fig. 31: M~x. casting speed cepending on shape,
E
str~_nd thickness and metallurgical length *)

(straight mould)
lOO eoo 1000 1200 noo

Fig. 32c*)
STRAICJ HJ

Space requirements for bloom casters

Fig.32a '')
Fig.32b '')

SLAB WIOTH ?400 "'"' "'°'

ME TAUURGICAL LENGTH 35 m STRANO HJ
D TUPIJISH PREPARATION AREA
CIJ MA!IITTNANCE AREA
D cc MA(ff!NE
.::
90m 1-----+-- •
I0001---+--__,,___~

~001--+--+---i--+-­
fJOOL__----'--~-_..._.....____._~

ffij TUNOISH ""EPARATION AREA

D u MACHINE ITI:iill MAINTENANCE AREA
Space requirements for bille1 casters

- 2SOO )600 5JXI

1·2 2•1 2•2
STRANO HJ

*)Source:Ref. Nr. 44
Space requirements for 1lab caltera
 - 106 -

iii. Continuous Casting Machine

iii.l Mould (length; material/alloy; coating; automatic bath

level control/system; breakout warning system;
variable width adjustment during casting; oscillation
mechanism; additional control equipm~nt).

Mould lubrication (casting powder/type of supply mechanism;

powder grade/casting speed range)

iii.2 Dummy bar, loading of dummy bar

iii.3 Strand support (support syste~ below the mould, dimensions);

support rolls (size; type; one piece, divided, solid or
hollow, with internal cooling; type of
cooling; coating)

iii.4 Secondary cooling (types of cooling: water, air-water/ratio;

types of nozzles: flat, square, round,
horizontal, multinozzle system; water flow
rate/control method)

iii.5 Control devices

Electromagnetic stirring - EMS (type; location: mould, secondary
cooling, end of liquid pool)
Process computer (continuous casting machine control; continuous
casting operation control; roll gap control;
size control of cast product; automatic control
of cut off; preventive maintenance, quality control)

iii.6 Area required for casting machines (see Figrue 32, a, b, c)

 - 107 -

Financial aspects
5.5

5.5.1 Capital investment

Examination of the capital costs of continuous casting plant installted

by the British Steel Corporation shows that the capital cost per tonne
of iustalled capacity increases with the size Oi the cast section, but
there i5 a modest reduction in cost per tonne as the capacity of tht
plant increases and that continuous casting plants are not cheap, prices
ranging from £ 54 to £ 200 per annual tonne. As machin~s of necessity
become more flexible, designs based on current concepts will become
more co~plicated and both capital and maintenance costs will increase.
Significant reductions in cpaital charges per tonne of steel cast will
only be achieved by increasing machine utilisation.

5.5.2 Operating Cost:>

It has proved difficult to obtain operating costs comparing ingot and

the concast routes. A survey costs for the ingot vs t~e concast route
for billet and siabs has provided some illustrative figures. For billets,
the cost of the concast product may be in the range of 88% to 96% of the
cost via the ingot route depending on the capacity of the steel plant, the
caster and the throughput. The lower figure was for steel supplied from
a 50 tonne BOF to a 4 strand curved mould caster, with product sizes 89,
117 and 140 mm square. Fore slabs, the cost of the concast rpoduct was
as low as 81°/, of the ingot route. There are thus very signi.'.:icant savings
in operating costs.

The figures presented above include the cost savings of increased product
yield and the yield saving is over-riding in operating cost reduction.

5.6 Product quality

At the level of the semi-finished products the product quality evaluation

can be carried out by examining the severity of inspection and the extent
of conditioning. The cleanness of the metal is mainly obtained by careful
preparation in the ladle, effectively preventing reoxidation of the
metal, and by developing techniques making it possible to maintain the
bath level in the mould at a constant value, with high accuracy. At the
same time it is necessary to install high-capacity equipment (a computer)
to monitor and control c~sting conditions in order to predict product
quality and downgrade if necessary.
 - 108 -

Fig. 33 a shows the three main dressing rc•1':.esapplied to slabs,

depending on product type, product mix, t~e ability to predict quality
by monitoring and cc ~troliing the casting operations etc.

Fig. 33 b shows optimum process routes evaluated for the production

of high grade bars and wires.

Due to the substantial improvements having been achieved as regards

cleanness of the steel most steel grades can now be continuously cast.
The operating factors which determine cleanness with respect to
inclusion are summarized in the following table:

Operating factors affecting Factors affecting

SLAB SURFACE QUALITY BLOOM AND BILLET QUALITY

Cleanliness Ladle Treatment Inclusions and Ladle treatment

Stream Protection blow holes Stream protection
Mould Level Control Mould level control
No disturbance in the mould:
- Weir and dams in the tundish Surface Mould powder
- Large tundish Defects Machine conditions
- Metal flow rate
(small oscillation stroke) Segregation E. M. S. o':)
Steel composition
Cracks Steel composition (\.. Nb, Va,
Ni, N )
2
Mould taper Internal Cracks E. M. S.
Ali~nment of the mould with
the machine Casting speed
Machine geometry conditions Secondary cooling
Secondary cooling (homogeneous
cooling)
Mould flux
Mould plating

*) E.M.S. = Electromagnetic stirring

 - 109 -

C.C. Su.as I
CHEu Sulf 11111 FULL JA.f INCi

J
htSPlC TIOll
- '
.-----

l
SroT laUl lllG llo•
r
fiRADllMi
l
11.snc TIOll

'
,
I D.Lllli I

Fig. 33a ALTERNATIVE DRESSING POLICIES APPLIED TO SLABS *)

AllD IOb~
Fig. 33b>'<)

La1c.t 11.1111111. UN~I II LI I IS WLL llLLl"

>~ ;i: ISO < )'Ml

~
llol 5'Alf 1"40 IMS,ttfllllt II.AU
a. 5tml II.AU

~llb 11.Ull"'

"""l llClll
llituu11&

l•S'lC l II* 1'111111~

llllus••~

... , 1111; Sll,S

l•s'u 11oi. •1111
Ml HI•~ Sii'> 1 OI l Oii

*) Source: Ref. Nr. 46

---------~-·----------~~---~----------------- ----

- 110 -

6. Build-up and size of the "mini-steel" concept

6.1 Build-up "route•·

The complete build up of mlr.i-mill and/or integrated mini-mill is shown

in Figure 34. In m&ny cases, the extension of the plants to a final
integrated mini mill takes place in individual steps. In these cases, in
principal, the rolling mills represent the first step (upstream).
Consequently, this area is of particular importance because it later
determines the total production capacity of the plants. Additionally,
account ~ust already here be takeD of matching up with possible future
expansion plans. At this step the initial billets are purchased. In
the second step the semi-integrated mini-mill, or in accordance to our
basic definition mini-mill, has its own steel production in electric
arc furnaces based on scrap (also possible the additional purchase of
prereduced sponge iron) and continuous castng plants for the production
of bi llcts.

Finally and in addition to the second step the third step consisting of
a direct reduction plant on an ore basis completes the extension to an
integrated mini-mill.

An emphasis has also to be given to the build-up procedure of a steel

plant under the perspective of co-operation and industrial as well as
productivity links among various developing countries. Similar per-
spectives and development trends can support a build up procedure in a
complementary sense regarding the location of the possible stages
mentioned above and the respective products. *)

The approximate com~rative cost, site area, required energy, electrical

supply capacity, oxygen and water consumption, these thre~ types, as
compared to an integrated steel plant of econ0mic size are indicated
in Table llb.

''') all Table lla

 aAS IS PLANT PROJ)Uc.T

ST~P K'
I 011&: I { oiucr Rnuc,.... PIA•rl -j SPON&~ ~o;'.J
I
1
1
IN I t<.,;A (L· l·
I
r---- - - - - - ----- --------- J
'"1 IN I
Mil.I.

STEEL. PLAHT
ST'~ JI ••/or £.Ar - .ST6fLMAKIN(4 Gii.LE TS/IL' ___
#. CONT/NC.1/J"S (ASTIH'4 ii.Ai~~ 1
I
I 1
r-- --· -~ MINI
Mlt..L
1
I It oc>S ( ,..,,~ c) I
I
~
STf' I a1UETS/MOOffs I
(JLA. __ ,
... ROLL. IN Ci 111 LL
BA. IU
f'fi "C tf,14./'4 T
.dAIU
J 1 ......
,....
,....
,_.~S>HI,..,
Sl:CTlllN.S

s•.-.,.,iElS
T"'-iJ

.STi.P - 8'1 - ST£.P ARP.AN(,,.£.MfNT

o• ... INl-MILlS OR INTc<A.~ATE.D MINI-MILLS
Fig. 34 (Source: Based on references 17,34,40,41,44 & 45)
 c' 1Ia
, "\ i- C: t" : l' ''1 j, \ I )

su11••t•d iron and steel aaklng processes

-----------------------------------· -·····

Country Suggested procoss route

Sl. No.

Market - very large; iron oro and reductant - available in plenty; hyd1·u ~···Wlirf' 1,.,,,.,,, 1 .. 1 1_,,.,.i,
1. India
steel developaent through large integrated steel plant; iron proauctlon ruul.IO ~1.u.t h""'"'"'·•l1ud
reduction route.
2. Republic of Korea
Market - very large; iron ore available; reductant natura~ gas pleuty; hydru-~uw~r ~u1~~1 ••I
J. Iran
very good; pos.iible iron production route direct reduction/BF wltb i•ported cok1t1g uiM.l; iou1td
develo1199nt - non1ally through large integrated plant.
Market - very li•ited; rftductant - not sufficient; hydro-power potential - 1.ood; •·1«.du•.t I<••• ••t t1ut
4. Afgbaaiatan
. . tal/aponge jron not plllnned; steel through b l on scrap/purchased 11pongt1 i1·011
llarltet - liwited; reductant enough natural ga1, hydro-power potential - e;ria.t1i1, l'''"~l" 11 .. 11 1.t
~. Bangladeab
sponge iron planned; steel through EAJi' on sponge iron feed.
llarket - liaited; iron ore - available; reductanta - non-coking coal and t~cw•t -~~ufw~.
6. Buraa
hydro-power potential · very gr.od; posaible iron production rout• -· aaall 1 ..... .,, 1 ti Ll• .. t I-.)

furnace/direct reduction; steel through converter/lil'; integrated ail\i -st .... l 1Jla1d
Market - large; iron ore available; reductant natural gas plonty; non-cok.i11i c11:.l ui1&li .. td•;
7. Indoneaia
possibl• iron--alting routo direct reduction by 1985 and ar by 2000 AD wl tti 111d •• t."d 1M1&U:wt; .. t-.... 1
tbrougb integrated aini steel plant at initial stage possible.
l!larltet - fairly large bJ 2000 AD; iron ore - available; reductuts - nat:uraJ a••· 1.t .. nt.y a11d n.1n1at
8. llalaJ•ia
reserve; hydro-p<>tHr potential good; poaaible iron pro'1uctlon rout.• - direc.t. rt11lu<.llou iuH 1.. uy,
blast furnace wben aarltet enlarges; steel through integrated •ini steal 11l1u1t tu ia.u·1 •.nt.b
Mart.et - liaited; no natural resources e:1cept 11aall quantity \ron ore; ioteul U1r•H•th !till'' "''
9. Nepal
scrap/purcba11ed sponge iron to start wi tb; iron ore aay be utll i&od later tur· n.1t. auilt •I IJCmlu(,t ion
and steel tbrougb integrated aini ~teel plant.
llarket - fairly large by 2000 AD; iron ore - avallabl.-; reductant natural t•>-11.:11 ... ,,k li:t. 'olll,
10. Palti a tan
iron aating route - blast furnace/direct reduction; steel - through lntagr•l,a~ ~'~~t:. L~M~~ •IB hot
. . tal/pre-reduced aaterial; •ini steel plant possible,
llartet - large; iron ore - fairly large; reductant - non-coking coal/torolil n1:.eir·vw, hy lro l·"-r
11. PbilippinH
potential - very good; steel development - nona&lly through large integrated llil<t•l ._,.,.,,,., arnl
steel plant possible through DI-KAI' route.
llarltet - fairly large; no natural resources; posaibili ty of steel dev•lo~nc 1 t.•-••l<it.li h r c.•
12. Singapore
integrated plant• based on purcha~•d raw aaterials - plann•d after 1gas,
llarltet - liaited; natural resource• - non-e:1cept saall quantitJ lroD ore; hJtfr,, t-'"-'•• 1... i1 .. u1 lad
13. Sri Laalta
good; at . . l tbrougb &&JP on acrap/purchaaed sponge iron.
llarltet - large; iron ore aaall quantity; reductant - noa-ccll:.iag coal; bJdru t'""''"' 1 .,,~ 1o1.11u1
14. Tbailud
good; •t•el development po1sibl• through inte1rated aini steel plant or l•r-&• 1:•1~•• icy t•h• 011 lovl
aetal ro¥te, f¥t~re poaaibilitJ aini steel plants on direct reduction rout•.
 Table - c lb

Particulars Unit l<erolling ( '" rap- bitsed) (JIRJroute) Integrated

integrated
Mill Mini Mill Steel
Mini Mill

i) Capacity tonne/ so, ouu 250,0UU 500,000 3,000.000

year
ii) Site area Hectares 2.5 16 35 330

iii) Engery (including CJ/day 400 45UO :rn, ooo 300,000

<.,.;
electricity, solid
liquid & gaseous fuels

iv) Rated capacity MVA J 75 120 300

of electrical
supply
3
v) Water m /day 1 OU 2,000 5,600 65,000

vi) Oxygen t/day 0.2 25 25 750

vii) Capital (for Mill~on 10. u 7U.O 3UO.O 3COO.O

works only) l 1S $

Source: Proceedings of SEAISI Conference held in Singapore in Sep.1980.

 - 114 -

6.2 Ranges of sizes and products

Whilst in many ~iP'-mills (or simple rolling mills) where the

development remains restricted to the first or the second stage the
output is in the region of around 50 000 to 200 000 tpy, the sizes
above are increasing moe and more in the progress of fuii integration.
Taking the production units of the DRI plants into account, t~esP t•~

in the size range of 250 000 to 700 OCC tpy. On accou~t rf t~c ju~p

in investment costs witn the transition from single-strand to multistrand

operation the specific investment costs are most favourable for prod11ction
quantities that can be produced on a single-strand rolling mill.

In accordance with the production programme, i.e. percentage distribution

of the types of product to be rolled, the qualities and sizes, these
production limits can be defined as follows for the modern types of
rolling mills to be consid~red:

Table 12 a
wire rod mills approx. 400 000 tpy
bar and/or merchant approx. 600 000 tpy
bar mills
conbination mills approx. 500 000 tpy
(wire rod- bars and/or
merchant bars
Medium section· mills approx. 600 000 tpy
(with continuous
fimishing trains)
Tube mills approx. 700 000 tpy
(seamless tubes)

The most important new product area for mini-steel producers is the
flat products (coils, sheets, plates). The Steckel mills hGve coasider-
able potential for allowing mini-plants to get into the flat rolled
products.

Mill pro~ucts form ~ini-steelplants usually include rounds, rebars, wire

rods for many industries (e.g. nails, screw, fencing material, mesh),
small squares, angles, flats and channels.
 - 115 -

Hence, the first build up stage of a mini-mill can also include the
fellowing finishing stag~s: cold rolling, drawing machines, welded
me>h plant. These possible extensions of the mini-mill route are in
accordance with the present process trends required by the market demands
and quality improvements achieved.

Ta~12\. tabulates the general range of sizes produced on themills (listed in

table 12 a)
with the initial cross-sections that are necessary for economical
rolling.

While the sizes for the various process routes are indicative of
optimum sizes, it is possible to install substantially lower capacity
uniLS and operate them at reason3bly economic levels if local
conditions dictate this.

6 .3 Principle demands on rolling mills

Lowest possible specific investment cost, taking under con~ideration

the fact that the overall output level largely governs the general
mill layout that is likely to be the most cost effective. The types
of mill lqyout may approximately be broken cown as follows:
cross-country mills tonnages upto say 50 000 tpy
semi-continuous mills tonnages 50 000 200 000 tpy
continuous mills tonnages over 200 000 tpy

Lowest possible specific opeating costs

Low maintenance costs
Low labour cost
High qualified operating personnel
fa$t operatinal rediness of the rolling mill
Amortization of capital cost over the shortest possible period
High yie~d and good efficiency
U5ing the advantage of secondary metallurgy rolling of high
quality stee' possible
Possibilities of a stage-wise expansion.
 - It<, -

PltOOUl T IN ITI~ L
'ROUP SElTION

AO)) 100 -15 o '-'"" a 5.5 - 1'.0(1r.o) ,.. .... .1;..

8A 8.S fOO -130 """"' a l.o - l,,o. o """" di•

11ERC14AN T ADD • 'f SO """' D

r.o - to.o '"'"'di• (s, ... ,.s J.. .. ••,ort . )
~
201Alt -1So. So ..... f lob
SAit!>
2.o,, 2o - _,. 4'o "'"' .,,, L•s (,..,,.11 .. ~·•!
il0· 10 ....... J..·slvapf'

3o .. 15 -100 """" cho.rttttds

lo - '100 ""... '2e.Q ""s

SEAMLESS 2 5 - 4 00 '"""' oc.c.t~r Jio.

TUBES

"1£.DIUM 130 ,....,__ D - 20 - 180 ""'"" dio. {syt,AQr-t.s ""~•1•ns;

$ECTIONS l50J<350 """" c:::J 50115 -Joo"Jo ~"" {l•f.s
So. so - 200"' 200 PIO\""" -.r.11.,
(~w-.1 ~ C..CP'18f&.c•l)
Jo- 3oD ...... el,o.,,,.,.~l1

Table 12b: Examples of products ar'

initial cross-sections of different
rolling mills (STEP 1)
(Source: Reference Nr. 34)
 - 117 -

The stage-wise increse fo the pro~u~tion programmes include the

following advantages:

Lower cost in the first construction stage not only for the
basic investment but also for the training of personnel in
less industrially developed areas.
A good trained personnel important for the next stage of expansion
is thus already available
Better adoption of the required additional personnel
Better build-up of the regional sales (and possibly the export)
of the manufactured products •

•
 - 118 -

6.4 The rolling-mill continuous casting interface

The present metallurgical developments have been simulated by

quality improvement and
cost reduction

Although the practice of hot-charging a semi-finished shape into the

reheating furnace of the finishing mills is not necessarily a produc~ivity

improvement attributable to continuous cast, it is, nevertheless receiving

wide attention because of the potential fuel savings. By charging hot
continuously cast product into the finishing mills, the sensible heat of
the product is utilized with significant energy savings. The practice
may avoid reheating altogether or require some intermediate reheating.
rtowever, it demands so~e close co-ordination between the caster and
finishing area. It also demands excellent surface quality.

In Japan hot charging has become a standard practice, and over 40 % of

the continuously cast semis are hot charged. Kobe Steel at Kobe and
Kakogawa practice hot charging of 100 % of the blooms produced which are
transferred directly to the reheat furnace by covered transport to an
assigned site.
For long products, hot charging mainly relates t0 blooms which undergo
intermediate roughing or are rolled directly into beams. In these cases,
100 % hot charging is achieved.

6.j Heating of the steel for rolling

The design of reheating facilities depends primarily on form factors:

1) the maximum required heating rate

2) the quality or qualities of steel concerned
3) the cross-section of the steel to be heated
4) the type of fuel available (normally oil or gas)
 - 119 -

Basically a reheating furnace is a refractory-lined box through

which steel passes to raise its temperature evenly to a suitable rolling
temperature. When reheating a furnace care must be taken for a correct
balance between a lo~ capital cost and an acceptable fuel cost.

Typical sizes range from 10 to 65 tonnes/hour. For heating billets the

furnace could be of the walking beam type or the pusher type. The walking
beam furnace has the advantages of providing better quality product,
greater flexibility of operation and lower scale losses. On the other
hand, pusher furnace is lower in capital cost, simpler to operate and
easier to maintain. The refra:tories used in a typical reheat furnace
are illustrated in Fig. 35.

o.o Rolling mills for mini-steel plants

The Table (see next page) illustrates the main features introduced
for improvement in euqipment and operation of rolling mill for bar and
wire rod.
 Feature Benefit
Development

Surface defect inspection using magnetic particle - Labour savings

Billet conditioning
method and internal defect inspection usir.g
ultrasonic system
Surface conditioning using high efficiency - High efficiency
~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~b~i~l~l~e~t:.......sg~r=-=-in'-'-'-d~e~r--"o~r'---'p~1~·n'-'-'-c~h-"r~o~l~l~s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~-

Walking-beam furnace - Less oxidation,

Reheating furnace
greater flexibility
homogene ly of
temperature

Use of waste-gas jet for preheating optimization - Energy saving

of heat patterns an<l extraction tem~,adoption of N

c
waste gase oxygen content control, in-furance
partition walls and heat insulation, introduction
of hot charge rol l_i_T1_g_
H-H type (horizotal stands only) - Permit simultaneous
Rolling mill and its
V-H type (alternative vertical and hor~zontal Multistrand pass
operation
- High rolling speed
stands)
no interstand
twisting and less
surfache defects

Using tiltable stands - High speed rolling

moveable stand reduced capital
Car.dlever stands (small diameter rolls)
cost and mill down
time due to ease of

cont./. page -118- maintenance, lowPr

operating cost
r1e\«2 lopment Feature benefit

- Block mills (compact cl'.\ntilever stand) - High rolling speed, exact dimension and
good surface linishes.

- Cartridge-type (housingless) stand - High reduction ratio,low elastic

deflection, easy remova.1 and insertion
of rolling stand
- Increase operation rate and sharp
- Improvement in rolls, pass design and reduction in cobbles.
guides, standardization oi draft control,
improvements in trouble shooting and other
maintenance techniques

- Stelmor process (for high carbon steel) - Eliminating the patenting oper~tion
1.: l' n t. rL' 11 e d
c00lir~.,: and
tinishin>?, - Ketarded St~lmor process (tor low carbon
steel, scrao steel etc.)

- EllC (Easy Drawing Converyor) system - Uniform structure throughout the coil

Slow Cool System <SCS) tor medium-carbon Omitting the softening annealing
operation
'"
and low alloy steels

- llirect quenching (Ill~) techniques For high strength steel wire rods

- Tempcore process (for rebars) Surface hardening

- llirect solution treatment (UST) tor Free tram grain boundary carbon
austenitic stainless steel percipitation

- ~utomation ol terminal processing, Labour savings.

automation sampling and inspection

- Tempcore process (weldable high - High yield strength

quality rebars)

(Source: Ket.Nr.47)
 . . 1 ...
.. ··-,~-~c
..

=-1: - .
..

1'9

~-,
F ':.
. _., H "r
,...._.
S J '11tl
L_____ I
'J
r~

j~7 :-.' ~ ~
r ....:.

l
· · : I 1 •. . • : •

. . ' . ~:
. ·=---
--=-·~·l-~--~· -
" ..
.,~h'- r

( .... '
_~

t ' ,._-,t,: f t:

"T
i " i ~ .,...,. c .
I ~ '

I /
~·,~1.•r. 1~r ·u~h bdk1 11'hl'.1! lurnJlt· \1n.·l 'lllhl1,rt: .~ -.ur'f"•r!:1.'-
•.:....J -

L ____ ------
~n~~ ...... ,,~ .1n~'. tilt·.., ' in'ul.11\•~r '""'hJ.1-'."'~ .. h1)!h lt";llt"-''.11,Jrt· t1r1d.·.i..1r~ •
,J, .'9
.
: ~··
h1,1t111 .:I'.! . .i•.1m111.1 ~J.11t~ ,, hdkt·

~:lg. ) ')
Compar:son o! the 'ayout of a Steckel, HSRC and
(~:ouru': !~Pl. :\r.
seni1-con!1n\.icu<; >iot s1r1p mdl 'or a tiarrel length of 66 and a
specific coil we·ght of 1 5 1<g. mm

f. i ~. \n
l ~1Jur'-·e:
i.Zl'- t • ~ r. 2 ·))
 - I -•) ~
) -

With regard to rolling technology the following additional trends can

also be recognized:

Slit rolling: two or four bars are produced from one

billet by rolling and slitting with special grooves in the
finishing line. Low temperature loss, high production rate,
low finishing rolling speed, low investment costs.

Grooveless rolling for billet: Use of flat rolls, as in the

case of plate rolling, in a rolling sequence except the
final pas3. Significant redcutions in roll changing, set-up
and dressing time. (about 5 \ increase in mill productivity
6 '"savings in energy, higher yield).

High reduction mills like kocks swing forge, triple-mill,

cycloidal mill, planetary rolling mill, Schloemann-Siemag
mill, GFM forging-rolling system. They are particularly
suitable to de~andsfor flexibility in producing small and
varied quantities of round bars. Relatively slow rolling
speed.

Three roll planetary mill (PS~ ~ Planeten-Schraeg Walzwerk)

by SMS in FRG. Here the cross-sectioned reduction is
affected by three conical mills, arranged at 120° to one
another and rotated around the stock so that a tapered
sharing zone is formed between their surfaces. The w2ll
thicknesses of the blanks can be varied by roll adjustment
and the use of different manirel diameters.

Several attempts have been made to design a mini-strip mill such as

Sendzimir planetary mill and hot strip reversing compact (HSRC) mill
developed by VOEST-ALPINE. Both represent small flat products plant
with economic advantage.See Fig. 36. Furthermore, economical method
of slitting hot rolled strip into two or three narrow ones has been
developed and this would reduce the capital and rnanifacturing costs
for welded pipes, tubes, structurel shape etc.
--------------------------------- --~--------

7. Computerized production process

Th12e levels of computer control are necssarv tor the control ot

steel plant and rolling mill as an integrated unit. thev are
\Fig. J7 a)

production planning
production control
process control

Data logging and reporting. including all steps. are important

parts of such an integrated svstem. ~s far as automation is
concerned such a target is supported bv using proces~ ·ontrol
characterized bv the following features:

optimum process control and evaluation

high degree of availability
easy maintenance
simple man/machine communication

The improvement of electronic systems together with the reduction of

their cost and their increased reliability, even in the most unfavourable
environment, make it possible to create extremelv sophisticated systen1s
with relatively low and quickly recoverable investment costs, due to
the direct or indirect economic advantages of automation. Such systems

are able to fulfill one or more )fthe following functions

co-ordination of the activities for casting

preparation
management and co-ordination of activities in
the scrap yard
operative control of castings (melting and relining)
programming of melting energy relative Lo weight
and of chargi.ng materL:ils
control of the "rnel ting stage" and lemper:-iture
gradient on the wall
best po~;sible use r)f P]ectric power in rel.atiCJn
to t:hc r:m·1Pr .s11pply 1onlract
 COMPUTERIZED
PRODUCTION PROCESS

- ·- ·-· :-~ . u. ·- . . ---l' - ·-···=--.._, 1t=--'-· '--'-1t-- <> - ..... , ..... - · ·

GJ JW ~~EUJ D :Ll El.J·fil ]j· £i

~ l ! jr
r
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~
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I
i

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I

= ~_.._·--··_-,_----·-·-··--..:::·-v-( --: ..~ . "=~---rv'7YT

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fli .. rJJ UJ ijJ ij·QJ /;[J ~ jj]J·O i G jIJ' Jr.: .. ffi GJ J1~~:

r I 1' ~! ~1 -r··:c1"1" t~-. (, 1 ~. l:r-:,, ~. ~·

h.l
, • v•

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u ~1
...___, ~
--.J
:, :
!;;l_..,
flTJ
J.
flTJ
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QJ
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J J
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~- - .
-·-- ··-- .. ..-- MCTION
· - ....

llllDllJM
-
····-
.........
- .......... -'"'
....... 0 ...... - . . . .

.. 11.L
... ........ ...... ...................,., ..
··-· -

WllllC "OU Mli.L

........ , ..._. ~···-·--
~ .... r ,.,~ ru,.a..-c,
fMAN•f"OIHAT+Otil
6Nt.i
~IMI~

STEE:... MELTSHOP CONTINUOU:.i ENERGY MANAGEMENT

ROLLH 1G MILLS
CASTING

(Source:References 40,
41,44 & 45)
 - l 2n -

control ot burners
supervision ol water cooled panelc
control of analysis results and calculation of
additive and ferroalloys
recording of significant events and operative
times
operation reports per casting, shift, day, etc.
interface with higher operative systems
(supervision or management)

Advantages of such automation systems:

The specific energy consumption is reduced

by 30-35 k t/hr
The specific consumption of raw materials and
alloys is reduced by 5 %
The melting time is reduced by ca.
The quality of the end products is improved.

7.1 EAF - Computerization

Process control computer~ are critically important in shortening tap-

to-tap times.
Adding computerized process control omptimi7,eS furnace power usage
in melting operations. It also facil!~dtes automatic tap charging and
the monitoriog of water-cooled furnace elements.
Depending on thP level of sophistication required, the control system
may include thermal and metallurgical models (see Fig. n b).

7.2 Automation of continuous casters

Generally the continuous casting process is very suitable to automation

so that automation devices are increasingly gaining importance. The
wajor objective of automation for co~tinuous casters is the improvement
of economy. This is achieved by improved utilization of facilities and
by an increase of productivity a~d product quality (fig. 'l 7 c).
 - 127 -

.......-
.......
Stipe

.,_
F-
F-

-
C-..1

BS)
FUii
...
c;......,
•• @B
s=
:=.
a...,
Flume

Fig.37b: Schematic 0f process control system

(Source: References 1 - 16, 40,41,45)

Fig. 37c
(Source:Ref. Nr.44) ..
..... _ ,.,........
·-·---
1.aalteUt

....._
1.l'l"fl
Gl11UOt ,.,.
fl(( llllllMiC fl ,
Kii '611

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, ... ,

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~ "' ~.t.TCll

-·-
lhl6'1TT "6H..._
\.t.11.l•mtU 1..l•CIU "i'.Af ((WT . .
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""°'"" .......
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-·
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·-..._ -··- ·-... fWCl'MI Jl,Sfllf\

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,_,. (\ICTllCIU4·
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~r

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. ..... _ ·- -·
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ur•ca.r-.
"',... ...
UMIQI
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lflAIG Y..!!!'-".1
n,.,.... "• fl.W:UC
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ffl'ftJAl"I
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11'1 IDI

Automation functions on a continuous caster

 - l :.'.M -

Practically all steps from the steel flow out of the ladle to the
marking of the cut product ccn be performed automatically. ln additinn
automatic machine inspection and computerized maintenance are available.

7. 3. Automation in rolling mills

Controlled rolling techniques which eliminate additions of expensive

alloying elements and heat treatment in ~he subsequent process have
been developed to provide steels with such customer requirements as
higher formability, higher toughness, higher weldability, and higher
quality.

8. Plant location

The important locational factors to be considered are the availability

of adequate area of suitable land, ~~oximity to existing transport
network, sourc~s 0f prower and water (during consturction and operation

time) nearness to the developed areas of the country, which also normallv
are the major market centres, and availability of contruction materials.
Further, the shape and technology of the land should not impose constraints
on the development of the most desirable layout features for the complex
as a whole. The topography should be as tlat as possible to reduce site
development costs, buc should drain well. The sub-soil conditions should
be good enough to bear the loads of equipmenl.
,\coastal location of the plant involves advantages especicil ly in conjuct ion
with the transport of the raw materials (or energy) as well as the finished
goods. In case of making the selection between a si1les-orienteJ locatian
and a raw material optimized location the question of cost degression
by li1n.;er tr;insport valurnes of the input materials wcJ1ild mean an advilntage
to the scilc>s orientated location.
llw main crLteria for the propf'r plant lor;ition c;in lw s1.11.1m<'1·iz1ccl :is
Io I !owe;:
I< a'-" m 11 il t l' r i d I a~; s cm h l y rJ1 s L , p r o rl 11 c t cl i s t r i h 11 t. i on r_ w; I , av a i l il bi Ii l v

of land '1vaiJ;1bility ol Pif'rtric powl'r, availability nf '.·1C1ter, port

 - I 2LJ -

Energy Requirements based on two Reference Plants

The following survey is ba~ed on a study worked o~t by Krupp AG (FRG)

and present2d during 2 lISI - Seminar on Steel and Energy held in
Brussels (Belgium) in the year 1983.

Basic assumptions: The two reference plants incorporate proven,

energy efticient technologies and operating practices which should be
considered economically viable in the majority of steelmaking countries.

The variations of the reference plants were chosen as follows:

Reference Plan 1 Reference Plant 2

Production
Capacity 1 million l million
(tpy)

Type Mini-mill: Integrated mini-mill:

all scrap EAF ORI plant
t • 750;, 25 ry

1
Cont. Casting machine EA F C ' ( Sc rap )
+
Rolling Mill +
Continuous Casting Machine

'
Rolling Mill

figures 38 a and b show the equipment configuration and material flow.

The respective energy consumptions are listed in the Tables 13 a and b

The hot cooling system is dericted on Figure 38 c.

 - l ]'_) -

r-----1
I I Material flow in thousands
I Scrap 1- - - - -,
I
L _____ _JI l
I

I
I 2" 125 I furnaces
I l ,OY2
1---- 80 to 90. MVA
1 7 m diameter
I
I
r-----1 I 1 ,027
I
l Ferro-
alloys
1,_. _ _ _ _ _
r--__
1

J
1
J
3 strand bloom caster.
6strand D1llet caster

425 1 ,000

Walking beam bil lei Pusher-type bloom

reheating furnace reheating furnace

Section mill.
roughing. intH mediate
568
2 strand wire rod mill 414
and finish1n stand':>

Reference Plant 1
Fig. J8a (Source:IISl)

.... --------- ---·--·--------

j2-;soo~ooo TiY'- - - , ;- - - - - -1
r-----1 1 capacity, natural gas L __ .J Purchased :
I S
crop
I Basket charged to
I- - - - -, furnace
1 based direct reduction I
' modules
1
I
I
L------- "T _ _ ....J L.----- _J
pellets 1
I I I
L ______ _J :
t 2 76
:I ()()')·,';) 1 ' l (10
I
I 2" 25 t furnaces :
I
1---- 80 to 90 MVA. --.J
1
7 rn diameter Continuously charged
I ~~~----...---------~tofurnoce
r-----, I
I
1
1 • 027
I Ferro- I
r----J
I a II oys
l _ _ _ _ _ J1
1,_.
3 strand bloom caster,
6 strand billet cosier

Lf2) 1, 000
~~~-----~~--'------------~

Walking beam b1ilet Pusher-ly!)e bloom

reh~at1ng furnace reheating furnace

Section mill,
1, 14
2 strand wire rod mill roughing. intermediate
and f1n1sh1ng stands

c'.·) lJ 1 , 7 Fe
Refer•·n<<' f'lant 2
Fig. \Kh l:o()iJr< ": 11:-,r)
 l l

Energy balance for Reference Plant

\.:11mt1l;,tlv~
ff,,nt
1.-irJ,,,1,
c hcyqron f.IPdrndr T11t;,J ,,,,,,,
r,.d•tr•f
l\nn11' I I T""'I' r 1nn (r :'y,,,-,r) n,n-;11 CJ,nnn 7.1110 t,r>to n,UOfl
1(1·.1!'~>-J Kr·,, I ·'~Im 1 ~1·.-11/YWh Kc,,1/Nm 1 Y..c~l/Kq

rJ,,.,-1, ,,. ·ll! ~nrn.lr P llnlr rnn~11rnpll(1n J.?

?O I, I I J
• I lq•dd ~1 .. rl:
I, rJ/,., nno
~kill/Ip
Mr·•1l/tr ~ 10 I, 144 I. 144

<'nn!l1111•,,1r: • .-,-::f lrl'J n •A

Ir, AZ
rq,.,m,, l·llll""'t:
I~ R7 I, ??6
I, ririn. onn

:•4. <; 11 7 0 0
.111 770 ~.RI

·~1.n, nnn I 77 1•-,i :nn

\\fir"" trid r.,111 0

Whl' fCl'''
I, 771
'11 '1. nnn
<;n I , RZ I
1
I, Az 1 '
TCIT~I.

f'.lrwlrlr rwwPI ~:\vlnQ (,1) thro•1qh !'>CT"'IP rrPhf'l,1tl•1q: '1!1 KWh Ith - qz Mo•l/tl!'I
(Ii} thrn11qh hnt 1th')rlm n1nllnq· '1f, KWh/ti~ - ]Of, Mr<ll/tlo:;.

*) consumed energy before scrap preheating

& hot steam cooling: 2,028 Mcal/tcs

Table Ila (Source:IISI)

E~ergy balance lor Reference Plant 2

-~---·- --·- -------- -- -·---- ----- - --·-----------

CONSl/Mr:n f:N1:Rr.Y

/\rM,.rf N11tcn"'I 1:1PdrJr i.nl"rov rPqulrPri Cumuh•tlvP

(}xy(}"tn rl,.drmt,.
f"J'Hhnn Qlll'I r'f'W"f In prnrlt1rP r,.111'1 tol'tl

A, nm q,nnn 2. 100 I, Fil 0 A,006 100

1
r.cAl/Kri r.r111l1rlm 1 ~,·,.l/t:Wh t:n~l/Nm kc1'1/~q J:.-:1'1/r.q r,.11 .. 1

1no
I '!r"d rrr!'lr l!n11 pl1H1f
•;f•"PI" 1,,,,..
Hnlt rnn'!ltmpllnn
Mr111l/tp '"
1,Hfi 710 J. I OR
'l!l 1,rJflf! Mr<'ll/f,.'1 7,7rJ!J ?00 'J, A07 '. 807
frlc .ir·· f1un11r• 1.? c,n1• 4
'~
rlf'r
111• H <:IP"I' 70 I, I ',q 40 JI I. 76R
1. J qo

r·,·nf!n11·n1~ r.-io:ttn-1
JO

I.A ,,
41
" --~·---~·
I, :rn2 4, IO'l
·-----
n1 .. rom, l·lllf't' Ir. •,o R2
1,onn,rHHt 16

:°lpr·thn ml!! .14. ')

"
111
"'
- - - 4-.191
-·-

.'ipr !Inn-: 111 270

•,r.n ,1,m1 117 Jr,1

110
Whr> rnri mtll
·111,,, , ....,,j.
'~
171 1•11}
111 nnn OI 111

r1 irfd. Mc.-il/k,.

·::)consumed Pner1-;y bef()rr• hot stvarn cooling: L1,8Y2 Mcal/t:cs

Table 13b (Source:JISJJ

 Steam to the central heating plant "
Condema11on water 10
cenHal t;,e.at1ng plant

Condenser "" "

Feed water from
central heating plant

Separator
(· ~- ~ I
Waste gas
cooling --
flue I I I 1 I .v

Electric furnace, internal

0 wall cooling system

®
l<fi UPP
Hot cooling system for UHP furnace
at Krupp Stahl, Work Bochum Fig. l8c

Source: IISI
 - I J3 -

1.1. Resources - General view

The 6eographical distribution of the major natural resources essential

to steel production are important determinants in the global iron and
steel trade situation.
Four of these resources relate to energy - total coal, natural gas, oil,
and electric energy - and the others relate to raw materials or are
combined fuel and reductants - iron ore, coking coal, charcoal, and
manganese ore - as well as fluxes.
Identified reserves of the major resources are shown in Figure l;
Figure 2a identifies those developing countries where the availability
ot resources may be designated favourable (five resources present)
less favourable (three resources), or least favourable (less than
three resources).

Source UNIDO/ICIS.25.

1. 2. Iron-Ore
1. 2. 1 Deposits-Minerals
Global reserves of iron-ore are estimated atapprcximately 700 billion
tons, with positively identified deposits totalling 250 billion tons.
A large portion of common ores and rockforming minerals contain appreciable
amounts of iron, but there are only six minerals containing sufficient
amounts of iron and available in sufficient quantities to serve as potential
sources from which iron may be economically obtained. The six iron bearing
minerals and the iron content of each pure mineral are given below:

Iron-bearing material Iron content (per cent of Fe)

Hematite 69.9
Magnetite 72.4
Goethite 62.9
Chamosite 42
Siderite 48.2
Pyrite 46.6
 - 1 \4 -

f.' I
--·1 •
......·1: f"t;
Developing COKING COAL Developing
TOTAL COAL Countrie. 5.2%
Countries 14.6 %
Alr1cd 0.7 % Atr11. . J 0 0 'Co
Asia 13.5% A>td 46 ~u
Lalin
Ameroca 0.4% lJllll
Anu:r1cJ 06%

World total: 8,100 billion tons World total: 430 billion tons

Developing OIL Developing

NATURAL GAS Countries 79.0 %
Countries 45.8 %
Af11ca 10 3%
Al11c<1 10.8 %
Asia 63.3%

Lalin
Amcrh.;a 5.4%
Laun
America 3.7%

World total: 53,000 billion nm' World total· 74 billion tons

POT. HYO. RES. Dweloping GROWING STOCKS IN FORESTS

Countries 62.7 %
Developing
Africa 19.1 % Countries 30.2%
Asia 28 3% Africa 1.2%
Laun Asia 8.2%
America 14.5%
Lalin
Oceania 0.8 % America 20.8 %

World total: 2,261 GW World total: 400 billion m'

Developing MANGANESE ORE Developing

IRON ORE Countries 40.2%
Countries 30.4%
4.2 %
Africa 204 %
Africa

8.6% Asia 4.7 %

Asia
Laton
La11n America
17.6% 15.1%
America

World total: 689 billion tons World total: J billion tons

Developing countries
Ptrcent•ge of world resources:
Developed countries
D
(Source: Ref. Nr. 4)
 ••

Ill

..
,.o

~
 - l .(, -

The peculiar characteristics of each deposit are basically result

of the mineralogical and geological environment and the complex
concentration process of iron in ore deposits.
A world distribution of iron ore reserves according to iron content
is given in Table 1.
Fig. 2b illustrates world's principal sources of iron ores.

1. 2. 2 Beneficiation - Agglomeration

DiffereL. beneficiation techniques are employed to suit a particular

ore, depe11ding upon its minera logica 1 and petrologica 1 characteristics.
The techniques include crushing, grading sizing, washing and wet screening,
gravity treatment, magnetic separation, froth flotatio~, re~uction rosting 1
thickening and drying. The overall beneficiation flow sheet may include
the use of one or more of the different methods, but its finalizing is
primarily governed by the mineralogical characteristics of the ore
under study.

Ores that contain 60-65 % iron are generally considered of good quality.
The presence of the total gang~e minerals consisting ot oxides ot
silicon, aluminium and titanium up tr a level of 8 % is acceptable. The
phosphorus and sulphur contents of the ore should be as low as possible.

Pelletizing: This agglomeration technique is resorted to where the ore

particles are in very fine form either as a beneficiated product or a
naturally-otcuring minerals like blue-dust. The process consists of two
principal steps, normaly balling and induration. A development in recent
years has been the introduction of cold induration processes (cold-
bonded pellets). Pellets can be made in drum, disc or cone type of
pelletizer. World pellet production in various regions using dillerent
induration &ystems is given in Table 2.
The three most important pelletizing systems are the travelli~g-grate,

the grille kiln, anrl the shaft furnace.

The char~ing pattern of iron-ore requirements is shown in l'able >
) .
Figure 'la shows the growth pattern of consumption of lumpy ore, sinter
and pellets in different regions nf the world, and Fig. lh depicts the
individual products of two agglomeration processes, pelletizing and
sintering.
 Table l

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF IRON-OIH. MINl.IUl. IU.SOlJKCl S

<C: chamosltc; f: hematite; G: goethitt: I: 1lmcn1t.:, M. rll~j\llrlltc; P pyrite:, S. >ldc11Lc:J

Tl''"''r<sourct's '-'Ud pott:11ti~l 1e•.lo·\'t'-l..i

(n11ltw11s of ruru)
- - -------- ----- -· -- ---------------------
I .,,/.j\

Courur;• JT "'t'" F M (; s 1-M J-"t.. cs J-S Alf' .\1.\ J-.\J/' .\JS/' ,\/I, \}' } 1/(. t \J.'i 11•1,c( ' 'I JI,. I ~

---------- ---~- - - - --- ---~---------------··

Alr1..:oi I 7 lJSb ! 718 I 297 6 4 !54 I J 58 92 168 S'l 4I 4h I 41'1 I -i.11 ·I. I' I I I' I ~ l I
(! 4ll51 13731 (262) (bl 16U31 II 2 JI (!01 1168) 11 \I 141) (40) ~ I ..! .., r I J ( ... \.:1 t·l_J I \I I : /'J I .'rl j'
IM· I !11111 I I thJl!I

A~1.t 1lJ~27 7 7' I 3 !Ub 41 I 2 8!4 Sob 2 .'\4~ 12~ 4 '" .'.-i I H \,...,111l'> 1 •/

I 508) 129 I (.~ i I ~1'\ /

lu11..lud1ng lndJJ.)
lnd1•
18 .1 llll
IS 516
I 2 6 7 3)
2 3J2
1655) 14 !U6J
K S4 7
131 I J
~2 2 540
,,
t I tJXJ

(o 98ci 16!U) (41~) (I 2J 1508) I~ I 1 11..:1

Au'l.trJhd
(661)) (5 95 I) (35) (7 953) (322 I 11441 (2) I I ~\/I
•nd N<"' l<•l•nd (I 6301
Can,ultt and the 12 2 35 32 4 j j 55 H75 H JJO 6UO 211 I uuo l I> IS /j; t,tJ.'11 I ·.11!1 t' • ='11 I I I nu~ 11111, ·-.J
\\c~t Jndicl t 2 025, 11!1641 1ll llll 1!9KJ 14 .1201 (llJ) (4\1) 14 ~II) ( ~ {,, I \11 1.:11 1 ',t !, 1n10
) i.1t .! ) ~ I ')I I JOH

t.u1upc: 777 3 l 22 I !M I 91!0 2 4lht Kl'J 9 46U 775 Sil so ol~I t '..!·tli I 11 .. "I "111 \ '11 I I I,( 1 I ~K
(794) (I bl!UJ II '7K I (I I~) 14 84UJ 1615 I 1 IUl 1511) I J I! I ~ ) 1
1 .. l..'.IJJ tlilJ I • <l~H I ,, Jo '.!1
(l!ll... ludrn' (45 71 13 lil3)
s._.<dcn) I '\I "l(J I Wt \J'.'-.t f)~IJ
I ' \llj I ,~L I WI
I I IJ4h I J t ."il I "141 ~
! I h~ll1 Mt,\ lh I HSJ
s~c:dcn ~ 8':15 4 Ji
Si.nuh <\.111t·11-.J H4 Ho~ 7XK I 948 l 6l!l 2 lll4
l32 ~b2) (2'1) 13111) 14111 1~2'11

Umh:J StJtn 3 io; I! 'lb'I 9U7 6'. ( )_~ b I l'J 343 jU .ll 1 I ;4. I! I .'' ~ I I,\ Ill I l!H

,JI Am1:r1~ tN61 171!'1) (745) 13 2271 ( 2 2b 7) 114.\) 11 I .l 1 t ~I-' J 1-l1 I II I !'..lt ,•, _., ~ 2h t !H 1.
·J(ll<1\ .! 1.:1

USSR ~'-) 025 31! .l25 I 06 363 l 25H 36 25 5 .:; 2 2 9 JI b 11111 h: 'J

(2 lJ I! 7 5) l 2 I 64 8 J t I 3 !194 l (I 1'151 12'Hll> 1447) (9 316) ~ 11 r,x / 1

---~---------· - -·---- ---
JF11urc:~ wllhout parc:nlhest:~ indu..:ate tulal Ct'.'!!tllUH'~~ araJ thuSt.'.' ~uh par~rllht:~~~ ~how putt>Htlal le:'~~•\~...,.

Source: Reference Nr.5

 ~'' . '~, ' .,;].
--'..,.:__ ~-.u...:..:.,--=-=-~. .:-:~-"

c '

.D
r,j

-
 \li -

Location ~am .. , of Sit .. s lndicatt-d on Prec..dinl( Page.

South Aml'rica Eastern Europe 1Continu .. d1
I Ct·rn1 Holl\ .u. \·ent•zuelJ 44 Kursl... l 'SSH
~ El PJu. \·,.nnuPIJ 45 l"rals. l'SSR
3 l".tr.tJ."- H, .inl 46 Kaz..tkhst.1n. l'SSR
4 Quadnbt1'ro Fcrnfcrc. Rr.m! 4~ Kulo. l'SSR
;; \lutun. HCJ!I\ '" 4'i \an» Yugosld\'td
6 ZJpl.i .. r1<t'ntm.1
- SwrrJ Crandt". -\rgt'ntm.1
h Fl Hunwr.il. Chi!•
Middle Ea•t and Asia
!1 Al~.trrvbu Chik
49 Di' ngt. Turkr-~
)Ii El l.;c-•.>.011!.-
.';U \\ dd1 Sa" a" ITl. Saudi ... rabia
ll \1.1rc1m.1 Pt·ru
:51 Choghdrt. lr.rn
I~ P.11 dt· H111. c:.il·_in!b1J
:52 ll.!_lll!arh Pa" . .-\fllhJnt,tan
:';:} Chichali. Pak1st.1n
54 (;oa. l11d1d
( entra1 Amt·rica SS K11drt'mukh. lrnl1.1
I l La' True ha' \lc\Jc" Sfi \l•h' J·Pr.<desh. lndi.1
14 Pt'n.1 ( ·(i],·lr.Jdr · \1c.\H • s~ H1har-Onssa. India
I 'i ll··r<tdt·' \f, '"'' 5-~ Ch1chiang. PPop!P' Rf'public of Chma
lh L.i Pt·r! .. '1c\lct' 'i~T,I\ eh. Ft•opk' Rt'pubhc of China
611 'michilang People' Rt·puhli" of C:hrna
61 -\mf ..,n. Pt·opk-, Ht'public of Chma
Wt·,krn Furnpt· 62 \1u'OHJ. :\urth Kurt'a
I~ Ju"Jr•· hnl.ind
Ji, OtJnrr1.1l..1 hnl.md
I Y H.1ut11:--.l.tr._1 Finl.tt1d Oce>mia
2jl (;r.lPi.!t'~bcrg. c:cntr.11 Sv.t·der1 63 HarnPr>lt·~ Ran~'"· Australia
21 K1run.1 f'lc 'nrthern ~\\f'rlt~n 64 \11ddlt>hack RJngc. Australia
22 ~ncharanc,·r. 'On\~i\
2.'.) Han.1 \nn\J\
24 Fn1.,d.t! \nrv. a\ Africa
2=> Ro<l<.t.tnd. '\Jr" ,1\ 6.'j Otwnza Alveria
2h S.1l1~1ttt·r ( ;d1mrr: Peint·-JJ..,t·fk. h·df•r.J.! C.t•rrn:n1 Rcpubl1< 66 Cara Diehilrt .. l)lt'na
27 Frodu1~h.tll1-'orthh.unpt11r1 Lmcr1ln \\.t!P~ Crntn.i ~rngd1irr1 67 Kedia d' ld11l \l.writam,1
2.~ l.nrr.11111 J :-.1;1ct· fi~ '\1rnbd. f ;umt·:i
v '\'·:·1 .. md\ fr.1THt· fiY Wol•J>.'.J". L1bena
Jt: f'•·rt nt·t·'.. J r ..1ucc 70 \lanP HI\ er L1hcn;i
JI ~an:and,,..- .i:;'I \1..,c.n,t Sp.11r1 71 Hu· \1o:mtarn L1bt•rw
32 I "''HL Sp,ur1 72 ll«ng Rani<<' Li hen a
.11 lltwh .. s,·,ill.1 \pain 71 '.\unb.1 rLamcw. L1bf'fia
34 ( .r.m.1d.1-:\irn<>nJ. Sp.1111 74 \l"nt KLihorn. hon Coast
,'3=) 'ft'rtH·!. SpJtn 7.'j \lekamb• .. Cabon
:v, Er 1twr,: -\u...rn.i 7h (:a'"'"'- .. ng:rla
( :,l,~HH.!.t. '\.nQ::i\.1
7""i S1...,twn. ~niJ:h '\fricJ
Ea't"m Furop<· 7'-J !kt·,h<>l'k. South Africa
.17 1'.rt'fl1ilf..<•\.\ t11 et( Hu!Q,tr1.1 l;(I Th.1banmb1. S<•uth A nC'a
.1!..i HJrr,m<lwr1nt ( :;,.( f"n<..!c\ .d.. 1.i kI R1ham a E,.-, pt
')'J ~Pl"' lk~rn~·r I :1t·~·t1." ! .·•. ~ki.1
41: H:1d,.L,i1 L.1 J1 1 1~1:.1~-
41 f.1··-..t 1'~1'•1/1,! l\.lr·~iw~ .. f\.'..1 111'. Philippine'
42 H.)ri,d111.i .,,., t•·,: ~2 '"'i.i:;I I !!l•"·
4 i I ·k: .llllt I \~f· '-,'' \1!11 ·l.11:.1

Source: US-Steel, 10th edition

 I 1
~1 ~ -

Tab le .2

WORLD PELLET PRODCCTIO~ 1:-; 1975

Production level
im!llions of CclnS)

A riStralia t:u.mpe
lnduratz~1."1 and LJtin Sunht?rn
system -tfrica St!w Zt!aland EJ.stem a:~st~rn t merica -t rrtt>rrca

Shait furnace n.8:i 3.00 1.25 150 1: 31) 23 90

Travdling grate 2.00 6.70 21 l 0 7
43 61)
[I) 37.65 qqg
Grate kiln 2.00 935 : 51) E25 61.60
Lepnl t'urnace •J.30 1).45 •J. 75
Circular grate 0. 7 5 11.75
Gran<.old proce's 1.60 l 60
Tica! 4.~5 l 9.85 2 l ! () 18.23 I 2.85 97.20

Source: Cnit!!d '.'iJ.tions Fconnmic 3nJ Social Council, 1-.conom1c C0mm1ss1on for Eurnpe,
"Structural chan~es in the iron rnd 'tee! industrv" (Sl"FEL,GE.J.'R.J'.\dd.I). p. 9.

L-ible ·i

CHANGING PATIERN OF IRON-ORE

REQUIREMENTS

Iron-ore requirementl
(percentage of total)

Type of feed 1965 1970 1980 1985

Lumpy ore 39.4 33.4 22.0 20.0

Sinter feed 53.0 50.3 48.0 48.0
Pellet 7.6 16.3 30.0 32.0
1(10.0 100.0 IQCl.O
--
100.0
Total

(Source: RefPrence Nr.5)

 Projeoc'tion of iron-orr con1u1nprion by physical form
f,'f1/11m11 nf rmul

CANADA EASTERN EUROPE AND USSR

Tonn•
Ton"ltQe
2t'O
too-, Pellets Sin•er
,," _.... /

·-
'
I -' t50 _
I ,
75 ""'! /
,,.
50

2
1.....
51 . .
I ---
.,_,...-
~
,,'

/
·--Sinter
--Lump
SOL,,.,...----
too

Lump
__ _.PelteH

1-··
1960
1970
~O
- '
Vear
1960
-------
- ----.-_-~--~--
1970 1980 VHr

.
JAPAN LATIN AMERICA

~o.,.,aoge
Tonneqp

::i
80 1

so -1 /Lump
__.. __ .-S1nt@r
~./·Sinter

L
10
40 " /
/ Lump 5 _,./
o~ ~----Poll•t• _.. _ _ _ _ _ Peller!

1960 1970 1980 YH•

-,----- .~-
1960
--
1970 1980 Year
Fif'.Ure 3b ~--

UNITED STATES WESTERN EUROPE

TO"'r"agf'
Tonnage

100 l 200
i
I
,,. ,xP.,llf"t~

., ...,,."
75 1 x"" t50
I
,
__
I
I
50 ~ too
I

~
/ / . ---......,Lump
25 : / "" 50 / _ Pollet<
I. --
j -""" V ---
~--r--- 19fiC 1Q70
. 1980 Yl!'at
~-~~ 1960 1970
1980 v •••

SourCYI· Jeck R Mille" ''On-,1tw procening of 1ron ore 1n devt1h>r"n{'I countrie1 tf'lrc..u~ the 111Q!t of prltf'•du~d
1gg'omera11or>" 11DWG 1461671, p 17

''iP"ure ~a
 1 I •'I
i ~. --

1. Scrap is solid and utilizable old and waste material having an

iron content and is intended for remelting being used in all forms
as a feedstock for steelmaking furnaces. Scrap is not a uniform
product regarding its form, composition and economic value. Since
problems ot the protection of the environment, the securing of raw
materials, and energy conservation have come to the fore on a world
wide scale, scrap is having an increasingly important part to play in
solving these problems.

i) Available scrap is generally classified in two groups; unallo1ed

and alloyed scrap.
a) Unalloyed scrap coming onto the market is graded into a varying
number of types of scrap depending on the country of origin. The
types of scrap defined in the scrap terminology usually include
only carbon steel scrap. The grades of scrap supplied must be
absolutely clean and free from all harmful components including,
for instance, nonferrous metals, alloys. castings, plastics, oils
and grease, and textileresidues.

b) Alloyed scrap segregation is difficuit due to the diversity of

grades of special alloy steels. Plants producing special steels
usually either collect the works' own scrap arising in groups
or alternatively scrap of each individual quality is collected
together and held ready for when a charge of the same or similar
composition is to be melted.

Stainless steel scrap or discards are classified in four groups:

First group: Cr-steels containing Ni 0,5 % maximum

Cr-steels containing Ni 2 '/'..maximum

Second group: Cr-Ni-steels containg Mo IJ,5 % maximum

Third broup: Cr-Ni-Mo-steels

Fourth group: Cr-Ni-steEls (no limit to nickel)

 - 143 -

Low alloy structural steels, should also be separated on the basis

outlined above when optimum reuse is possible.

Scrap or discards ot high speed steels are classit~ed in three groups:

First grcup: W- steel (traces of Mo and Co)

Second Group: W-Mo--steel (traces of Co)
Third Group: W-Mo-Co-steel.

ii) Scrap to be used as feed-stock for metallurgical processes can

be classiiied according to its origin as:
a) Internal Scrap (home scrap, circulation scrap) is which necessarilv
arises in steelplants during steelmaking and hot and cold working
and is supplied to the fu:naces as feedstock. This scrap is
distinguished by its high bulk density and the tact that it is
particularly free from impurities.
Separation iron obtained by preparation (crushing, magnetic
separation) of steelworks slags.
b) Producer Scrap(manufacturing scrap) includes scrap arising during
the subsequent processing of steel products. The availability of
this type of scrap must be seen as a function of steel consumption.
The various steel processing industries have a s~rap output, which
depending on the particular manufacturing process used, varies from
6 % in the construction industry to 28 % in Lhe motor car industry.
Producer scrap from the steel construction and engineering industries
is a valuable iron carrier tor the steelmaker. On the other hand,
scrap from small undertakings may give rise to some uncertainty
and doubt in the melting process.
c) Capital scrap is scrap which on terminal ion of the service life
of the various steel products, is returned to the steel plants as
teedstock. The availability of capital scrap depends on steel
consumption during earlier periods. The life span of a steel
product decreases with progressive l~dustrialization, the
increasingly sh~rl life of consu~Pr goods, and the rising stand~rd

of living.
 - 144 -

Scrap which arises ~rom the wrecking of large units (ships, steel
structurs, heavy machinery) and in large quant~ties (rails) is a
good feedstock for the steelmaker as the chemical composition is
fairly uniform and the density is usually suitable.
The use ot so-called trade scrap has to be faced carefully.

Refuse Scrap is a term used to include scrap arising in household

refuse and which is recovered from rubbish dumps, refuse incinerators,
and composting plants. The metallic part o: this scrap is found in the
form of commodities such as bicycles, kitchen utersils,etc. in house-
hold and bulk refuse, the greater part of the metal found in household
scrap, however, being tin cans. Since these cans are coated with a
thin layer of tin for protection against corrosion, the tin conte~t of
refuse scrap may be many times more than the actually permissible level
for the steelrnaking charge materials and such scrap, therefore, can be
used only in limited quantities.

, ORI (Sponge iron): Various terms have been used to describe the product
2
of dir~ct reduction. The most pertinent term comes from France: prercduced
iron ore. ln Germany and in the English-speaking world, the expression
"sponge iron" has been adopted, based on the physical state of the
product. In its modern usage, sponge iron is referred to as direct-
reduced iron (DRI). As a feedstock for direct reduction plants, ores
rich in iron content and having a low gangne content are required.
Recently, DRl has gained an importance as a substitute for scrap, and
has a particularly higher degree of purity and a uniform particle size.
A disadvantage of using DRI for steelmaking as ompared with scrap, is
that it has only about one tenth the thermal conductivity of scrap and
this means that additional heat is required.
The relative contribution cf the various URI manufacturing process into
Lhe 9.21 million tons produced ir1 the world in the year 1Y84 was 'lS

follows:
 - 145 -

Shaft furnace process - MIDREX . • . . . • . • • • • . • . • . 53 .64 '/,

retort process - HyL I ••............••.••.•••. 31,05 %

HyL III ••..•.•.•••.....•..•.... 4.23 %

Fluidized bed process - FIOR ................... 3.58 %

Rotary kiln process SL/RN 4,89 %

PLASMARED, KM, DRC, CODIR, ACCAR ................ 2,61 %

 - l+h -
Appendix - 3

Environmental Control

The iron and steel industry produces gaseous, liquid and solid contaminants.

The gaseous contaminants include sulphur and nitrogen oxides, ammonia,

and carbonoxides and particulates such as iron, silica, and lime stone.

The liquid contaminants are tars, oils, phenols, cyanides, ammonia, heavy

metal ions, low pH, suspended solids and some BOD (Biochemical Oxygen

Demand - a measure of the biologically degradable portion of the waste

loading). The solid contaminants are largeiy fines of the raw materials

such as carbon, iron, silica and limestone.

Table 1 summarizes the envirnmental problems outlined above and indicates

those sectors o1 r~2 industry in which they are of importance. Figure

also shows sources of each polutant in the process of iron and steel

production. Table 2 indicates the amounts of pollutants emitted.

The United States Evironmental Protection Agency has suggested the

following tratment technology: *)

Production process Treatment:

Coke Cooling water recirculation; dilution of still wast?

with cooling water system blow-down; biological oxi-
dation of combined still~aste blow-down stream
Iron Polyelectrolytes, classification, sludge thickener,
manufacturing
vacuum filtration of thickener under-flow, cooling
and recycle
Steel
manufacturing Thickener
llot-f orming Scale pit and oil flotation skimming
Cold-finishing
pickle rinse
water Neutralization and settling
Cold Rolling Chemical coagulation and dissolved air flotation

·::) Source: l!NffHl/ICI'.-i.2'i.

 - 147 -

Table 1 Typical ;iollutants from an integrate1 steel plant

Stack Fugitive ur
emission second~ry 3olids

Sus~ended solids Dus ts: i. run ·-:ix ide, 3~iliage :nuds

Run off water .:oai, lim€stone

Blenaing Suspended solids. Iron oxides, coa~s. 8:ighouse dusts

and bedding Run off water recycled dusts

Sinter and Scrubber waters. SOx, NOx, F-, Dusts from sinter Baghouse dusts
pellet Suspended solids. (CO?), plant coolers, •ith Zn, (Pb),
plants Lime, acids particulates noise :ilkalies,
filter cake

Coke ovens Phenols, Smoke, SOx, Coal er coke dusts, Carbonaceous

cyanides, NOx, steam, sulphurous or car- solids from bag-
tars, ammonia gas flare cinogenic emissions, houses, pitch,
smoke, benzene,, tar, refrac-
BaP, steam tories

Blast Suspended solids. HzS, SOz. Iron oxides, HzS, Baghouse dusts,
furnace fluorides, lead Steam from casthouse fume, blast furnace
iind zinc slag cooling CO coke dust, noise slags, refrac-
compounds. beds tories, filter
Chlorides, heat cakes

Hot metal Alkalies. Particulates, NazO, KzO, lime Baghouse dusts

treatment Suspended alkalies, dust, kish, iron with high lime
solids fluorides oxide fume corrosive slags

Steelmaking Scrubber waters. co flare, COz, Fine iron oxides, SkilDiDer, EAF, BO
Suspended solids. SiF4, alloy fume, noise & ladle slags;
Zinc compounds fluorides, refractories,
iron oxides baghouse dusts

Casting Oil, fluorides. Lead, Sox l'ume, fluorides Slag from exo-
Suspended solids, thermic com-
heat pounds, refrac-
tories filter
cake

Rolling Oils. Suspended SOx, NOx, Scarfing fume Hill scale, oily
solirls. COz, smoke mill scale,
Chromate&, acids, filter cake,
alkalies ferrous sulphaw

Coating Chromates, phos- Chlorinated hydro- Neutral sludges,

phates, alkalies, carbons, solvents, filter cakes,
4cids, oils, acid mist carbon
auspended solid•

Source: UNI DO
 - 148 -

Figure 1.

r11JW Chart of rincl and sources of pollutants

(Source: UNIDO)

-------.
, L :._.~ '
'<;7~
....... .. ( )
-/

I
~QA)T!SG [ _ _t_ -~
~!rt h:u l !tes. .!
'!01, SOx • l~~·~~ • ~;lU5Hl~G {- - - - - - - - -Particulates '. CJAL
---\-~ ,.oise,
\

i
I
lu~ I

I
SINTLNG Particulates

'""'"'""·---""1"'" I
Nohe
I or
PELLETIZING
I ________ • CO, SOr, HOx
Hf, Hydrocarbons
Nohe COKING
Particulates
- _co, NH3, S•J1
N01, H2S
~E Hydrocarbons
~~~~~~~----,

Particulates, COKE SS, BOD

IRON MAKING - - - - - - - - CO, S01, HOx, ZnO OVEN NH 3 , Cyanidn
H;iS • CO .. - - - - - ~ QUENCH I'tG 1• _ _ _ _ __, Hydrocarbons Phenol
SS, BOO . BLAST F'URNACEF=====- SS, BOO, NH3
GR.ANULA TEO SLAr. Ch 1ori des, Pheno 1 ,
Sulphate
Part1culltes ·- - _j CRUSHING LIQUID Sludge
PIG IRON

SLAG SLAG ----1 PRE-TREATMENT - - - - - - - - Particulates

Particulates•- - CRUSHING ------1 STEEL MAKING

OXYGEN CONVERTER
___ - Part1culates(Zn)
CO, S01, HOx, HF', Hydrocarbons
or SS, BOO, Chlorides
SLAG Sludge OPEN HEARTH FURNACE
(Zn)

LIQUIO
STEEL

SLAG _ _ __, LADLE TREATMENT - - - - -- Particulates

Noise

[TiiAOffioNAL OR CONTINUOUS CAsri!4ij---ss, 0th

' Noise
.J_CAST STRAND

PRE IUTING - - - - - - - •S01, N01, P1rt1culltes

FURNACE

SCARFING - - - - - - - - -•Particulates

Sludge ROLLING
M'11 Seal• HOT MILL .~lld COLO Mlllt.===~ss. 1100. ClllorfdH, Sulphates
Oily WutH

LEGEND
AIR PQl.LUTAifT
- WATER POlLUTAlfT
- SOllD llAST£S
Table 2. Emissior.s from the main operations of an integrated steel plant, kg per one ton of rolled produ~ts_!/

Operation
Castini and Approximate
Source Factor Sinter:tng Coking Iron.making Steelmaking rolling General total

Fugitive Dust, fume and grit 3 1 2 0.5 0.6 - 7

Stack SOx
.
4 0.3 0.2 0.2 2.0 - 7
gases NOx ~ 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 - 2
co 40 0.3 8.5 15.0 0.33 - 60
HF 0.04 trace trace 0.4 variable - 0.5
Hyd r0ca rbon~ 0.1 0.2 0.15 0.05 0.2 - 1

Waters Suspended soljds 0.28 0.06 0.24 0.07 0.20 - 1

Oxygen dPmand 0.05 0.08 0.16 0.20 0.14 - 0.5 ......
Ammon:la - 0.03 0.08 - - - 0.1 .i::-
Phenol - 0.005 0.006 - - - 0.01 '°
Cyanides - 0.02 0.03 - - - 0.05
Chlorides ... - 0.05 0.05 0.20 - 0.50
Sulphates ... ... 0.003 - 0.40 - 0.50

Sol ids Dust rec}•cled ) 2 12 30 - ) 70

Sludge ) 12 15 10 - )
Sla~ - - 300 100 10 - 400
Mil lncali> - - - - 30 - 30
D i l v W."'I s ~ .~ s - - - - 10 - 10

General Refractories - - - - - 20 20
Debr:li:: - - - - - 40 40
Hum11n waRtes - - - - - 10 10

Approximate total 660

al Levels arP indicative only and are rounded from UNEP/WG.124/33/FlNAL Individual plants vary widely
depf'nd1ng on raw matPr!al~ usPd and the anti-pollution equipment installed.

Notes: 1. Thesf' figures assume environmental controls.

2. M;:,nv sJa~s are now recycled or sold.
 -- l 'ill -

The cost of pollution control equipment varies from countrv to country,

based on legislation and other local conditions existing in the
particular country.

Emmission Factors (kg/t raw steel)

Integrated works Mini-mills
dusts - 9 0.3 - J
2 - 11 2 - 7
0.4 J 0. 1 1. 2

co 6J 10

Control Costs
Investment ($ 1983/t installed annual capacity)
Integrated works Mini-mills
air pollution control 65 - 125 6 9

water pollution control 14 - 42 8 - 23

Tota 1 14 - 32

Operating Costs ($ 1983/t raw steel)

Integrated works Mini-mills

7 - 31 1 - J

(Source: UNIDO)
 - 151 -

~ppendix - 4

Economic of scale:

Economic of scale have been analyized both for capital costs and
production costs tor three alternative plant capacities for DR -
EF route including sensitivity analysis in respect of raw materials.

The data contained in the following tables 1 - 6 *) describe tentatively

the order of magnitude of the respective costs.

*) Source: Arab Iron and Steel Union

Direct Reduction Symposium, 14-16 October 1984
 i '1 ~~ -

Table 1 MAJOR Pl\ODUCTI ON FACILITIES FOR Dk-EF PLANTS

A !:I c
Alt. 1 Alt. 2 Alt. J
Billets Slabs Billets Slabs Billets Slabs
Direct reduction:
No. of modules 2 2 3 3
Modules capacity,
'000 tons/yr 400 400 600 600 600 600

Electric arc furnace:

No. of furnaces 2 2 6 6 6 6
Heat size.tons 85 85 85 85 130 LlO

Continuous casting
machine:
No. of machines 2 2 6 6 6 6
Strands for
machine 4 1 4 1 6

Table 2 ESTIMATES OF CAPITAL COST FOR DR-EF PLANTS

(million US $)
A B
-
c
A 1 t. 1 Alt. 2 Alt. 3
Billets Slabs Billets Slabs Billets Slabs
Direct reduction
facilities 75 75 175 175 250 250

Steelmelt shop
incl. EAF, cc etc 46 75 104 170 155 200

Auxiliary and
yard facilities 40 40 85 85 120 200

Subtotal 161 190 364 430 525 570

Design, engg.
and administr.
expenses 10%
of items 1-3 16 19 36 43 52 57

Contingencies
10"/o of items
1 to 4 18 21 40 47 58 63

TOTAL 195 230 440 520 635 690

 •

Table 3

ron Dn-IP roum

--· -·r------
nl)DtJG'rIOU C05T E.1TIM.A'fES
(US ~ per Lon

A
ll !t,J . !lb.& ,Alt. J .&h.1 ~
..n..
Alt.) AU.J
£.
_...._.
JJ. t, ~
__
,!.\1.t,.J
~!111.'<t.ion_~oot oic;clyrllng
[)...;\!&_ chorec.a

S~nf!e iron •• 97 9J 92 .104 100 ·n al llJ eJ

Liquicl at.cal •• 100 176 11i 170 17/t 10 171 1(tl 16) ......
V1
Dil.lot.o •• 200 191. 190 lC/7 192 1H7 109 1L.:/~ 1:4) (._,.;

SJ.nb:a 2Gl 195 109 1nq 19) 107 191 10) 1CO
••
'·
---
Production
- -· inclucH1f
C,.9.tll
:;"{ 1
fjz,ctl chn.r£.9.r.__nl. i1!1i

IJlll.ct.s •• 292 ~J 256 2'19 261 :-!51. z:u ;:5J "..lti

Sl.nhs •• J10 m 26Z JCf/ Z//t 259 :.'!-!) 2u1 252

-m
JIOTE
1o cover interest charcea ood dopreclo.t.ion
 Table 4
Rtl.ATIVI! COSTS OF OR/Ef STEELtlAKltlO CAPAClTJ ES{.1\1,TERtlo\TIVt::.S

Alt. Alt. 2 Alt. 1

---·-

DR/EF cnpacity.
•lllion tm•••••••••••••••r•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2.2'9 0.94 l.26

Capital cost,
iallllon US $
Dlt/ Ef ................................... " •••••••••• • •••••••• , ••••••• 830 330 SlO

ln•1eetment, US $/ton
cruJe eteel
DK/~F ••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , ••• 371 350 405
V'
~

Annual wurka coat,

11111 Uon us $
t>Jt/t:F .•• , ••• , ••••••••••••••••• •• •• , •••••••••• ", ••••••••••••••••••• 4t78 204 2 74

FlxcJ chmr&e•,
ml1lloo US $
VR/EP ······•·•·••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 124 49 71

Annual rroductlon cost,

cul ll 1on US $
llft/~..... . •...••.••••.••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 602 BJ 351

l'co•luct ion coat

US $/ton crude etecl (blllete)
DR/EF • . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • 269 269 279
 Table 5

--
rm.>DUGTIOH OOST i;:JJ'J11A.'1,E
-
l u 111 n L1 v_'J_}__ __
UnH - Al temeU:!~ l
6pcc1fJ.o \lorkn
1.1 t !?!!12.llit> 2
Spoo!Iio Worke
A~

S11eclflo \/01k!l
Dll-EF r.:::2.!!.h
- 1JJfflei<m
cor:~umpt I.OJ)
ka7Lon
oon~
Ua J/lo1i
~urlp t!_~n,
kri ton U:J
(.~()•J \;
17t0i;
~~~ l:'.. ~ 1:!.11
kr;/ t.cn us ,,lOO
Spongo 1 ron
na)l 911\ lo rlo.l •
ll"On ol:l.J e pellet.a •• 55.00 750 41.25 ·150 4 i .25 750 ~ 1.15
3 l 1.otl 1 ron ore •• jG.oo 750. 2·1.00 750 27.00 750 27 .oo
U;i.lurul gno
Conver:doH coata
••
••
2.6/noiJ. 2. Cl goal 7.20
20.46
.
2.0 fiClll
ll~
7 .to 2 .o ccnl 7.20
2 1.:.ll
Wockn ooa t. or GjlOOfi'l iron •• 25·22 22.02 J..7. 10

_klciuJtl ~ ..-
V'
V1
llow inulct•lnln
Spo1130 ltou •• . 756 ~{2. 57 770 "17 .09 00? OIJ.}2
}51 }?. 96 222 26.6'1
"'45
l"\1 rch.iood ocr<lp •• 120.00 42 .40
llurn t lln1c •• 12.00 .iij 0.5., 0.5~ 50' 0.60
6.96 11.5 6.96 17. 7.26
f'r. rro-mrmgnnooo
Fon·o-o lllcon
••
••
605.00
?15.00
11.5
,,5 ,.w }.5 } .'20 4 }.66
1 400 .oo 0.5 0.5 o:ro 0.5 0 .·10
Alumlnlum
f'l uo l·opar
Convcu·nlon coato
..
••
60.50 2
0.70
0.12
61.] 2
2 0. i2
60.12
2 o. 12
G~.22
••
Worlr.:o co11t. of ll"uld aloel •• 1o·l .G2 _JQ2_.06 1~.52

DU lo lo
llaw t!laler.l,J.a
f,l11nld a leol •• 1 OGr1 199. 70 1 06" 201.16 1 OG'1 202.71
Converolon coal• •• . H.02 l~·~~ 11 ·22
~orko coal of blllela •• 2n.12 216.70 217 .6 '-
Fh.od charge• •• 55.}6 52.1} 61.11
rHOIJUC'rIOH OOST OP DU.LE'rB
( llH-t:t' HOllTE) •• 26?.00 260.6} 27 CL ·11.
!inJ' •• 1i2 .262 ill.
 - 156 -

Table 6
- ~=:-,r;.;. !' D:a~~SI..S - D?.->:? :~u~:;

v ~'"i. a.';i c :l
... ___ _
See.sit:!.va
l. ,.e.:::i
07e:- bs.se
c~e
..
.A2.~.er~
:; _
..... !'-~~:.re
_,.._ 1
il't.e:--
~~:::_
~---
. .,.e 2
.>..::..~:-
..:: '!..-:.i ·.~~ -;
p~ co:=.'C :J.$ ";;,/-.. OS~/"".. ~s ;/t
Et!.:e c e.!I e 21 ).L1 217 .Ji 217 .48
!roe. o.::C.d 6
oelleu
4 • s 215. i:; Z19.C6 219.44
10 2.i 6.79 ZZQ.£2 2.'21 .41
15 21 e.14 Z+~.58 22).;."7
~-).
-) 10
s 211.e1
21o.,5
215.55
zi 3. s:>
215.51
2i J. 55
(-) 15 zca.;.o z1z.c4 211.53
!...-o:i o::-e s 214.55 21 S.46 218.76
10 215 .. 64 219.61 220.05
15 Z16.72 22..).76 Z21.;3
~-) 5 · z12~;s Z16. 16 Z16. i9
-) 10 z,, .30 Z'l 5. C1 214.71
(-) 15 zio.zi Z'lJ.f6 Z1 J.62
Ratu:'al.
ge.5 5 ZlJ.76 i17 .r:...z 217 ~oJ
·10 214.c.5 217 .53 2.1s.17
15 21i...:;5 zi s.23 Zi 8. 52
Z-17 .co

~=l
5 21:;.17 ?17 .1 J
10 21 z.ss Z16.6'? Z16.79
15 21 z.59 21b. ;s G c .. ._.'t,.
'"1'
fu.r;:~-s ed
ec:Q s 215 .'!J 219 • .l.4 zi c.so
10 Z17 .98 2.21 .56 zzo.32
15 z..;.o • .r:4 zz;.c-1 2.Z1 • 7 l,.

c-l
~-
5
10
211 .:1
208.96
~.00. 7!:J
215. 18
Z13.05
210.s;
216.VS
:::1 lt'.64
\-I 15 21 J.Z1
 - l ') 7 -

Table 7

COMP~R!SON of OE?REC!ATION and INTERESf CHARGES

in US jolla:s ~er ~etric ton cf prod~ct

Developed areas Oeve lop irq areas

~ciation in
2
330 : 22 1_ 000 = 67
15 years 15 15
+ 1 + 3
23 70
(for bars around
18)
!-----------~---·· ·-----T·-----·--~·-------1

interest witn
so % debt 165 x 15 500x ...!1 = 75
100 = 24,75 100
(for bars 18,75)

66 % debt 666 '>( ...!2 :;: 100

100
~--------------------

total for one ten 47' 75

wire rod
145 170
total For one ton 36,75
bar

Source: UNIDU/ID/WG.458/2
 Appendix - 5 - 158 - 1. A mini-mill and a
briet equipment list

1. Plant ca2aci1=.I..:_ 70 000 tpy

2. Product mix Reinforcing ~ars Flat bars Angles

size [mm]: 10 - 25 SO x 6 (max) SO x SO (max)

quantity [tpy]: 60 000 sooo 5000
steel grade: Plain carbon

3. I;t:Ee of Elant: Mini-mi 11

- Scrap based electric arc furnace
continuous casting machine
- rolling mill

4. Main raw materi3ls: Scrap, limestone, ferroalloys

S. List of main equip~

S.1 Steel.meitsbop: S.1.1 Elec~ric arc furnace and accessoires

- 30 ton capacity, 4.Sm shell dia, EAF, 18 MVA
transformer, mechanicals, elelctricals and
controls, refractories, electrodes, top charging etc.
- furnace tilting mechanism
- fume extra,~on system
- scrap charging buckets
- immersion pyrometer
- electrode make-up platform
- slag pots
- furnace bottom fettling machine
- operating tools and tackles

5. 1. 2 Storage 3nd handling facjlities

- Storage bunkers for 1 imestone a11d ferroa lloys
- Steel teeming JS-ton lad~es, refractories
- Tundish transfer car
- Steel boxes for additions etc.

').]. j J.adle preraration far:ilities

- llorizontal ladle drier
- Ladle stand
- Slide gate nozzle assembly
and preparation facilities
- Misr:ellaneous fabricated items
 - 159 -

5 .1. 4 Continuous casting machine and accessories

- 3-strand continuous billet (120 mm sq) casting
machine of low head design, steel structure,
mechanical and electrical equipment, instruments
and controls, billets cut-off equipment, discharge
roller tables and cooling bed, tundishes and
tundish preheaters, refractories etc., cooling
water system, mould
- drummy bar, discharge roller tables
- lubrication system, mould tables with oscillation
drives, withdrawal and straightening units,
secondary cooling system, steam exhaust system etc.
- immersion pyrometer
- optical pyrometer
- tundish stands
- tundish tilting stand
- tundish drying station
- repair and assembly facilities
- operating tools and tackles
- pipes, fittings
instrument for compressed air

5.1. 5 EOT Cranes and Hoistes

- EOT magnet crane for scrap handling and
charging
- EOT crane for liquid steel handling
- Electric hoistes, pulley blocks etc.

5.1. 6 Miscellaneous equipment

- scale for scrap bucket weighing
- crawler crane with magnet for scrap handling
- shearing machine and cutting torcher for
scrap pLep~ration

- pneumatic rammers, chipping hammers, chains etc.

- repair and assembly facilities
5. 1. 7 Instrumentation and Control System
 - 160 -

5.2 Rolling mill: 5.2.l Billet Heating Furnace

End-charge, end-discharge continuous pusher type
furnace, with billet pusher blowers, re~perat0rs,

controls etc.
Furnace charging and discharging equipment including
bill~t charging grid, furnace roller table etc.

5.2.2 Mill mechanical equipment

- Semi-continuous roughing train consisting of
three stands
- Six intermediate stands
- Thr~e finishing stands
- off-line straightening machine
- mill shears
- scrap handling system
- scale handling and removal system etc.

5.2.3 Bar finishing facilities as

Colling bed approach and run-in roller tables
- cooling bed
~he~r

- weighing machine

5.2.4 Roll sh0~ facilities as

- Roll changing device
- oil lubrication system
- Bearing section facilities etc.

5.2.5 Electrical equipment

It include3 among others the
- m~in drive motors for mill stands
protection. 1aonit0ring and regulation equipment
- motor ventilation system
- auxiliary
- Power distribution equipment, subdistribution
board etc.
 - th I -

5.2.6 Cranes as
- Billet storage cranes
- mill crane
- finished product handling cranes

5. 2. 7 Transfer car and other miscellaneous handling

equipment as
- Roll tran~fer car
- transfer equipment for finished products
- grab buckets, magnets etc.

5.3 Electric prower distribution ar.J communication facilities

5.4 Water supply facilities

5.5 In-plant transport facilities as

cranes, trailers, trucks etc.

5.6 Auxiliary facilities as

- maintenance shop
- stores
- laboratory equipment

5. 7 Manpower requirements ( approxirnate._l_i_'__

- Administration 45
- Works office 15
- Steelmeltshop 130
3 shifts/day and
- Roiling mill 140 7 days/week
- Maintenance, 130
Plant service
460 (about 5 % Engineering and University gradu~tes)
 - lb2 -

6. Plant construction 6.1 Construction facilities and preliminary wor~~

- Construction power system

- construction water system
- Soil investigation and site survey
- construction roads
contractors' areas
- construction cf fices
6.2 Production units
- Steelmelt shop
- bar and rod mill

6.3 Auxiliary units

- Administrative building complex
- repair and maintenance shop and stores

6.4 Utilities
- Power system
- Water system
- Fuel oil storage and distribuation system
- compressed air plant
- piping, cabling, roads, sewerage and
drainage

6.5 A tentative construction schedule is

given in Figure 1
Figure 2 illustrates a general layout
of the plant.

7. Capital cost
It includes: ci~il and structural
mechanical and electrical equipment
- other costs as transport cost, erection cost etc.
The total capital cost has the following break down:
a) Steelmeltshop 35 %

b) Rolling mill 45 %
c) Other utilities as water system,
electric power system, repair shop
laboratory, store etc. 20 %
The establishment of a production plant is feasible if the market
requirements are higher or at least the same as the break-even point
of the production.
 - 163 -

CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULE

..
I GO AHEAD
•0•1111
__.. , '
1 •
.. I I t I ... IUI
~~'

2 Pl ELIMINARY ENGINEERING
l
fl
.ntL INVESTIGATION A !!TE SURVEY
CONSTRUCTION FACILll'!ES
... ...
Ill PREPN.OF SPEC, ISSUE OF TENDERS
I TENDER EVALUATION
3 PLACEMENT OF OAOER 11 ~

4 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
ll ELECTRIC ARC ruRNACE
A, EQUIPMUT MANUFACTURE IDELIVERY
ll CIVIL I STRUCTURAL WORK FOR ILDGS.
C) CIVIL WORK FOR EQUIPMENT
D) EQUIPMENT ERECTION & TESTING
E} TRIAL RUNS I COMMISSIONING .....
Ill C. C. MACHINE
A) EQUIPMENT MANUFAC 1 uAE I DELIVERY
I) CIVIL WORK FOR EQUIPMENT
Cl EQUIPMENT ERECTION l TESTINt;
0) TRIAL RUNS I COMMISSIONING
""""""
11111 BAR AND ROD MILL
A) [QU.,MENT MANUFACTURE l DELIVERY
I) CIVIL I STRUCTURAL WORK FOR BLDGS
C) CIVIL WORK FOR EQUIPMENT
Dl EQUIPMENT ERECTION l TESTING
El TRIAL RUNS I COMMISSIONING ....
IV) POWER SYSTEM
Al lQUIPMENT MANUFACTURE & DELIVERY
ll CIVIL-. STRUCTURAL WORK FOR ILDGS
Cl CIVIL WORK FOR EQUIPMENT
D) EQUIPMENT ERECTION I TESTING

V) AUX. FACILITIES &

OTHER S~C__E_S___
A) EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURE I DELIVERY -- ~~

11 CIVIL I_ STRUCTURAL WORK

CJ EQUIPME~JT ERECTION l TESTING ~c-

Figure 1

Source: l'N[IJO
 ,.------ P L A N T ~l 'oNDAPY

I1 T--- f,,-----l \~ r-=-- -- ..... ,

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' I I
t-·.
!
----- ~~/

LEGEND
-··
I OPEN SCRAP YARD
2 IHELMCLT SHOP
3 BAR AND ROD MILL

4 REPAIR SHOPS AND STOACS

~-' o" l.i l!,, IC 0 t 0

~ FUtL Oil STORAGE lr.1tle- wt I I

i• Al I Mt T•l$
6 ClECTRIC SUBSTATION
7 WATER SUPPLY fACIL\Tl[S

8 ADMINISTRATIVE BLDG.,CANT[CN ~ FIRST AID Figure 2

g OFFICE AND LAIORAT ORY
PLANT
GE N l::R'\ I.
10 WCIGHllllDGE
LAYOl'T
II GATE HOUSl
Scurce:L'NI!JO
12 SLUDGE POND
 l ,, ) - Appendix - ')

( CO!Il.)

,
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~ j ~ ? ;
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.apa mini-mill Sit~
Pon he1,,dlt". 11t•ctr .\!.1111t• ... -l.i-lid11~ ititl

r===~-
technical data km from Pdrl!:i.I

~ummunit.at1on~ . . _..,,,. .
.\l111orw.n nrni railw.n· ht·lw1~11 P.u1.-. ·--~---._-

<illd f<.IJlWll -
_,,,...--
1-:le<.tri<: 1>ower
.!.!O-l..\' prnNt:r ~upplv tmm ... ub.-..l<tt1u11
ot the Pon lu·vil!t~ pu\\tH pl •.mt rr,tJl'>-
furmrtlHlll ~u .!U-~ \' bv twn 2il- .111d
-----· -
,y ;,,LL; 1
•. ";'. 1'
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.
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.

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J:·PJ '-·~ ~ ·'4 '.1t'~ ·~:·'..1't~~
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~
..
. ...
.; I
I
t)A'I' •tt LAOlE AND ADDITIONS BAY
1:1At tlC CA5flNIJ BA'I'
6Al. CU INTEHMEOIATE BAY
BA'f' 0£ BILLET YARD

.
."-'
-10-,\1\:\ trCJ11:-.lur11u-r:-. l. CONTINUOUS CASTING
, IO)t
,.
Ox~K""
.···
:~
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~.

-- ·~~~L-
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.it1t~r Ht~tt-nng. th1:-. '>\''>l1·1n
l.11 h•llt''>
n·l1t!\ tll!4 .[
.,
tht! ot.-erator ut dd1h n1.t1llh!1tdllt t~ dlHI
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problt:111 . .
at:Lou.1l111g

'
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.~ -.,-, ;:.
f.: .. :-.,.
•• - - '
. ·::\·. . ..._./
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·~':'\,,
Gas and water
Supµlwd tro111 1lw 11t!lworb ot tlw 111-
i . , ..•~r; i
.,,.. ·~
+:I~-.,
' - " •· . . , : , .·;. , . ·L:: .
du~lrul .m:.1

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l lu~t·d 1.v.11t·r l tn u1h

Slct1 I.. ~·d.-. t ollt•t 111111 (tt<fl\,11
l' .trnl 1 d'l
111g b.i\ I 1•\.ht1u..,! .t1Hl t 11lit•1 ttldl 111 ....
bJK t1.1t~r bdun• dl!'ll h.iq.~111~ hi .1lJ1ui:.-
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Hill.Ollll lp\. ruu11d ttw l lot.k. • "i\ ... lt-111dl11 lt!..,1111:-: ~11 111:.tb hv
e HollmK nnil
]hll.Olltl Ip\' uf rt•mtlm !ll~ b•.tr~ trnm 1it1
to -llJ nun d1Jlllelt!r. Iii hvo-~h1tt operd-
lru~1.i~d1
e .\!1·• h.11l1t .ti
felll!Ull l1l)ol, b.:1f'i
lt~"b hdtllt' n1dr~1~tinK ul - ·-- ·- . ___ ~v1
l\1111

Personn•I
About :11111 µeoµle
StoraKe Jnd hdrnilinK
~1 r.tp ... 1ur.i~1~ lpd< b.
puq.~ .... t•IL.j Ill
lurrn11~-. cn1p-
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i·

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H'.)-m ..,~Mii tur l11.1d111~ into turna( 1•
Prududion fat.ililies
• 01w hO-lon elt~ctrH lur11dl 1· nt ::') 2-111
hw ~t~h
H,111d!111,K tll tlw ... tt!d ... hop hrt\' h\ l\\.(J
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.. - . - )~ ~ ........ :~.· •
\'1.'llh 1•[1•(
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suµpl1t>1l l1v trn11~torn1t!f \\.tth d ~H1\\t•r
u1i:-. ,_uni lurr11~s trnrn lht~ fi111:-.h1~d I iJ 7
.~ .. ·.·!~ ~ Afl""
r···1 rn
ratm.!( of Jo ,\t\':\ : : -· - ...
~·,j ~ cm~ -r~r
prodlu I slnt i...\.dfd ~~iuippt•d with \\.\11 ----. :i:..:._;_
• 01w 4-~lmnd uml1m11ius t J~t1n~ ,_,tl a. .' '•,
·ll~::::::-_.u.. . ,,flilU_ ,_ __ ~.--L. . ~'- .... -. ·-
l folllt"~ 11t 4-IULi I <tpdl ii\' 1',H h ·1 '! ,., :!' : ._· I
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I
1Hdch1n1~ prudunllK l11llt·h nl l~ll ... I - 1 '' ,·'

._.i..._:c - - - - · - · · - · __ .....,._._
L!O mm ""':1th 1.urved 11u1uld-;
\.1dinlt-nJnt e
• One rt~hedtlllg furthli. I:' 11! 1tw pu~h1·1
lype with lillt~rdl ( hdq.~111g ,u1d div l :11rrt·1d 1:1.ur:11·n.11111· to J ... l\11p 1·qu1p- @
~) ,~; 1i:_J
p1·d \\llli t ll!l\1·nt11111til 1n.i1 h1111•-.. t'10-
d1drgm1o:. 111cu.1mu111 billt'I h·11~1h 111

L ."'"'"' '""""'
\ 1-.l! Ill ."> !lltll!t• f(if I ltd'\ lrl\\l!ll ll'>I' di
lll m. n•hc.lllll~ fdlt~ ot HI -.1,_ lliHb p1·r
billet. pn)(Jud11111 ot till tph ]11t <il ft•'>•HIH t''> ltlr 11!\lll~ ( 1111q,h-x (If
t''\.lt'Il•.t\ ,. Joh'>
• Om~ rolhn~ mil! 111< J11d1u~
rou~li111~ mill 11f 4r111 1111n \'llllh lhn·1'
~ldlllb Ill v.. huh tlw bi J tl·I p.t~:-.t:~ !\\!It' ( ~l'IH'fdl ~r\ it.t~"i.
a11d 14 mlermcdiJle ..u1d hn1~hlnK < Hiit , ..... ~ "•.tlo.r110111.-. Wd'>hft;<Hll-..

SldJH.Js \1111111~ ti.ill.., ,11111 111tirn1.1f\.

 - 167 -
Appendix - 5 (cont.)
3. Design of the USIBA
integr. mini-mill(Braz)

Main features

Availability of electrical power, water, natural gas,

limestone and ferroalloys
Location on the coast
Choise of the direct reduction-electric furnace formula
Selection of the HyL process (natural gas with a 6.2 km pipe-line)
as the method of producing sponge iron
Production of sponge iron with a high metal content (86-92 % Fe)
and low gang~e,phosphorus and sulphur contents
Choi5e of the IRSID conti~uous sponge-iron charging system
Melting and refining in a 20 ft. dia UHP electric furnace
rontinuous casting production of billets (semi-finished
80 x 80 mm to 160 x 160 mm from 3 to 10 meters in length,
of carbon and low-alloy steels.
Rolling and finishing production of round bars, wire rod
and small shapes.
The electrical power a•railable in the area is supplied by means of
a 220 kV line 6 km in length
Process water is supplied through a 600 mm diameter pipeline
4.5 km in length.
Proximity to an industrial center provided the required
basic facilities
Availability of skilled labor and technicians:
The proximity of the city of Salva~or, fully
covered requirements in this field
Production capacity: 300 000 tpy

Source: fD/WC.146/~
 .. ..
\ .\ N
\
\
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.,.,
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!·-· ,(/ ·,.
--•"•o

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·,.,
I
.,.
Ii ,:) ~
- ~
'·' .,
lj
I ., ~~ !

t el...........-:~~·e~
Fig. 2 . Ueneral layout of USIBA plant. l. Ore stoclcyard, 2. RopewaJ terminal, 3. HyL direct reduction
wi1t, 4, Vehicle ehop, 5, Ofiicee and dreeein< rooms, 6. Storage, 7. Foundry, 8. Mechanical
m~1ntenance shop, 9. elec~r1cal maintenance shop; 10. Offices, laboratories, ~ dreos1ng rooms
11. Water treatment, 12. Substation, 1\. Continuous casting, 14. Hot rolling, 15. Cold rollrng,
16. Main entrance 17. Restaurant, 16. Main offices, 19. Weather station, 20. 1-/att.r tower
>-y.·)
'&: ~·
,,,,...-. ...... 1I ftLta-:~~ AL~;:;~·:· 1
Fig. l - Location of USIEA plant
 ,I
I
-+----------_ - ,. ... ,., I

1: ! I! ·I! _ _ _ _ \5.!'
1-~--~'~8~•~·-----+i ~-"'----'-'~6~·---~14,.:.__ ___ --~--~~---i-··----~--'4 2) Ill
I· 21. -~ _l.u__ ________ •

r·~--------------

l"ig. :~-Transverse section of steelrlldkir.g shop

11

H I

. 4.~'1
/,-..-c~
N

,. _____
~ lf-- -
---/,
'

==- -if"\)--
--------l'CJ~---
. ,, '
1~· I I

r- --- - --
F· 1 r ,
r- ----- - --- -4i
L __ __ ___ _J L- ---
t:_~--------·-·-·_r:_1_:__

25. l .. J
F'i~.:·,r,- General 111yout of e+eelmakinl( r.hop in initial phaYe
 - 170 -
- :-:--__-.c.:._- - -==l
I

Fig. ~ - IRSID continuous sponge-iron charging system

1 - Step down transformer 220/13.B kV-36 MVA

2 - !uffer reactor 6 MVAR
3 - Synchrorous condensor stortin2 ond pro~ective equipment
4 - 40 MVAR synchronous condensor
S - Sy.,chronous conc.enser ropid axcitotion
6 - Electronic regulation •or electrode positioning
7 - 13.ii/33 to 8 kV fumocf' ;·;ansformer -:in-loc.;d top chonger
8 - Fumace tran,former

F:g. ~ - Electrical sche11111tic diagram for

electric arc furn~ce
 - 171 -

•
 SOMI Ol"lllATING DATA
lnvest~nl Trus! Co. Ltd
4. Mini-mill (ro~ling­ 0vo Steel Pmduc•s lid wos Doniel• & C t.JS on equity Starting materraL 120 mm square b1lle1S
mcorooroted on 29th Ncw.,mner 1977
mi 11) in ~7igeria ond wos e'Stoh115hed 05 a private por11c1potion of 14°/o 2 (4) n• long
The plont consists mainly of· 220 (440) Kg•
loobd11y company. ''' purpo5e being 1he
co ..... s?ru..:.11on and :>perat on of a steel • o rolling mill of !he copocity of low and medium carbon sreel
100 000 1/y Sieel qualttyo
ro:~1nq m1il for the rio:ivfoC1ure and
1r:xJ1,;g of steel rod'l, ba~s. sections • o welded ~h plant of the cnpacity Finished materraL ill 5 5 to 012 mm 1n coils .....
and o~l,ed products of 5 000 1/y 012 to 0 32 mm rn srr0tgh1 bars ......
• en electric power die.el generating N
ihe ou•honsed shcrf' capitol of the 20 10 50
mm angle•
comJ'.)Oriy 1s N lO i\",lli0n pion! of rhe copac•ty of 12 000 KVA 20 1050 mm flat>
Thf. mo1or shoreholdr .. is the Damel1 1s pre~nt!y cnrry1ng 0ut the equivalent ynall >0C11ons
Gove-r•i:-nent of Cross R1Vt:"1 State. while 1mplementahon of the pro1ect on o electrowelded ;ne.h
other port1c1oon~s to the equity cop11al turn.key basis oy virtue of o C')nlroct
ore !v\onrl\o lnsura11ce Co Ud and w"'i1ch W".JS m1t1oted 1ri December 1981. f\Aax. fonosl11ng spM<lo 30 m/56C with the small d1ame1ers

Outpu1. J 00 000 tons/year

Furnace capacotyo 18/20 100•/hour

,, 10 • • 7 . J 2

1
L_ __ 11
I
I
~~
14:"'"
'

'-
= LIL
I

4[.~.
fr 'I I .
I
!
~

I WELDED MESH PLANT

!
-r! i:t •...,..
. 1

I
r --~·..
I
I
,,
~-]

14 ·~
12
• '
:Jo>
n -0
i) B H~ rut11ng to furnacf' s•ze 9) Bar cutting 10 length and collec11ng 0 -0
2' i 8 ':?O tph rehec.Jt furnace ~rv1ces ::> ro
l Ol Bending services ::>
3t 450 !""Im d10 rol'gh1ng rT"111! trc1r"'I 0.
~) ;\1:0 mm d10 intermtl"d•Ofe mill tram I 1) Strm9htening services .....
51 300 mrn d1:1 inter~1ote-t1n1sh1ng 171 Wate• ·spray rnol1ng ltne lo• x
mdl train Wllfl!Tod
I
61 700 mm d1a f1ni\h1na mdl train 13} Loop cooling conveyor
7 1 Bar cun1na to roding ~1-~gth
8: ~0-.:5 rn wollr:1nq ~orn ty::JIE"
14) Coil ~ompact•ng and tying 1ervrc.,s
I 51 Deco1l1ng-stro1glitemn;I ond
'"'
coo\1nq bPd - cut-to-length ~r-..1ce\

•
 - l 7\ -

Appendix - 6

Epitome with: - selP.cted steel prcducers*)

- selected equipment suppliers**)

----------
*) 0ource: 1984 Directory Iron and Steel Plants
**) Sou:rce: Hetallurg ica.l Plantmakers of the \.:orld
 1. SELECTED STEEL PRODUCEBS

.O.RGENTlNA
Avell-
.-...
BrOken Hill P'y Co .. Ltd .. The
CH!LE Haqan
Hoesch Honenttmbu'g AG Llworno
TalcMuano
ACll>Oaf 1nous1na Argenttna (SuoslOlary. Australian Iron & Da1m1na SpA
Huacn1pato S.A., Companaa Hamm
c.. Aceros S.A. Sleel Ply. Lid.I .... Stderwg.ca Heesch Rotv AG
1?iomo1no Ptant1
~Air. . w... emAU81ralUI H-l-"CJ
Lovra (llerV-1
Tern•
Ac1noar 1naus1r1a Argentina Kwinane Krupp St:;t1t AG
de Aceros S.A BrOken H•ll Ply Co .. Ltd .. The tWks.)
!'lha1nhaull''"
Oa1m1ne S1oetca S.A 1C. (SuDsl(11ary. Austrahan Iron & Maua
~ruu~ S.anl AG
SCM1SA-Soc1edad M1xta S1ee1 Pt'I Ltd. l Da1m1ne S1>A
Sl~en
Slderurgaa Argentina 1BHP >,11nerals Ltd.) FRANCE 1Musa Plant!
Hoescn S<cgerlanawerke AG
c- Penh Miiano
0..nllirk
Da1m1ne S.oerca S.,> · • BrOken Hill Ply. Co .• Lid .. The Dalm1ne SpA
Francaise df'l'5 Ac1ers Soec1aux. NUOVA SIAS-Soc1eU1 ltallana Accaa1
La TalllacMI Comoaqnre
Ac1noar 1ndustraa A Spec1a;1 c.a.
Fo.-sur-M•r
de Aceros S.A. ll'l:llA N•plas
SOLMER-Socrete Lorraine et
San Nlc:olaa Da1m1ne SpA
AUSTRIA Mend1ona1e oa t.am1na9e Contmu Bhila1 1Torre Annunz1aU1 Plant)
SOMlSA-$oc1edad Mixta 1Plant1 Steel Aurhortty of India Ltd.
Siclerurgla Argen11na Linz Roma
Mondav1lla Bokaro
(General Savio Wks.) Voest-Alp1ne AG Tern•
No<mand1e. Soc1eu1 Metall11g1que de Steel Authorny or India Ltd.
Ylla~ioft Saato San Glov•nnl (Mii-)
Montat air• Bomllay Tekstd S.p.A.
Ac1nd.tl lndUstria Argentina "'°"tataire. S.A. de ConslruCtion Tata Iron ! Steel Co .. Lid .. The
deA~osS.A. (Gilby S.p.A.) .....
et de Galvanisation de ...... . Zenith Steel P111t-~ and 1no.str1es Lid.
Tami
BANGLADESH Paris Calcutta T"'"i ...... .
Franc.,.., des Ac1ers SpectaW>. Tata Iron & Steel Co .. Ltd .. The T0tlno
ChltlacJOft'J Compa9n1e Dutgapur
Bangladesh Steel and Tekstd S.p.A.
Montataire. S.A. de Construction Steel Authority or India Lid. -1
Eng1.-1ng Corl>. (Hot Forging and Colet ~
(Chittagong Steel Mills Ltd.) et Oct Ga1van1sat1on de ..... . JBIMMdpur
AUSTRALIA Extrusion)
Notmand1e, Societe Metall..gique de Tata Iron & Steel Co .. Lid .. The Tr;ffte
Dac.:a
...__w....
New Soull'I
Bar11adeS/1 Steel and Sac1lor
SOLMER-Soc1ete Lorraine et
(Town Div.I
lharla
Tern1
Broken Hill Ply. Co.. LUI .. The Eng-•ng Corl>. Merld1onale ae L.am1nage Cont1nu Tata Iron & Steel Co .. Ltd .. The
(Wl<s.) ................. .
1Newcasile Steel Worl<si . Ug1ne Ac1ers <uni. w.- hn9al
Port Kemllla Soc1ete USINOR Indian Iron & Steel Co .. LUI .. The
Broken Hill Ply. Co.. Ltd.• The VAllOUREC SA (Kulti Wl<s.) ............ .
(Subsidoary, Auairalaan Iron & BEl.GIUM St. Etienne New Delhi
Sleei Ply. Lid.I ............. . Francaise ces Ac1e<s Speciaux, Steel Authority of India Ltd.
F1eMalle JAPAN
Jolwl Lysegl'lt (Auslralia) Lid. .... . Compag~1e Ho-.ndf

,.....
Tul>emeuSe S.A. . .............. . Akaahl
Shcw1land (Tube MiUsl ................. . Stra-g Tata Iron & Steel 01., Ltd .. The .....
Brallen Hill Ply. Co.. Lid.. The Strasoourg S.A.. Kolle Steel. Ltd.
RCILrilala
(Cenlral R-a> l.alloratoriesl Lam1no1rs de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Akasni Plant)
Codlerill Sambre, S.A. . ......... . Steel Auttlarity of lncSla Lid. ....... .
1Cons1ruc11on Machin"')' Plant)

_
Sydney Trltll-Saint-La<Jel' UIJaln

·--
Tul>emeuSe S.A. Amagasalll
BrOken Hill Ply. Co.. Lid.. The ... . (Stee4WOl1<S) • • • ••.•••...•..•. L'Escaut, S.A. llSCO Stanton Pipe & Foundry Co.
Jolwl Lysegl'lt (AUSlnllial Lid. .... . Kooe Sleet. Ltd.
Metall11g1q119 de . . ' . ' .... ' ' ' . ' Ltd......................... .
Franca15'll det Aciers Speciawc, .... Bok_ IArN1Qasalt1 Wks. I ........... .
~$-Co.Lid. Sumitomo Metal Industries. Lid.

....
Compagn1e ............... . Tata Iron & Steel Co., l.14. The .....
....._
O..••lllllaftd
BRAZIL
!Central Res. L.abOratomtsl ... .
tSleel Tube Wl<s.) .......... .
Broken HiU Ply. Co .• Lid.. The Chiba
Sooilh"-.... ACESIT A-Gia. Acee ES1>11Ciais llal>ira Kawasalu Steel C::orp.
!Chiba Wks.I .... . ..... .

...,....
Adelalcle USIMINA~ Sir trurQICU de ITALY
Broken HiU Ply. Co.. Lid.. The

Broken hiU Ply. ':o.. Lid.. The

_..,......
Mina Ger... SIA ... : ........ . WEST GERMANY
~
9erg-
Dalm1neSpA
1Welcl1ng Rod and Iron Powder
Plant) ..........•...........
Fujisawa
USlMINA5-Usina• Sid9nrgicaS de KrUQP Stahl AG ......•.......... (Dalm1ne Plant) ............. .
(Wtlyalla Wks.) ............ . KOiie Steel, Ltd.
Mina Gerais SI ' .............. .. Dortmund .._Canav-
T- Rio dll ,,.,,..... (Fu11sawa Plant) ............. .
Heesch Huenenwertc AG ......... . Tekstd S.p.A.
Hobart Nacior.... Cir. Siderurgica ......... . Heesch Werke AG . Fukuclllyama
(Sima S.n.A.1 . Kobe Sleet. Ltd.
BrOken Hill Ply. Co .. Lid.. The Tlndeo ~II
Victoria lluttkJllar• Alta ; iorlllO) 1Fu1<ucn1yame Ptaml
ACESIT A .;;a. Ac:oe ESl>llCIAIS llal>wa .. Thyssen Stal\I Akt1en9eseHschall Tekstd S.p.A. . .......... .
H........ lollaRedr,,.._ o.-ldoff FukUOlca
1Fasteners1 .. SU1J.1tomo Metal Industries. Ltd.
Jolln L)'Yglll (AUShloal L~. Nacior ''· Ci.I. Siderurgica ......... . MenneSIMIVI AG ............... . 1Mechan1QI Prods.I ...... . tKol".a Steel Wks.) ..... .
 •

Fulluy-Clly .......,, LUXEMIOURO Ma«ld TRINIDAD and TOBAGO

f\hclpon Kokan K K.
\Fuo<uyama Wks.1 .
Nippon Steel Corp.
(Muronin Wks.1 ......... . Lu•...-.
Art>ao S.A.
Altos Harnos Del Moic:trtorranoo.
S.A. ............. .
Couva
Iron & Steel Co. of
H-. M8111Y• EHSIOESA-€miiresa Nacronal T11nldall and Tomgo Ltd. . ......... .
Kawasaki Steel Corp. KOO.S. . . Lld.
Sidoourgrca. S.A. . . . . . ........ .
(CMaWks.1 (Nagoya Ptanl) ............... .
Nllpla 5 ......D
Hat- NETHER:..ANDS Altos Ho-nos Doi Mecliterranao.
Kooe Steel. Ltd. NipOOn KOkan K.K.
1N1iglJUJ Wks.I ...._ilk S.A ..... nJAKEY
1Ha ta no i"ant 1
Hiclaka-c110 Nlll\ama Hoo90vens Gtoa11 BV !regll
Kooe Steel. LIO. Kooe Steel. Ltd. Eregli Iron and Steel Co.
(Hodalca Plan!I
Mlllar1 City
NtQpor Steel Coro.
1Cherrucal EQUllllTlen! P\anll ..... .
\Hea"'I Mac:h1nery Plano . . . .
1Rotating MK111nery Plantl . NEW ZEALAND
......
SWEDEN

Avesui Jornverks Aktiel>Olag

. ~
1H1kar1 Wks.1

NiOPOn Steel Corp.

1Steel CUllllQ and FllfVlllV Plant)
Olla City
Nippoo Steel Corp.
Auckland
Broken Hill Ply. Co .. Ltd .• The
lloriantO
SSAB Sv-1 Stal Akttel>Olag (Sweelllh
Staol Corp. l
UNITED KINGDOM
LDllllOn
(:-lirohata WU.I ............. . (Oita Wits.) ................. . (Oobol AB) ................... .
Brltllh Steel Corp. . .....
lbarakl Oeaka IBrilllh Sleet Corp. (lnl'I.) Ltd.) ... .
(OomnarntOiv.) .............. .
Kobe Steel. Ltd. Sumiioma Metal lnelultries. Lid. .... NORWAY (Special Products OIY.) .......... · BrOkon Hill Ply. Co .. Ltd .. Tho ..... .
(lbaraki Plant) ............... . (Ouka SIMI WkS.I .•.......... DMdoryd Sllefflald
Mo
KPlan $.it-flo AS Noni! Jemvark AB SKF Shollleld Forgemutorl Ltd. . .
S....otomo Metal lt>Qislries. Lid. Kate Steel. Lid. (SKFSleel) .................. .
(Kaonan Steel Tutie Wks.) (SaljO Plant) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.....a
Kalcogawa Sallai City Fagorsta AB ................... .
Kobe Steel. Ltd.
\Kakogawa Wks.) ............ .
Nippon Steel Corp.
(Sakai Wks.) .•.........•..... PHILIPPINES Got-,
ABSKF ...................... ..
'IENEZUELA ....
'J
lllpnClty 8ollv111
~··
K-iMi Gtang-11 SIOOR.C.V.G. Sldorurgica '-"
Nippon Steel Corp. Nippon KOkan K.K. NIJtlONll Steel Cor11. . . . . . . ..... .
SSllB Svenskt Stal Aktiebolag (Swedisll del Orinoco. C.A.
1Kama1sh1 Wks.J ............. . (Toy-Wks.) ...•........... Makoti. Matro Manila
Stael Corp. I (Plant) ...•.•....•...•.•
K...-a SMlftOll Dllkl BrOken Hill Ply. Co .. Lid .• The .....
(Iron-ore Mines OIY.) .•..•. ' ..... Caracas
S4im1tomo Metal Industries. Ltd. Kobe Slee!. Lid. NatiOnal Steel Corp. . ..........•
H89fors SIOOR.C.V.G. Sldorurgica
(Kashima Steel Wks.1 (Chofu Ptantl ................ . Uddeholm:- AklictbOlag ............ .
(ChohHita Plam) .•............ dot Orinoco. C.A ........... .
Kawiaakl KOl1Va
Nippon KOkan K.K. TOllal City Kllhlswa J«llYarks Aktiebolag ..... .
(Kellon Wks.J Nippon Steel Corp. SOUTH AFRICA Lasjoton
Klmlbu City (Nagoya Wits.) .......•........ Newcutla. Natal Lastotors AB .................. ..
Nippon Steel Corp. TOllyo ISCQr UmiteCI Liiio•
(Kim1tsu Wits.) ........••.•.... Kawasald Steel Corp. . .......... . (lscor Wks.) ....••.......••... SSAB Svonakt Stal AktloOolag (Sweelllh
KolM KOO.Steel.Lid.. ................ . Pretorli;, Tr-vaal Stael Corp.)
Kawasaki Steel Corp. NlppoP KOkan K.K ............... . lscor Lim1teC1 .................. . (COko Plant Div.) .............. .
(Hanshin Wits.) ...•......•••.. Nippon Steel Corp. . ............ . (lscor Wks.I ................. . (Metallurgy Div.) .....•..•......
Kobe Steel. Lid..............•... (TOkyO Wks.l ................ . YandertllpPartc, Tr-vaal (PlannJO AB) .•...•.........••.•
(lnduslrial Mach. Ptaml ........ . Sumitomo Metal lndullriea, Lid. lscor LimneCI (l'rolile Div.) ................. .
(Kobe Wits.) ...........•...... w..., _ (lscorWks.J ................. . 0.eloeuncl
Koclll Sum110ma Metal lnelultnes. Lid.
(W•y- Steel Wks.) .••..••.
v--...., Tr-Hal SSAB Svenskt Stal Aktlebolag (Sweelisll
Kobe Steel. Lid. Union Steel Corp, (Of Steel Corp. I
(Koefti Plantl ................ . v..... So\1111 A lrica) Ltd .• The .......••... (Heavy Ptala OIY.I ............. .
KwMhikl Nippon Sleet Corp. Sandvik en
Kawasaki Steel Corp. (Yawata Wks.1 .•.............. Sanavik AB .................... .
(MiZushima WkS.) ............• Sloc:ithDlm
K- SPAIN SSAB Svenskt Stal Aktlebolag (Swoc!ilh
Kobe Steel. Ltd. Avlloo Steel Corp.) .......... .
(Marine Parts Plant) ......••.... ENSIOESA-€mpr1~ Nacianlll
Surallammar
llloji-llu SielorurQICO. S.A ......••.•..••..• Surllharnmars Brulcs AB . . . . . .....
Kobe Steel. Ltd. Beracalclo (Vizcaya)
KOREA
-... lMoii Plant) ................. .

Kobe Steel. Liii.

.........
Pmallo Iron l Steel Co.•
AHV-Alloe Homos do Vizcaya. S.A .
Glfon
ENSIC'ESA-€mpr... NaciOMl
TAIWAN
I(. . . . . . . .
(Mooka PlantJ Lid. !POSCOI .....•••.......•... S~.S.A .............••..
China Stael Corp.
U.S. A.
ALABAMA Ha"""°"d Gibraltar Lackawanna
!llrmtnghan'o GEORGIA Jones & Laugn11n Steel Coro. Mclouth Steel Prooucts Corp Bethlehem Steel Corp.
r.eoucltc Steet Coro Cedar Sil<lllCJI 1Hammona Cold F1msn Bar Plant) 1G1braltat M1lll New York
1Soutnern 01stnct Thomas Waks. Reouo11c Steel Coro POf1age Trenton CF&I Sleel Corp.
~!at Rc11eo Drxuc:s Group1 1Geo<gia : ucong Corp 1 Nauonal Steel Corp Mclouth :;teel f>rooucts Corp. Owego
Fa1r1•eid tMtdwest Steet Div 1 IT renton Mill I Repuo11c Steel Coro.
UnHe<l Sta1es Stee1 Curo 10wego Plant. C,a1r.aqe PrOduc:s
,-=-a1rt1eKl W{)ll(SI iLLlNOIS Div i
a-n Bun Rklq9 IOWA
Reouohc Ste-e1 Coro lnter,aa<e. Inc MINNESOTA
Wiiton
SoL.:rierr .)1s~1c~. 3u:tsteei Works. l Acme Packaq1nq ano Mari r;cilg .,;ones & La1.1Qn11n Stee1 Caro Minneapolis
i=,3:t Ro11ec °"'::>euc~s '-;..'Juoi and Storaqe Proos. Divs 1 1Suos1a1arV M1dwesr ?rec1s1on Cyclops Corp.
Selma 1Matl HOJg. and Storag& ?ro<Js Div 1 Steel Co.1 1Sawmll Tubulat D" NORTH CAROLINA
1nter1a..-e. lnc Chica90 Twin City Plant) Charlotte
!Alaoama Me:a11urg•cal Coro. 1 Inland Steel Co Repuol1c Steel Corp.
Interlake. inc KANSAS 1ChatlC'!1e Plant. Drainage
1Ch1cago Plan!I Wichita Products Div.)
CALIFORNIA MISSISSIPPI
(Iron and Steel Div l Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.
Lodl 1Manula<:turong and Pc~cess1ng Gullpor1
\ Suos1d1ar;. Central Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.
lnterlakeo. inc. ?1antl States Prec1s1on Steel
1LO<l1 Fab Industries. lnc.1 I Subsidiary. Southern Precision
!Riverdale Plan!I Co.)
Loe Ar>geift Republic Steel Coro Steel Co.) OHIO
CycloP5 Coro. I Chicago District. Bar Products Beverly
\=!win G. Smith 01v .. Grnup) KENTUCKY Interlake. Inc.
Los AnaeMts Plano (Chicago Plant. Tubulat Pro<Jucts Ashland (Beverly Plano __,
MISSOURI
Reouol!c Steel Coro. GIOUC>l Armco Inc. (Globe Metallurgical Div.) :;-
1Un1on Drawn Steel Div .. Kansas City
United States Steel Corp. (Ashland Worlcs) Cambridge
Los A.nge1e-s Plano Armco Inc.
(South WorkSI Shepherdnille Cycloos Corp.
!Midwestern Steel Div ,
Pittsburg Gr...neClty Interlake. Inc. \Elwin G. Smith Div .•
inte<lake. inc
Kansas City Works I
N1111ona1 Steel Corp. \A. J. Bayer Co.) :amoridge Plant)
1P111sourg Plantl (Granite City Steel Div.) SI. LOUIS Campbell
Umled States Steel Corp. National Inter· Tech. Inc ..
H9N1e1>1n Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.
a Nauonal Intergroup, Inc. Co.
1P•t1SOurg Won<sl Junes & Laughlin Steei Corp. MARYLAND (Campbell Worl<s)
Tonanc• 1Hennep1n Worl<s) BaHlma.e Canton
Armco Inc. Oak Brook Armco Inc. RepuOhc Steel Corp.
1Nat•onal Suoply Cc .. Interlake. Inc. (Stainless Steel Div .. NEW JERSEY (Canton & Fairhope Plants.
ON. Armco) Oa!<forest Baltimore Works) Drainage Products Div.)
Alco
Interlake. Inc. Sparrows Point Jones II Laughlin Steel Corp. (Canton Plant. ~.utomated Storage
(Acme Packaging Div.) Betnlehem Steel Corp. (Subsidiary. MiG-Atlant1c Systems Div.) .....
COLORADO -lac (Sparrows Point Plant) Precision Steel Co. I . (Canton Plant, Storage Systems
Pueblo Interlake. Inc. Rlver1on Div I
CF&I Steel Coro. (Pontiac PtanO Interlake. tnc. (Central Alloy District. Bat
(M1mngOeot.1 MICHIGAN (Hoeganaes Corp.) Products Gr~ '' .
1Pueo10 Plano Oearbo..,, Rockleigh Cleveland
1Suos1d1arv. The ColoradO & Rouge Steel Co. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.
INDIANA lnte<lake. Inc.
Wyoming Railway Co.) Shaton Steel Corp. (Subsidiary. Arwood Corp.) (Cleveland Works) ......... .
Chesterton Republic Steel Corp. . ..... .
(Oeatoorn Div.) Union
Bethl!Hie;n ~teel Corp. (Bar Products Group I
I Burns Hart'OI' Plant) Detroit Sharon Steel Corp.
Cyclops Corp. t5ubsldiary. Union Steel Corp.) (Cleveland District, Flat Rolled
CONNECTICUT e-Chk:ago Prooucts Group! . . .
Inland Steel Co. (Detroit Plant)
io- Hartla.d (Detroit Strip Div.) (Cleveland Plant.
Republic Steel Corp !Indiana Hart>or Worl<s> Tubular Products Gro.ip)
Jones & La~hn Steel Corp. Jones & Laugnlin Steel Corp.
(Ur.ion Drawn Stee~ Div .• 10euo1t Plano NEW YORK Coshocton
Hartford Plano (Indiana Haroor Worl<S) Cyclops Corp.
Gary
McLouth Steel Products Corp. Brooklyn
Hemdeft\NewHaw..,) National Steel Corp. Republic Steel Corp. (Universal-Cyclops Specialty
Cyclops Coro RepuOllC Steel Corp. Steel Div .. Coshoc1on Plant)
(Great Lakes Steel Div.) (BrOOklyn Plant. Tubular Products
.Eastern Plano (Union Drawn Steel Div., Dover
Gary Plant) Femdale Group)
Wlltitnantlc Repuohc Stael Corp. Cyclops Coro.
United States Steel Corp. Buffalo
Jones & Lacq>hri Steel Coro. !Detroit Plant. Tubulat Products Republic Sleet Corp. 1Empire-Oetro11 Steel
1Wdllmant1c Cold F1ni..;n Bar P1am1 1Gary Worksl Div .. Dove< Pl anti
IUSS Tubing Specialties) GrOUll) (But1ai0 D1str1ct1
Elyria MoneSMft
Reouolic Steel Core
OREGON TEXAS
wtieeunq-Pinst>urgll Steel Ca<p. Edmonton
:Elvna Piant. Tuoular PrOduets Pont and !Monessen Plant) Bay1own Stelco Inc.
Gtouo1 Oregon Steel Mills Pttt-.rgh United States Steel Ca<p. 1Eonion1on Steel Wort<s ...a
Lorain Cyclops Corp. (Tltxas WDfks) Finishing WMS)
United S~ates S~eel Coro •'=lw1n G. Sm1tn Div .. Pgh. Plant) Oallae
L.:::ratn-G..;'.'anogai Works! 1L: •• 1versa1~vclops Specialty Lone Stat Steel Co.
Lou1sv1lle PENNSYLVANIA Stee1 Div Pgh. Plant) Houston
.... ones .i :_auqh11n Steet Corp. Allqu;ppa Jones & Laugnl1n Steel Ca<p . Cycloos Core
:...:::u1S'.'1lle ,.J 1ant1 Jooes & Lauq'>hn Steel Corp. (Pittsourgh Works) NOVA SCOTIA
1Tex-7 .ioe 01v I
Mans1le1d iA.ltQU±OOa Wonc:s1 Nat1or.a1 Stee1 Corp., Subsidiary of Lone SIM Sydney
c, c1ocs C-Jrc Allenc><>rl National Intergroup. Inc. Lone Stat Steel Co. 5yoney Steel Corp.
1C:rio1re-Cetro1t Steel Div. Whee11n<;-Pi1ts~urgn Steel Core. United States Steel Corp.
Mansr1e1d Plant! , Alle<>Po<t Plant I .. Wheellnq-l'insourgn Steel Corp.
Martins Fe<ry Ambridge Shaton
Armco Inc. UTAH
Whee11nq-?1ttsburgn St~ Coro. Cyclops Ca<p. ONTARIO
1Man1ns Ferry Plant! (Armco Tut>utar Div.I Provo
{Sawhill Tubular Oiv.) ....... . Brantford
Massillon Baa-Falla Unitll'1 Stales SIMI Corp.
Sharon Steel Corp. . .. Stelco Inc.
Recuo11c Steel Corp. Reput>lic Steel Corp. !Geneva Wa<ksl
St NH on 1Brantford Worl<sl
,Central Alloy D1stnct. Bar ProotJcts (Union Drawn :>teel Div .. Bell>lehem Steel Corp. Burlington
Greuel Bea- Falls Plant! (Steelton ?tantl .......... . Stelco Inc.
1Enduro Proaucts Group) Balhletlem Templeton WASHINGTON \Burlington Wor~sl
(Union Drawn Steel Div.) Bettilenem Steel Corp. Sharon Steel Ca<p. S.anle (Research CP.ntre)
\Union Dra .... n Steel Di"V .• i8elr'lehem Plant) (Subsidiary. Carpentertown
Bridge ville
Bethl-.n Steel Corp. Gan-ue
Mass111on Plantl Coal & Coke Co.) ...... . (Seanle Steel D1v.1 Stelco lnr..
Middletown Cyclops Corp. TY.usv111e (Gar.anoque Worl<s)
Armco inc. {Umversa~yclops Specialty
Cyclops Corp. HaMlf!on
I M1ddle~own ·...-vorksl Steel Div .• Bridgeville Plant) (Umversal~yclops Specialty ~tasco Inc.
__,
Butler WEST VIRGINIA
Niies Steel Div., Titusv1lle Plan!) .... Repu011c Steel Coro. -.J
Republic Steel Core. Armco Inc. Wllllamsport BHCh Bottom
(union Drawn Steel C-0. Ltd ..
1Manornng Valley District. Flat Rotted (Electrical Steel Div .. Betnlehem Steel Corp. Wheehng-Pinsburgh Steel Corp.
Hamilton Plant)
Proaucts Group) Butler 1 Zanesville Works) .... (Bell>iet>em Wire Rope Div.) {Wheeling CDmJgallng Co.-Oiv ..
Stelco Inc.
Peppe< Pike Falrl-Hllte Beech Bonam Plano
(Canaoa Worl<SI .
Republic Steel Core. United States Steel Corp. SOUTM CAROLINA Benwood
(Canadian Drawn Wort<sl
1Manutactunng GroupJ 1Fa111ess WO<l<s) .......... . Wheeunq-l'insburgh Steel Corp. (Frost Worl<SJ .
Foo.Jlltalnlm
F-elt (Benwood Plantl ....
Steubenville Interlake. Inc. (Hilton Worl<SI
Wheehn<;-i'ittsburgh Steel C".orp. Sharon Steel Corp. NHro
(ln~.lnc.) ............... . 1Pkfkdale Works)
(SteelDiv.) ..... . Republic Steel Corp.
1Steuoenv1lle PlantJ
Greenville s-. (Nitro Plant, Cunta1ner Div.)
Nantlcolu•
Van Wert Repuelic Stee4 Corp. Stelco Inc.
3haron Steel Cori>. Weirton
Repuollc Steet Corp.
(Damascus Tube Div.)
(s 8fleCd Plant. Drainage Prooucts Weirton Steel Cof? .............. .
(lake E11e Worl<sl ............ ,
1Recu01ic Bu11d1ngs ~-l o;v.) ..................... . RHClale
Warren
H....-g Sumter
WhHflng
Sidbec-Oosco Inc.
Republic Steel Corp. Wheehng.Pinsbur(j'I Stee• Corp.
Republic Steel Corp. lntetlake. Inc. (Etob1Gal<e Wort<s)
(Hamsburg Plant. Drainage (WMellng Corrugating C-0.-0iv ..
!Mahoning Vattev District. (ACITI& Strapping Corp.) Sault Ste. Marie
Flat Rotte<:I Products Group)
Products Div.) .... La8e WO<l<s) .............. . Algoma Steel Corp., Lid .. The
Sharon Steel Corp. Heidelberg (SteelwOO<s Oiv.) ....... .
CyclOpS Corp.
TENNESSEE
:Brainard Strapping Div.) Brt9tol (Tube Oiv.) .................. .
(Elwin G. S'"i1h Oiv .• WISCONSIN Toronlo
Yorkville Heidelberg Plant) ............ . Reput>lic Steel Corp.
Wt>eellng-Plltst>urgll Steel Corp. (ll<istol Plant. Ofainage Producta Racine Stelco Inc.
(Yorl<v1tte Pldl11J H-•ad Div.I .................... . lrtetlalce. Inc. •Swansea WOfk1)
United States Steel Cori>.
Youngstown
(Mon Valley WO<l<SI .......... . c--. {Racine Plant) ............... . Well-
Stelco Inc.
Jones & lalJl1lhn Steel Corp. Republic Steel Corp.
(Mahonlf"19 C .... ld Finished
Johnsto- (P~sey Worl<sl .
Bell>ltohem Steel Corp. (Counce Plant. Tubular Products
Bat ~Janti Group) ...........•......... (Welland Tulle WDfkl)
IBat. Roel and Wi<eOiv.)
Reput>hc Steel Ca<p. GaU.tln CANADA
lebar"-
t Youngstown Plant. Tubular Bell>lehem Steel C.orp. Interlake. Inc.
Proaocts Grooe>I (Industrial Fast- Div.) (Noeganaes Corp.) ........... .
ZalMsvllle Jack.- ALBERTA QUEBEC
Midi- Camroee
Armco Inc. .Jones & L;wghlin Steel Corp. Repubiic Sleel Corp. C<Mllr..,_
I Zanesville Plant) (~ie Buklers PrcWcls ~) Stelco Inc.
iMtdland Specialty Steels Ptent) .. Sidbec-Oosco Inc.
(Camose Worl<s) (Contrecoeur Wor1<11
 - 178 -

Stelco Inc.
iMcMaster Works) ........... . SASKATCHEWAN
Ladllne Regina
Stelco Inc. Stelco Fabricators Ltd.
(Dominion Works)
LaSalle MEXICO
Sidbec-Oosco Inc. c.denaS. Mlchoac::an
(Truscon Works) SICARTSA-Siderurg1ca Lazaro
LllllglMllil Cardenas-<.as -:"rucnas. SA (Sidermex.
Sidbec-Oosco Inc. S.A.C.V.)
ilongueual Works) (Plant)
Montre.i Me111COClty
Altos Hornos de Mexico. SA
Sidbec-Oosco Inc. _... _..... .
SICARTSA-Siderurgica Lazaro
!Montreal •~orks) ....... . Cardenas.Us Trucnas. S.A (Sidermex.
Stelco Inc.
S.AC.V).
(Notre Dame Works) ......... _
Monc:love. Coahuila
(St. Henry Works) .......... .
Altos Homos de Mexico. S.A. ...... .
 - 179 -

2. SELECTED EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

1. ORE PREPARATION (stackers/reclaimers, pelletizing plants, etc.)

Industrias Villares SA, Brazil

Bethlehem Internat. Engineering Corp., USA
Daelim Engineering Co Ltd., South Korea
Simplex Engineering & Foundry Works, India
Sumitomo Heavy Industries Ltd., Japan
Krupp Industrie- und Stahlbau, Germany FR
I
Italimpianti - Sta Italiana Impianti pA, Italy
Lurgi Chemie und HUttentechnik ~mbH, Germany FR
Davy Mc Kee (Minerals~ Metals) Ltd., UK
Skodaexport Foreign Trade Corp., Czechoslovakia
Vtlest-Alpine AG, Austria
 - 180 -

2. RAW MATERIALS PROCESSING (scrap shears, scrap ~alling presses,

scrap shredders, scrap granulators/
separators, scrap preheaters etc.)

Engineering Equipment inc., Philippines

Danieli & C SpA, Italy

Huta Zygmunt, Poland

Usimec - Usiminas Mecanica SA, Brazil

Bethlehem International Engineering Corp, U.S.A.

SA Ateliers du Thirian, Belgium

Nikko Industry Co Ltd., Japan

Sumitomo Heavy InduFtries Ltd., Japan

Thyssen AG Henschel, Germany FR

Westerworks Engineers Ltd., India

AB Svenska Fltlktfabriken, Sweden

•
 - lM 1 -

3. DIRECT REDUCTION PLANTS

ACEC - Ateliers de Constuctions Electriques de Charleroi SA, Belgium

Bechtel Inc, U.S.A .

• Danieli & C SpA, Italy

Korf Engineering GmbH, Germany FR

Midrex Corp., U.S.A.

HYL, Mexico

Kawasaki Stee 1 Corp., Japan

Sofresid, France

Kr~pp Polysius AG, Germany FR

Davy Mc Kee Corp. , USA

Lurgi Chemie und HUttentechnik GmbH, Germany FR

 - 182 -

4. MELTING AND REFINING FURNACES (Electric arc furnaces, electro-

slag refining plants, ladle refining
units etc.)

Asea AB, SwedLn

Brown Boveri, SwitLerland

Clemex SA, Mexico

Bethlehem Inter~ational Engineering Crop., U.S.A.

Kobe Steel, Japan

Clesid, Creusot Loire Equipments Siderurgique~, France

veest Alpine AG, Austria

Chang Ching Iron Works Co Ltd., Trtiwan

Ferrco Engineering, Canada

BSC Associated Products Group, Machy~\s Works, U.K.

Davy Mc Kee (Minerals & Metals) Ltd., U.K.

Ka~asaki Steel Crop., Japan

U&imec - Usiminas Mecanica SA, Brazil

Steel Plant Pvt Ltd., India

Nikex Hungarian Trading Co., Hungary

 - 183 -

5. CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINES (Billets, blooms, slabs, rounds,

wire rod, bars, horizontal)

Mecan Arbed Sari, Luxenbourg

• Kawasaki Steel Corp., Japan

Bethlehem International Engineering Carp., U.S.A.

Skodaexport Foreign Trade Corp., Czechoslovakia

Concast AG, Switzerland

Huta Zygmunt, Poland

Mitshubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., Japan

Rokop Davy Ltd., U.S.A.

Hazelett Strip - C3ting Corp., U.S.A.

Danieli & C SpA., 1taly

VUest-Alpine AG, Aus~ria

Samsung He2vy Industries Co., Ltd., South Korea

Korf Engineering GmbH., Germany F.R.

Technica - Guss GmbH., Germany F.R.

NKK - Nippon Kokan KK, Japan

INNSE - Innocenti Santeusta~chio SpA., Italy

Erhardt Proyectos y Obras SA, Spain

Machinoexport, V/O U.S.S.R •

•
6. REHEATING FURNACES (Walking beam furnaces, pusher fu~naces etc.)

Alarko Sanayi ve Ticarret AS. Turkey

Iprolam, Romania

t-.ikko Industry Co Ltd., Japan

Clemex SA, Mexico

Engin€ering Projects Ltn (EPI), ~ndia

VIe Energomac.1export, U.S.S.R.

Estel Technical Services BV, Net~erlands

Dr. Schmitz & Apelt Argentina SA, Argentina

Wistra Ofenbau GmbH,Germany F.R.

Da ido Stee ~ Co. Ltd., Japan

BWC: - Bergwerk und Walzwerk Maschinenbau CrnoH, l;ermany F.R.

Fofurni SA, France

Loftus Furnace Co., U.S.A.

Mechatherm Engineering Ltd., U.K.

Salem F~rance Co., U.S.A.

Hritwork Inc., U.S.A.

Didier Engi~eering, Germany F.R.

Birlec Di\1sion, lJ.K.

 - 101 -

7. ROLLING MILLS (l.iillets, sections, rods, bars, tubes,

angles, wi<e, plates, str~p. etc.)

Mannesmann Demag Metallverformung, Germany F.R.

• Pullman S~indell, U.S.A .

Davy-Loewy Ltd •. U.S.A.
Krupp Industrie- und Stahlbau, Ge£many F.R.
'
SMS - Schloemann-Siemag AG, Germany F.R.
6ethlehem International Engineering Corp., U.S.A.
BSC Associated Products Group, Machy11is Works, l!.K.
Janieli & C SpA, Italy
Kawasaki Steel Corp., Japan
Kobe Steel Ltd., Japan
Mitshubishi Heavy lndustries Ltd., Japan
NKK - Nippon Kokan KK, Japan
T. Sendzimir Inc., U.S.A.
VHest-Alpine AG, Austria
Cl2mex, Mexico
Iprolam, Romania
!1uta Zygmunt, Poland
Friul E~rineering SpA, Italy
Sofres id, France
Domini.an Engineering Works, Canada
Chang Shing Iron Works Co Ltd., Taiwan
Josef Fr!Jhl i ng GmbH Wa lzwerkmaschin~nbau ,c;ermdny F. R .

•
 - 186 -

8. AUXILIARY ROLLING & FINISHING (shears, saws, scarfing equipment,

grinding and surface conditioning
equipment, straighteners, slitting
equipment, cold drawing plant etc.)

Davy-Loewy Ltd., U.K.

Danieli & CSpA, Italy
Korf Engineering GmbH, Germany F.R.
NKK - Nippon Kokan KK, Japan
Innobra - Innocenti Industria Mecanica SA, Brazil
American Electric Fusion Co Inc., U.S.A.
Iowa Precision Industries, U.S.A.
Zdas - Zdarske Strojirny Slevarny, Czechoslovakia
Kawasaki Steel Corp. Japan
~o~kerill SA, Belgium
Machinefabrik Bewo BV, Netherlands
Colly SA, France
Pusan Steel Pipe Industrial Co Ltd., South Korea
Salem Engineering C0 Ltd., U.K.
Steel Rolling Mills of Hindustran Pvt Ltd, India
Sack GrabH, Germany F.R.
COM SpA, Italy
Omnitrade Machinery, Canada
IHI - Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Indutries Co. Ltd., Japan
Sencor - SendzimirEngineering Corp. U.S.A.
Huta Zygmunt, Poland
Lttmnea Bruck AB, Sweden

•
 - 187 -

9, POLLUTION CONTROL (wet electrostatic precipitators, dry electro-

static. precipitators, fabri filters, Venturi
scrubbers, spray towers, cyclones, water pollution
control equipment, acid recovery equipment etc.)

AAF - American Air Filter Co Inc., U.S.A.

Deutsche Babcock AG,Germany F.R.
Ipsco Sales & Manufacturing Ltd, New Zealand
KHO Humboldt Wedag AG, Germany F.R.
' Nakashima Manufacturing Co Ltd., Japan
Usimec - Usiminas Mecanica SA, Brazil
Dust Control Equipment Ltd., U.K.
Kawasaki Steel Corp., Japan
Nikex Hungarian Trading Co., Hungary
AB Svenska FlMktfabriken, Sweden
Techint - Cia Tecnica Internaziohale SpA, Italy
Envirotech Corp., U.S.A.
Elkem A/S, Norway
VAW - Vereinigte Aluminium-Werke AG, Germany F.R.
Lufttechnik Bayreuth RUskamp GmbH, Germany F.R.
Babcock Woodall-Duckham Ltd., U.K.
Maquiras de Proczso SA de CV, Mexico
Italba SpA, Italy
Ciba - Geigy AG, Switzerland
Bethlehem International Engineering Corp, U.S.A.
Keramchemie, ~ermany F.R.
Holyhead Engineering C~ Ltd., U.K •

•
 - 18~ -

JO. REFRACTORIES (Magnesia base, dolomite-base, silica-base, alumino-

silicate-base, high alumina-ba5e, silicon carbide,
zircon-base, bricks, fibre products, etc.)

CEC Refractories, France

Didier-Werke AG, Germany F.R.
Dolomit Werke Gmbll, Germany F.R.
Kerametal Foreign Trade Co Ltd., Czechoslovakia
Magnesital-Feuerfest GmbH, Germany F.R.
Refractories Mexicanos SA, Mexico
Refractories Pero~nos SA, ieru
Kawasaki Steel Corp., Japan
British Smelter Construction Ltd., U.K.
Key Metals & Minerals Engineering Corp., U.S.A.
Nippon Crusible Co Ltd., Japan
OzkHseogla Isi Sanayii \•e Ticaret \S, Turkey
SEPR - St~ Europ~en des Produits R~fract~re5 1 France
Chamotte Gibbons continenetal BV, Netherlands
Davy Mc Kee Corp, U.S.A.
Rami Refractory Specialties Ltd., Israel
S~ Zelegarna Store, Yugoslavia
Refractory Furnace Linings Ltd., U.K.
Didier Taylor Belgium S.A., Belgium
Bethlehem International Enfineering Corp., U.S.A.
Borgestad Fabrikker A/S, Norway

,
 it. GENERAL (EOT Cranes, slag granulators, water-cooled panels
for EAFs, hot metal transfer cars, graphite elctrodes,
mo~lds for continuous casting machines, ladles, etc.)

Cleveland Crane & Engineering Co., U.S.A.

t NKK - Nippon Kokan KK, Japan
Krupp Indutrie & Stahlbau, Germany F.R.
Ely Crane & Hoist Co., U.S.A.
Jessop & Co Ltd., India
Danieli & C SpA, Italy
Pioneer Equipment Co Pvt Ltd., India
VHest-Alpine AG, Austria
Mecan Arbed Sarl, Luxenbourg
Delatte-Levivier SA, France
Cosim SA, Spain
Andee Inc, U.S.A.
BSC Cumbria Engineering, U.K.
Leybold - Heraeus GmbH, Germany F.R.
MAN Maschinenfa~rik AugsbJrg - NUrnberg AG, Germany F.R.
Uniteers Vickers Pte Ltd., Singapore
Dominion Engineering Works, Canada
Cleveland Crane & Engineering Co, U.S.A.
Skodaexport Foreign Trade Corp., Czechoslavakia
Siegerl~nder Kupferwerke GmtH, ~ermany F.R.
Saar-Metallwerke GmbH, G~rmany F.R.
Sumitomo Heavy Industries Ltd, Japan
Union Carbide Corp. U.S.A.
Airco Carbon Division, U,S.A.
1 Southern Eelctrodes Ltd., lnrlia
 - 190 -

Appendix - 7

Problems areas in mini steel plants

I'
 ... •

n9 . 1:
PAOaL.£HS AlllAS ICUNOl'1'1 ~l'OeLU11
AS ~R08LCM$OLVIDI--~~~~~~~~~~--,
'" STSU. l'LANT.S
.lt'\P~Olll.t'\lW1 09 VOtl.l\CW
C0~4'ANY PRO B.L U"S C.U.~$..~'°'C't a\""l:Ull.""ION
· t1A)i l~'i Of fl\OD\AN
"H.C.~t-l0\..0' 'I
IMC"-l"$£ tM~'tlC.Et\~H1 OV
PS\OVI.,. E..~"t

RS.l>UC& INC~iA$ £
C.O~'TS 1'1J~('(O 'J'-P.
,_
,,c
.....

IHCM:1'$~ •NC~~"'SG
&U.AM1\~'I f'fl..\C €

t~c."-Gl"IS €
P~.t>VC.\\ON f t.il.w "'Ai\W..e"t~

"°'
E.1il'l E. D
(,II.~ .... (\'"{ 'i

(Source: Steel Times International)

 - [ ll:2 -

REFERENCES

1. Armeling, Bauer, Krefeld, Grubert,Schnitzer, Haare:

Metallurgical Plant and Technology 5/1985

2. Fettweis, Nangia, KlingelhHter: World & Steelmaking. Vol.6 84/85

•
J. McManus: Iron Age/ March 1, 1985

4. UNIDO/ICIS.25

5. UNIDO/ID. 218

6. Steel Times International, September 1486

7. Brown, Reddy: Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1979 No. l

8. ~olzen: ~etallurgical Plant and Tect~ology 5/1935

9. Ulrich: Metallurgica! Plant and ReJuc~ion 5/1985

10. Maschla,ke: World Steel & Metalwcrking, Vol 6, 84/85

11. Kaneko, Kurihara: Steel Times International June 1984

12. Teoh: Iron and Steel lnte1national, February 1985

•

13. Steel Time5 Int~rnational, March 1985

14. Pearce: Journal of Metals, March 1986

'
l 5. Teoli: Fachberichte llUttenpraxis Mr:tallweiterverarbeitung,
Vol. 21, No.8, 1983

16. Wagener, Sinha: Metallurgical Plant a~d Technology 5/1985

I 7. Tanaka: SEi\fSJ f<uartPrly April 1986

'.-:Land ll~r: MPLil lurc~1cril Plant and Technulcigv 6/JY84

 - 19] -

19. Pengelly: Steel Times International March 1985

20. Garzitto: Fachberichte HUttenpraxis Metallweiter-

verarbeitung, Vol 23, No.4, 1985

21. Pengelly: Steel Times International September 1985

22. Brettbacher, Buchegger, Hirschmanner, Langer, Moshammer:

Voest-Alpine, Industrieanlagenbau; Technical Report, 1984
'
23. Teoh: World Steel & Metalworking, Vol. 7, 85/86

24. UNlDO/PC.145

25. UNIDO/PC.142

26. UNIDO/IS. 638

27. UNIDO/ IS. 635

28. UNIDO/ IS. 563/Add.1

29. ID/WG. 402/6

30. ID/WG. 146/105

31. ID/WG. 363/1

32. ID/WG. 458/3

t
JJ. ID ;we:. 458/5

3~. SEAISI - ~onference, M~nill~, September 1985

')'). IISI: Committee on Raw Materials, Brussel:; 1983

3fi. IISI: Committee on Economic Studies, Brussels 1483

-;-,. r !Sj: Committee on Technology, Brussels 1983

 19- -

38. Concast Technology News, Vol 25, 1/1986

39. Garzitto: EGE Countries Seminar, STEEL/SEM.12/P..24

40. Danieli News, December 1984

41. Danieli News, July 1985

42. ROKOP Casters, Producticity by Design, Advertising Material

43. ID/WG. 458/4

44. Voest Alpine, Continuous Casting Conference, April 1~84

45. UNIDO, Industrial Information Section, Dossier:

Technological Developments in the ~ron and Steel Industry,
File: Steelmaking - Steel casting, 1986

46. Etienne, Irving: Metals and Materials, Continuous Casting, May 1985

47. Nippon Steel Technical Report, No. 21, 1983 (28-33)

48. ID/WG. 458/7

49. ID/WG. 458/8

50. Crandall: The U.S. Steel Industry in Recurrent Crisis, Policy

Options in a competitive World. Brookings Institution

51. Walker: Small-Scale Steelmaking; Applied Science Publishers

London and New York; 1983